COMPSCI 311 – Computer Network Architecture

Forwarding
Recap
• Chapter 1 – Introduction
• Definitions and concepts
• Requirements on networks
• Efficient resource sharing
• Scalability
• Layered architecture
• Multiplexing, demultiplexing, encapsulation, decapsulation
• Network performance
• Latency
• Transmission time
• Propagation time
• Queuing time
• Bandwidth
• Latency vs bandwidth product
Recap
• Chapter 2 – Link Layer
• Transmitting data between nodes on a physical link
• Encoding
• NRZ, NRZI, Manchester, 4b/5b, encoding efficiency
• Framing
• Sentinel and count-based byte-oriented framing
• Bit-oriented framing with bit stuffing
• Clock-based framing
• Error detection
• Parity bits, checksums, CRC
• Reliable transmission
• Sliding window algorithm
• Retransmission strategies
Recap
• Chapter 2 – Link Layer
• Transmitting data between nodes on a physical link
• Encoding
• NRZ, NRZI, Manchester, 4b/5b, encoding efficiency
• Framing
• Sentinel and count-based byte-oriented framing
• Bit-oriented framing with bit stuffing
• Clock-based framing
• Error detection
• Parity bits, checksums, CRC
• Reliable transmission
• Sliding window algorithm Ethernet and Wi-Fi
• Retransmission strategies
Interconnecting networks
• A single network has scalability and range limitations
• Limit to the maximum number of connected hosts
• Many nodes increase the chance for collisions
• Ethernet goes up to 2500m
• Wi-Fi reaches up to approximately 100m
Interconnecting networks
• A single network has scalability and range limitations
• Limit to the maximum number of connected hosts
• Many nodes increase the chance for collisions
• Ethernet goes up to 2500m
• Wi-Fi reaches up to approximately 100m

• To build global networks like the Internet

we must interconnect many local networks
Interconnecting networks
• Three main tasks
• Interconnecting networks of the same type
• Switches (bridges)
• Interconnecting networks of different types
• IP, routers
• Computing routes between nodes
• Routing protocols
Network switches
• Network switches interconnect links of the same type
• Build a larger network
• Many ports
• A single switch leads to a star topology
Network switches
• Network switches interconnect links of the same type
• Build a larger network
• Many ports
• A single switch leads to a star topology
• We can connect a switch to other switches
• Fixed number of ports not a problem
• Can have long point-to-point links
• Connecting one node to the network does not impact other nodes
Forwarding
• Switches receive frames and forward them toward the destination
• Packet forwarding (without connections)
• Circuit forwarding (with connections)
Forwarding
• Switches receive frames and forward them toward the destination
• Packet forwarding (without connections)
• Circuit forwarding (with connections)

• Requirements
• Nodes have unique addresses
• We can identify the ports a switch has
• For example, by a port number
Frame/packet forwarding
• Each frame contains enough info to be forwarded to the destination
• Usually the full address of the destination, sometimes the whole path
• Switches keep a forwarding table
Destination Port
• Table maps destination to outgoing port
3e:a3:89:fc:09:c6 6
e6:db:21:6b:31:f5 3
00:15:5d:be:b0:80 3
 Frame/packet forwarding
Switch 1
Dst Port
A 2
C 3
D 0
… 1
 Frame/packet forwarding
Switch 1 Switch 3
Dst Port Dst Port
A 2 G 1
C 3 H 2
D 0 B 3
… 1 … 0
 Frame/packet forwarding
Switch 1 Switch 3
Dst Port Dst Port
A 2 G 1
C 3 H 2
D 0 B 3
… 1 … 0

Switch 2
Dst Port
A 3
C 3
D 3
E 2
F 1
… 0
Circuit switching
• Circuits must be established to allow data exchange
• Frames carry the identifier of the (virtual) circuit
• Circuit identifier may change at each switch
• Circuit defines the path the frame will take
Circuit switching
• Circuits must be established to allow data exchange
• Frames carry the identifier of the (virtual) circuit
• Circuit identifier may change at each switch
• Circuit defines the path the frame will take
• Switches maintain a virtual circuit table
• Maps a pair (input port, input id) to a pair (output port, output id)

Input Port Input Circuit ID Output Port Output Circuit ID

1 1 2 2
1 2 3 3
2 1 3 2
 Circuit switching
• Circuits must be established to allow data exchange
• Frames carry the identifier of the (virtual) circuit
• Circuit identifier may change at each switch
• Circuit defines the path the frame will take
• Switches maintain a virtual circuit table
• Maps a pair (input port, input id) to a pair (output port, output id)

Input Port Input Circuit ID Output Port Output Circuit ID

1 1 2 2 Circuit IDs can
1 2 3 3 be reused across
2 1 3 2 different ports.
 Circuit switching

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 11
Switch 2 3 11 2 7
Switch 3 0 7 1 8
 Circuit switching
11

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 11
Switch 2 3 11 2 7
Switch 3 0 7 1 8
 Circuit switching
11

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 11
Switch 2 3 11 2 7
Switch 3 0 7 1 8
 Circuit switching

