CHAPTER 1

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APTER 1

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Chemistry I
What is Chemistry?
• The study of matter and its transformations.
• The study of connections between molecular and
macroscopic events.
They
Why Study Chemistry? include day-
• Learn fundamental physical models. to-day
• Gain technical perspective on current events. things you
• Develop problem solving skills. touch, see
• Appreciate life's little mysteries. and smell.
The only
place you
don’t find
them is in a
vacuum.
Atom
• Matter, its kinds and state
• Matter and structure
• Development of Atomic Theory
• Modern Atomic Theory
CHAPTER GOALS
• Recognize elements, atoms, compounds and molecules.
• Identify physical and chemical properties and changes.
• Apply the kinetic-molecular theory to the properties of matter.
• Use metric units and significant figures properly.

Microscopic Microscopic Microscopic

view of a gas view of a liquid view of a solid
1.1 MATTER
• Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
• Matter is classified first by its physical state as a solid, liquid
or gas.
• Secondly, matter is classified by it chemical constitution as
an element, a compound or a mixture.
• Matter can be divided into two categories:
(i) Pure substances, each which has a fixed composition
and a unique set of properties.
(ii) Mixtures composed of two or more substances.

Marsita Hj. Abdul Ghani

 1.2 ELEMENTS AND ATOMS
• Elements = type of matter that cannot be broken down into
two or more pure substances. Currently 113 elements are
known. Of these, only about 90 are found in nature, the
remainder has been created by scientist.
• An element is identified by its symbol (carbon=C,
Aluminum= Al, Zinc= Zn)  periodic table.
• Atom is the smallest particle of an
element that retains the
characteristics properties of that
element.
Atoms, Molecules, Ions
1.3 COMPOUNDS AND MOLECULES
• Compounds have fixed compositions. Compounds is a pure
substances like sugar, salt or water, which is composed of two or
more different elements:
 water = hydrogen + oxygen
 methane = carbon + hydrogen
 Salt = sodium + chlorine (sodium chloride)
 Sulphuric acid = hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen
• When elements become part of compound, their original
properties, such as color, hardness and melting point are
replaced by the characteristics properties of the compound.
• The composition of any compound can be represented by its
chemical formula. Ex: H2O (water), CH4 (methane), NH3
(ammonia), CO2 (carbon dioxide).
1.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Physical properties allow us to classify and identify substances of the
material world; which can be observed and measured without changing the
composition of a substance are called physical properties.
• Physical properties of matter that chemists commonly use:
 Color  colored or colorless? What is the color and what its intensity?
 State of matter  solid, liquid or gas? If solid, what is the shape?
 Melting point  temperature a solid melt?
 Boiling point  temperature a liquid boil?
 Density  mass per unit volume?
 Solubility  what mass of substance can dissolve in a given volume of
water or other solvent?
 Electric conductivity  is it a conductor of electricity or an
insulator?
Malleability  how easily can a solid be deformed?
Ductility  how easily can a solid be drawn into a wire?
Viscosity  how susceptible is a liquid to flow?

1.5 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

• Changes in physical properties are called physical changes.
• In a physical change the identity of a substance is preserved even
though it may have changed its physical state or the gross size and
shape of its pieces.
• The explosion is an example of a chemical change or chemical
reaction, because one or more substances (the reactants) has been
transformed into one or more different substances (the product).
1.6 CLASSIFYING MATTER
Matter

Heterogeneous matter Homogeneous matter

Non-uniform composition Uniform composition

Solutions - Homogeneous mixtures; Pure substances - Fixed

uniform compositions that may vary composition; cannot be further
widely. purified.

