Week -2

• hydrologic cycle
• hydrograph analysis
• prediction of precipitation
• streamflow estimation
• Prediction of evaporation
 Hydrologic cycle
• The first philosopher accepted by history of scientists
is Thales who lived at Miletus (624-548 B.C.). Thales is
the first philosopher who proclaimed that water is the
original substance of all the things on the earth.
• Platon is a well known philosopher who lived and
lectured at his Academia in Athens (428-348 B.C.). He
gave the explanation of hydrologic cycle saying that
“rivers and springs originate from rainfall”.
• Aristoteles (384-322) wrote an article on hydrology
entitled “Meteorologica”. He explained the mechanics
of precipitation and gave his thoughts on winds and
seas.
• The first measurement of rainfall depth was begun in
India during this period. The non-recording type rain
gauges were extensively used so that lands could be
taxed according to the rainfall the received.(Biswas,
1969).
 Hydrologic Cycle
• Da Vinci did hypothesis-driven science and described and
classified hydrological processes. He came close to the modern
definition of the hydrological cycle, recognising that water passes
through the major river systems countless times, summing up to
volumes much greater than those contained in the world’s
oceans.
Water travels all three layers of Earth
• Litosphere (solid earth)
• Hydrosphere (water)
• Atmosphere (air blanket)
 Hydrologic Cycle
• The hydrologic cycle may be treated as a
system whose components are
• precipitation,
• evaporation,
• runoff, etc
• These components may be studied together
to analyze the whole system, or they may be
studied in small groups as sub-systems and
the results combined.
 Hydrology can be classified as:
• Data collection,
• Methods of analysis.
Data Collection includes the measurements of
• the depth and the intensity of precipitation,
• river discharge,
• snow depth and density,
• lake level,
• infiltration rate,
• groundwater table level.
 Data Collection
• water quality,
• sediment load in rivers or reservoirs,
• evaporation rate, etc. are measured.
The agencies responsible for data collection in Turkey:
• State Meteorological Organization (Devlet
Meteoroloji İşleri, DMİ)
• State Hydraulic Works (Devlet Su İşleri, DSİ)
• Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development
Administration (Elektrik İşleri Etüt İdaresi, EİEİ), and
• General Directorate of Rural Services (Köy Hizmetleri
Genel Müdürlüğü, KHGM).
 Hydrograph analysis
• Before hydrograph analysis, the diagrams
obtained from recording gauges need to be
converted into hyetograph.
• Hyetograph (intensity vs time diagram)
• For this purpose:
The recorded diagram is
approximated by linear
segments
• The slope of each segment found

• Then intensities are plotted with respect to

time
 Areal Mean Precipitation
Data gathered at precipitation gauges as Point
Values
• However areal mean values are necessary in
most hydrologic studies.
• To calculate the mean rainfall on an area
(basin)
– The Arithmetic Mean Method
– The Thiessen Polygons Method
– The Isohyetal Map Method
 The Arithmetic Mean Method
(Sum of the precipitation depths at all stations in
the basin) / (# of stations)

where
Pave : the areal mean precipitation,
Pi : rainfall observed at the ith station inside the
basin,
n : the number of inside stations
 The Thiessen Polygons Method
• Each point location in the watershed is assigned a
precipitation equal to that of the closest gauge.
• If Ai is area assigned to station i, then areal
precipitation can be estimated as

where
Pave : the areal mean precipitation,
Pi : rainfall observed at the ith station inside or outside
the basin,
Ai : in-region portion of the area of the polygon
surrounding the ith station,
m : the number of area
The Thiessen Polygons Method
The Isohyetal (equal P lines) Map Method
• Each point location in the watershed is assigned a
precipitation equal to that of the closest gauge.
• If Ai is area assigned to station i, then areal
precipitation can be estimated as

where
Pave : the areal mean precipitation,
Pi : rainfall observed at the ith station inside or outside
the basin,
Ai : in-region portion of the area of the polygon
surrounding the ith station,
m : the number of area
The Isohyetal Map Method
 resultant
hyetograph
 Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves
• The Intensity-Duration-Frequency curve is used in
designing hydraulic structure
• Statistical analysis is used to find the relationship
between the rainfall intensity and its duration and then
the required frequency.
 Rational Method
• One of the oldest methods to relate rainfall on
a basin to the corresponding runoff.
• It is mainly used to estimate the peak
discharge from a basin or from a contributing
area which is smaller than 100 km2.
 Rational Method
• If a rainfall of a certain intensity begins instantaneously and
• continues indefinitely, the rate of runoff will increase until the
time of concentration, when the entire basin is contributing to
flow at the outlet, then stays constant.
• The peak flow is

Qp: the peak flow rate (m3/s)

C : the runoff coefficient (dimensionless)
i : the average rainfall intensity (mm/hr), lasting for a critical period
of time, tc.
tc : the time of concentration (defined as the time necessary for
raindrops falling at the farthest point of the basin to flow to the outlet
point)
A : the drainage area (km2)
 Streamflow
• Streamflow data are usually derived from continuous or frequent
records of water level.
• The data collected at most streamflow measurement stations are
river stage.
• Stage values are then converted to discharge values using the
rating (stage-discharge) curve of that particular cross-section.
Non- Recording Gages

Recording Gages
 Rating curve
• Simultaneous stages and discharges for various
stages are measured and calibration curve is
obtained: called rating curve or stage-discharge
curve.

