RESEARCH PROCESS

2. Extensive literature survey:

Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker
writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the
Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected
with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies
are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be
tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to
another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library
will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of working hypotheses:

After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses.
Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal
point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly
the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis
plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has
to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him
on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also
indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.

How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following approach:

a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution;
b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and
other clues;
c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with interested
parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.

Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination of the available data and
material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.

4. Preparing the research design:

The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research
design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation
of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the
function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may
be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description,(iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible
research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered
appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an
accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that
minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.
5. Determining sample design:

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration
of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all
the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be
true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations
increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of
sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this, census
inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis.
Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected
constitute what is technically called a sample.

6. Collecting the data:

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes
necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can
be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes
some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his
hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own
observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently
happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of
respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method
is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre-
conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually carried out in
a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting the respondents
on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important role in industrial
surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with each other if
this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return
after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business
surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which
reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very
carefully so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are
provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these
schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by
respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some
occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the nature of
investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.
Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of the
researcher. In this context Dr A.L. Bowley very aptly remarks that in collection of statistical data common sense is the
chief requisite and experience the chief teacher.

7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution
of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher
should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means
of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the
possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made
for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals
which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that
the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated
factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken
to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-
defined standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be
designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the non-
respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for
securing response.

8. Analysis of data:

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The analysis of data requires a
number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw
data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data
into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the
categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that
improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the
technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use
of at this juncture. A great deal of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save
time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by
applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity
data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample
being drawn from factories indifferent parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our problem may
be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance. Through the
use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations.
If the difference happens to be real, the inference will be that the two samples come from different universes and if
the difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same universe. Similarly,
the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analysing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on
certain fields yield significantly different results or not. In brief, the researcher can analyse the collected data with the
help of various statistical measures.

9. Hypothesis-testing:

After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had
formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question
which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been
developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such
tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations established on the basis
of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

10. Generalisations and interpretation:

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e.,
to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If
the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is
known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may
lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with
great care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end
matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword.
Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given
in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts:

(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as
well be stated in this part.

(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-
technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarised.

(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down into readily
identifiable sections.

(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly
and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books,
journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published
research report.

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it
seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more clearly and
forcibly.

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in conducting research
operations may as well be stated.