Elements - cannot be subdivided Compounds - Elements

by chemical or physical changes. united in fixed ratios.
State of Matter and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory

Easily observed property of matter is its state; whether a

substance is a solid, liquid or gas.
• Solid – has rigid shape and a fixed volume.
• Liquids – have fixed volume, takes on the shape of its
container and has no definite shape of its own.
• Gases – are fluid also, but the volume of a gas is the
volume of the container. The volume of a given amount
of gas varies with temperature and pressure.
• At low temperatures, virtually all matter is found in the
solid state. Temperature raised, solids usually melt to
form liquids. Temperature raised high enough, liquids
evaporate to form gases.
1st: Kinetic-molecular theory of matter interpret the
properties of solids, liquids and gases.
• According to this theory, all matter consists of extremely
tiny particles (atoms, molecules or ions).
• In solids – these particles are packed closely together; in
regular array; particles vibrate back and forth about their
average positions.
• In liquids – atoms or molecules are arranged randomly;
move past one another.
• Gases – the particles are arranges randomly and far apart;
move extremely rapidly because they are not constrained by
their neighbors; colliding with one another and with the
container walls.
There are two types of mixtures:

(1) Homogeneous = or uniform mixtures, the composition is

the same throughout. Another name is a solution, which
is made up of a solvent (substance present in largest
amount + one or more solutes). Solvent = liquid. Solutes
= solids, liquids or gases.
Example: soda water = carbon dioxide + water, seawater
= sodium chloride (including several solid solutes) +
water.

(2) Heterogeneous = non-uniform mixtures, the

composition varies throughout.
Example: rocks, granite, differ from one another in color.
• Physical change is a change in the form of matter but not in
its identity. Ex 1: The dissolving of one thing into another
thing. For instance, dissolving sugar into water. The water
and the sugar retain their chemical identities and can be
separated by physical means. Ex 2: Ice melting to water. Ice
and water are both H2O. The identity of the matter is not
changed, just the state that it is in.
• Chemical change is a change in which one kind of matter is
changed into a different type of matter. Ex 1: The rusting of
car, setting shoe on fire, digesting food, and the burning of
magnesium metal in oxygen to form magnesium oxide. All
of these materials combine chemically with another
material , and cannot be separated by any physical means.
2nd: Kinetic molecular theory : The higher the temperature
the faster the particles move.

1.7 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Some SI base units

Measured property Name of unit Abbreviation

Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Electric current ampere A
 Selected prefixes used in the metric system (length)
Prefix Abbreviation Meaning Example
mega- M 106 1 megaton = 1 x 106 tons
kilo- k 103 1 kilometer (km) = 1 x 103 m
deci- d 10-1 1 decimeter (dm) = 1 x 10-1 m
centi- c 10-2 1 centimeter (cm) = 1 x 10-2 m
milli- m 10-3 1 millimeter (mm) = 1 x 10-3 m
micro- µ 10-6 1 micrometer (µm) = 1 x 10-6 m
nano- n 10-9 1 nanometer (nm) = 1 x 10-9 m
pico- p 10-12 1 picometer (pm) = 1 x 10-12 m

Volume
1 liter (L) = 1 dm3 = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3
1 dL = 0.100 L = 100 mL  widely used in medicine.
 Density
• density = mass/volume
• g cm-3 or g mL-1 or kg m-3 or g m-3

1.8 DEVELOPMENTS OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE

• Around 1900 a series of experiments done by Sir Joseph
John Thomson (1856-1940) and Ernest Rutherford (1871-
1937).
• Atoms are made up of 3 types of subatomic particles;
protons, neutrons and electrons.
• These subatomic particles have different properties.
• The number of electrons outside the nucleus equals the
number of protons in the nucleus.
 1. Electrons = tiny, very light particles, negative electrical
charge. 9.109382 x 10-28 g.
2. Protons = larger, heavier than electrons, positive electrical
charge. 1.672622 x 10-24 g.
3. Neutrons = large, heavy like protons, no electrical charge
(neutral). 1.674927 x 10-24 g.
Particle Location Relative charge Relative mass