This curve is then used

for converting the daily
measurements of stage
into discharge values
 Extension of Rating Curve
• To find the discharge for flood, the rating curve should
be extented.
• One method of extension assumes that the shape of the
rating curve is a parabola.

where
q: discharge (m3/s)
s: stage (m)
k, a, and b: constants
a: the distance between zero elevation of the gauge and the
elevation of zero flow.
b: slope of the line
• Then q – (s-a) are plotted on a log-log paper as Straight line
• k: the ordinate intersection of this line. k=log q where (s-a)=1.
 Effects of Erosion and Sedimentation
the rating curve of a section must be checked
from time to time for erosion or sedimentation
and corrected if there is a change.
Discharge by Velocity Measurements

• Velocity measurements are made at each

cross section along the axis.
• Discharge = Σ {(u0.2d + u0.8d)/2 x StripArea}
Discharge by Velocity Measurements

• Velocity varies along the cross-section and

vertical section.
• Average velocity ≈ u0.6d (velocity at a depth of
0.6 x depth)
• Average velocity ≈ (u0.2d + u0.8d)/2
 Evaporation
• Evaporation: the water vaporization from the open
water surfaces.
• Transpiration: the water loss from the plants, through
the pores at the surface of their leaves.
• Evapotranspiration: Evaporation + Transpiration

important in all areas of water resources because it

affects:
• the capacity of the reservoir,
• the yield of river basin,
• the consumptive use of water by plants …. etc.
 Evaporation is affected by:
• Solar radiation:
Solar radiation supply the energy necessary for the liquid water molecules to
evaporate.
• Relative humidity:
As the humidity of air increase its ability to absorb more water vapor
decreases.
• The temperature of air:
Temperature increase saturation vapor pressure (increases saturation deficit),
so there is more energy available for evaporation.
• Wind:
As the liquid water vaporizes from a water body, the air adjacent to this body
will be saturated. For the continuation of evaporation, this saturated air should
be removed by wind.
• Atmospheric Pressure:
An increase in atmospheric pressure prevents the movement of molecules out
of water.
 Measurement of Evaporation
• Direct measurement of evaporation is possible
using evaporation pan.
• Due to the heating of water by the walls of the
pan, pan measurement should be corrected by a
coefficient.
• In Turkey,
this coefficient is : 0.7
 Methods for quantifying Evaporation
Estimation of Evaporation
• Water Budget (Storage Equation) Approach
• Energy Budget Method
• Penman (Combination) Method
Estimation of Evapotranspiration
• Blaney Criddle Method
• Thornthwaite Method
 Water Budget (Storage Equation)
Approach
Continuity Equation:
E = (ΔS + P + Qs) – (Qo + Qss)
where ΔS : change in storage (S2-S1)
P: precipitation
Qs: surface inflow
Qo: surface outflow
Qss: subsurface outflow (seepage)
Δt: week, month or year.
 Energy Budget Method
QN - Qh – Qe = Qθ – Qv
where QN : net radiation absorbed by the water body
(1 langley/day = 1 cal/cm2)
Qh : sensible heat transfer
Qe : energy used for evaporation
Qθ : increase in energy stored in the water body
Qv : advected energy of inflow and outflow

where ρ : density of water (gr/cm3).

Le : latent heat of vaporization (cal/gr)
R : ratio of heat loss by conduction to that by evaporation
where ρ : density of water (gr/cm3).
Le : latent heat of vaporization (cal/gr)
R : ratio of heat loss by conduction to that by evaporation

where γ : Psychrometer constant = 0.66 mb/°C.

Ts : water surface temperature in °C.
Ta : air temperature in °C.
es : saturation vapor pressure at surface water temperature in
mb.
ea : vapor pressure of the air in mb.
 Penman Method
• Penman’s method commonly used in the world
• Using energy budget and mass transport methods, Penman (1956)
proposed a new equation which gives a good estimation of
evaporation from lakes for daily to monthly periods:

where E0 : evaporation from open water surface (mm/day)

Qn : net amount of radiation remaining at the free water surface
(g.cal/cm2/day = 59 mm/day)
Ea : evaporation due to mass transfer of vapor, (mm/day)
Δ : gradient of saturation vapor pressure at air temperature t (ºC).

γ: Psychrometer constant (=0.66 mb/ºC or 0.49 mm Hg / ºC)

İZMİR :
38°26′N, 27°09′E
 Estimation of Evapotranspiration
Consumptive use of water by plants is a function of:
• Climate (temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind
and latitude of the area)
• soil moisture,
• soil type,
• land management method and
• the type of vegetation
Quantifying Evapotranspiration by:
• Blaney Criddle Method
• Penman Method, and
• Thornthwaite Method
 Blaney Criddle Method
Gives good estimation of Potential Evapotranspiration in arid and
semi-arid zones
Consumptive Use
where U: Potential Evapotranspiration (mm/month)
k: k1x k2 monthly crop coefficient
k1: Seasonal coefficient
k2: Monthly coefficient as % of k1
f: Climatic factor
U = 25.4k f

• t: mean monthly temperature (ºC)

• p: monthly daytime hours as a percentage of the annual value
 Thornthwaite Method
• Monthly Evapotranspiration (cm)

where t: Mean monthly temperature (ºC)

TE: Thornthwaite’s temperature efficiency index

a: coefficient
a=0.49239+0.01792 TE