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 11
Switch 2 3 11 2 7
Switch 3 0 7 1 8
Establishing virtual circuits
• Virtual circuits can be configured by the operator
• Does not scale to many hosts and connections
Establishing virtual circuits
• Virtual circuits can be configured by the operator
• Does not scale to many hosts and connections
• In practice, virtual circuits are established on demand
• Origin A sends a circuit establishment request
• Request contains the destination’s address
• Frame-based forwarding
Establishing virtual circuits
• Virtual circuits can be configured by the operator
• Does not scale to many hosts and connections
• In practice, virtual circuits are established on demand
• Origin A sends a circuit establishment request Circuit-based forwarding
• Request contains the destination’s address requires frame-based
forwarding!
• Frame-based forwarding
Establishing virtual circuits
• Virtual circuits can be configured by the operator
• Does not scale to many hosts and connections
• In practice, virtual circuits are established on demand
• Origin A sends a circuit establishment request Circuit-based forwarding
• Request contains the destination’s address requires frame-based
forwarding!
• Frame-based forwarding
• Switches forward the circuit establishment request
• Allocate circuit identifiers on input ports
• Create a temporary entry in the circuit table
• Wait for the next switch to choose the circuit identifier that will be used in the output
• The response contains the circuit IDs chosen at each switch
 Example circuit establishment

new(dst=B)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2
Switch 2
Switch 3
 Example circuit establishment

new(dst=B)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5
Switch 2
Switch 3
 Example circuit establishment
new(dst=B)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2
Switch 3
 Example circuit establishment
new(dst=B)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2 3
Switch 3
 Example circuit establishment
new(dst=B)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2 3 11
Switch 3
 Example circuit establishment

new(dst=B)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2 3 11 2 Y
Switch 3
 Example circuit establishment

new(dst=B)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2 3 11 2 Y
Switch 3 0
 Example circuit establishment

new(dst=B)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2 3 11 2 Y
Switch 3 0 7
 Example circuit establishment

new(dst=B)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2 3 11 2 Y
Switch 3 0 7 1 Z
 Example circuit establishment

ack(id=8)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2 3 11 2 Y
Switch 3 0 7 1 Z
 Example circuit establishment

ack(id=8)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2 3 11 2 Y
Switch 3 0 7 1 8
 Example circuit establishment

ack(id=7)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2 3 11 2 Y
Switch 3 0 7 1 8
 Example circuit establishment

ack(id=7)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2 3 11 2 7
Switch 3 0 7 1 8
 Example circuit establishment
ack(id=11)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 X
Switch 2 3 11 2 7
Switch 3 0 7 1 8
 Example circuit establishment
ack(id=11)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 11
Switch 2 3 11 2 7
Switch 3 0 7 1 8
 Example circuit establishment

ack(id=5)

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 11
Switch 2 3 11 2 7
Switch 3 0 7 1 8
 Example circuit establishment

5 Data

Pin Cin Pout Cout

Switch 1 2 5 1 11
Switch 2 3 11 2 7
Switch 3 0 7 1 8
Comparison
Frame-based forwarding Circuit-based forwarding
• Can transmit at any time • Circuit establishment
• Immediate forwarding • At least one RTT
Comparison
Frame-based forwarding Circuit-based forwarding
• Can transmit at any time • Circuit establishment
• Immediate forwarding • At least one RTT
• Larger per-frame overhead • Lower per-frame overhead
• Full address of the destination • Smaller circuit identifier
Comparison
Frame-based forwarding Circuit-based forwarding
• Can transmit at any time • Circuit establishment
• Immediate forwarding • At least one RTT
• Larger per-frame overhead • Lower per-frame overhead
• Full address of the destination • Smaller circuit identifier
• No reachability information • Reachability is established
Comparison
Frame-based forwarding Circuit-based forwarding
• Can transmit at any time • Circuit establishment
• Immediate forwarding • At least one RTT
• Larger per-frame overhead • Lower per-frame overhead
• Full address of the destination • Smaller circuit identifier
• No reachability information • Reachability is established
• Independent forwarding • Fixed pre-established path (circuit)
• Frames may take different paths • Aa
Comparison
Frame-based forwarding Circuit-based forwarding
• Can transmit at any time • Circuit establishment
• Immediate forwarding • At least one RTT
• Larger per-frame overhead • Lower per-frame overhead
• Full address of the destination • Smaller circuit identifier
• No reachability information • Reachability is established
• Independent forwarding • Fixed pre-established path (circuit)
• Frames may take different paths • Aa
• Failures may have less impact • Failure requires recreating the circuit
• Alternate routes may be used • Aa
Comparison
Frame-based forwarding Circuit-based forwarding
• Can transmit at any time • Circuit establishment
• Immediate forwarding • At least one RTT
• Larger per-frame overhead • Lower per-frame overhead
• Full address of the destination • Smaller circuit identifier
• No reachability information • Reachability is established
• Independent forwarding • Fixed pre-established path (circuit)
• Frames may take different paths • Aa
• Failures may have less impact • Failure requires recreating the circuit
• Alternate routes may be used • Aa
• Possible congestion if load too high • Can guarantee Quality of Service
• Admission control
Source-based routing
• No forwarding tables and no circuits
• Forwarding information provided by origin
Source-based routing
• No forwarding tables and no circuits
• Forwarding information provided by origin
• Many different implementations
• Specify the output port in each switch along the path
• Specify the address of each intermediate switch
Source-based routing
• No forwarding tables and no circuits
• Forwarding information provided by origin
• Many different implementations
• Specify the output port in each switch along the path
• Specify the address of each intermediate switch
• Implications
• Origin requires a global view of the network
• Frame header size is undefined, grows with path length
Source-based routing uses
• Establishing virtual circuits
• Detouring around failures
• Falsify the origin of a packet and perpetrate attacks
• Mostly disabled in Internet routers
Source based routing example
• Source specifies the output port on each switch
• Intermediate switches
shift the array
Implementing source-based routing

Circular Linear Array Linear Array

Shifted with Removals with Pointer
Array