Electron Outside nucleus -1 0.00055

Proton Nucleus +1 1.00728

Neutron Nucleus 0 1.00867
 Nitrogen, N 1s2 2s2 2p3
In the Bohr model, a nitrogen
atom has a central nucleus,
composed of 7 protons and 7
neutrons, surrounded by 7
electrons. Two of the electrons
are in the 1st energy level while
the other five are in the 2nd
energy level.
ELECTRICITY

• Electricity is involved in many of the experiments from which the

theory of atomic structure was derived.
• Two types of electric charge had been discovered by the time of
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790). He named them positive (+) and
negative (─), because they appear as opposites and can neutralize
each other.
• Experiments show that like charges repel each other and unlike
charges attract each other.
• Charged is balanced: if ─charge is appears somewhere, a +charge
of the same size must appear somewhere else.
• By 19th century it was understood that + and ─ charges are
somehow associated with matter  perhaps with atoms.
RADIOACTIVITY

• In 1896 the French physicist Henri Becquerel (1852-1908)

discovered that a uranium ore emitted rays that could darken a
photographic plate, even though the plate was covered by black
paper to protect it from being exposed to light.
• 1898 Marie Curie and coworkers isolated polonium and radium,
which also emitted the some kind of rays.
• 1899 Madame Curie suggested that atoms of certain substances
emit these unusual rays when they disintegrate. She named this
phenomenon as radioactivity.
• Radioactivity = the spontaneous emission of particles and/or
electromagnetic radiation resulting from the decay, or breaking up,
of an atomic nucleus. Radioactive = substance that display the
property of radioactivity.
• Three products from radioactive decay have been identified.
1. Alpha particle (-particle)
2. Beta particles (-particles)
3. Gamma ray (-ray)
• If a beam consisting of all three products is aimed into an
electric field, the products separate.
1. Alpha particle (-particle)

- Attracted to the negatively charged plate, indicating that it

has a positive charge.
- Has little penetrating power; it can be stopped by the outer
layer of skin or a few sheets of paper.
- Known to be nuclei of helium atoms, having the nuclear
symbol

- The emission of alpha particle is an alpha decay reaction,

or alpha decay.
2. Beta particles (-particles)

- Attracted to the positively charged plate, indicating that it

has a negative charge.
- Have been identified as electrons. Nuclear symbol
- Indicating zero mass number and a 1- charge.
- More penetrating power than -particle, but they can
stopped by a sheet of a lead or aluminum about 5 mm thick.
- The emission of a beta particle is a beta decay reaction, or
beta decay.
3. Gamma ray (-ray)
- Not particles but very-high energy electromagnetic rays,
similar to X-rays.
- Have high penetrating power. It can be stopped only by
thick layers of lead or heavy concrete walls.
- Because it do not have an electric charge, gamma rays are
not deflected by an electric field.
1.9 MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
In 1808 an English schoolteacher proposed the following
explanation of matter. Since then we have learned more about
the atom and now have a slightly different theory.
• All matter is composed of extremely small particles called
atoms.
• Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass and
other properties. Atoms of different elements differ in size,
mass and other properties.
• Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
• Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole
number ratios.
• In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or
rearranged.
Atomic number (Z)
= Proton number Atomic mass, A
= number of protons in the nucleus.
The well-known periodicity of
chemical elements is based on this
system of elemental atomic
numbers and atomic masses
Atomic number, Z
arranged in chemically similar
groups (vertical columns) in a
periodic table.

Mass number (A)

= Nucleon numbers A= Z+N
= the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Isotope = atoms of the same elements that have same number
of protons (Z) but different numbers of neutrons (N).
= atoms with the same atomic number but different
mass numbers.

1. Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons

in the following nuclides:
(a) 16O (b) 52Cr (c) 48Ti
(d) 56Fe (e) 40Ca (f) 32S
2. What is the mass number of an iron atom with 30 neutrons?
3. A nickel atom with 32 neutrons has a mass of 59.930788
amu. What is its mass in grams?
4. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in a 64Zn
atom?
5. The density of gold is 19.320 kg m-3. What is this density in
g cm-3?
6. The density of platinum is 21.450 g m-3. What is the mass in
grams, of a piece of platinum cylinder 3.0 cm long with a
diameter of 5.0 mm?
7. What are the states of matter and how do they differ from
one another?
8. What is the difference between the terms compound and
molecule?
9. Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in
the following nuclides:
(a) 16O2- (b) 52Cr3+ (c) 48Ti+
10. What is the composition of an atom of phosphorus with 16
neutrons? What is its mass number?
11. What is the symbol for bromine with 46 neutrons? If the
atom has an actual mass of 79.90 amu, what is it mass in
grams?
12. The Ar of Ni is 63.55. How many times is one atom of Ni
as heavy as one atom of C-12?
13. The mass ratio of one atom of N to one of C-12 is 2.013.
What is the Ar of N?
Mass of one atom of N = 2.013
Mass of one atom of carbon-12
1.10 ATOMS AND THE MOLE

• The chemical counting units is mole, symbol = mol. The SI base

unit for measuring an amount of substance.
• A mole is the amount of substance that contains as many
elementary entities (atoms, molecules or other particles as there
are atoms in exactly 12 g of the carbon-12 isotope.
• The concept of the mole = one mole always contains the same
number of particles, no matter what the substance.
• One mole of Na contains the same number of atoms as one mole
of Fe. But how many particles?

1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 particles

Avogadro constant, NA = 6.022 x 1023
A mole represents 6.022 x 1023 particles, whatever they may be:

1 mol H atoms = 6.022 x 1023 H atoms

1 mol O atoms = 6.022 x 1023 O atoms
1 mol H2 molecules atoms = 6.022 x 1023 H2 molecules
1 mol H2O molecules atoms = 6.022 x 1023 H2O molecules
1 mol electrons = 6.022 x 1023 electrons
Knowing Avogadro constant and the atomic mass of an element, it
is possible to calculate the mass of an individual atom  can
determine the number of atoms in a weighed sample of any
element.
Mole-Gram Conversions or Molar Mass
• Molar mass (MM) = units of grams per mole (g mol-1).
• MM is an amount in grams numerically equal to the atomic mass in
atomic mass units.  periodic table
• Hydrogen atoms = symbol H, weigh 1.008 g
= molar mass 1.008 g mol-1.
• Hydrogen molecules = symbol H2, weighs 2.016 g
= molar mass 2.016 g mol-1.

•General relation: m = MM x n where m = mass in g

n = amount in moles
6.022 x 10 molecules = 1 mol
23
Mole-Number of Particles Conversions
• A mole represents 6.022 x 1023 particles
(atoms/molecules/ions)
• Hence 1 mol of H atoms = 6.022 x 1023 H atoms
0.05 mol of H atoms = 0.05 x 6.022 x 1023 H atoms
= 3.01 x 1022 H atoms

• General relation: Number of particles = n x NA

Mole-Molar Volume Conversions

• At room temp., molar gas volume = 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p
(0 oC or 273 K and 1 atm pressure)
17. What mass of lead, Pb, in grams, is equivalent to 2.50 mol
of lead.
18. What amount of tin, Sn, in moles, is represented by 36.5 g
of tin. How many atoms of tin are in the sample?
19. The graduated cylinder contains 32.0 cm3 of mercury. If
the density of mercury at 25 °C is 13.534 g cm-3, what
amount of mercury, in moles, is in the cylinder?
20. What is the mass, in grams, of 1.5 mol of silicon?
21. What is the mass of one sulfur atom?
22. What amount (in moles) of sulfur is represented by 454 g?
How many atoms?
1.11 MOLECULES, COMPOUND AND
FORMULAS
Molecules = composed of combinations of atoms.
• Homoatom = one type of elements exist in molecular form.
O2, Br2. The molecule is said to be diatomic.
• Heteroatomic = molecules of compounds contain more than
one type of atom. H2O.

How do compounds differ from elements?

• The characteristics of the constituent elements are lost when
a compound is produced from its elements.