ATOMS & NUCLEI

Geiger-Marsden’s alpha particle scattering experiment

An -particle is nucleus of helium atom carrying a charge ‘+2e’ and its mass equal to four times the
mass of hydrogen atom. The - particles are emitted by radioactive materials like 83 Bi 214 .

Experimental arrangement :
The - particles from a radioactive source contained in a lead cavity are collimated into a narrow beam
with the help of a lead plate A.
The narrow beam of -particles then falls on a thin gold foil B.
The incident -particles are found to be scattered in different directions and are incident on a screen
coated with ZnS and are detected by a movable detector.
The whole apparatus is arranged inside a vacuum chamber to prevent scattering of -particles by air
molecules.

Observations and conclusions of -particle scattering experiment:

N()
1. Most of the -particles either passed straight thro the gold foil or
were scattered by only small angles. This led to the conclusion that
an atom has a lot if empty space in it.
2. A few -particles (1 in 9000) got scattered by large angles, even 180º.
N(180°)
This led to the conclusion that the whole of the positive charge and nearly 

the entire mass of the atom were concentrated in an extremely small central
core, called the nucleus of the atom.
3. The number of -particles per unit area [N()] that reach the screen at the
scattering angle  were found to vary as
1
N(θ) 
sin 4 (θ / 2)

Rutherford’s Model of an atom:

1. Most of the mass & all the positive charge of an atom are concentrated in a very small region known
as atomic nucleus.
2. Size of the nucleus is extremely small (10-15 m ) as compared to the size of the atom (10-10m). So,
most of the space is empty.
3. The negatively charged particles known as electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits.
The centripetal force required is provided by the Coulombs force of attraction between the nucleus &
the electrons.
4. The number of revolving electrons is equal to the number of the positive charges in the nucleus,
hence the atom is electrically neutral.
Distance of closest approach :(r0)
When a -particle is moving directly towards a nucleus its velocity and hence its K.E continues to
decrease & a certain distance r0 from the nucleus the -particle stops and starts retracing its path. This
distance r0 is called distance of closest approach (r0). It gives rough estimate of radius of the nucleus.

1 2 Ze 2
r0 
4 0  1 2
 mu 
 2 

Impact parameter :(b)

Impact parameter of the -particle is defined as the perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the
-particle from the centre of the nucleus, when the -particle is far away from the atom.
Ze 2 cot  2 
b
1 
4 0  mu 2 
2 

1. If an -particle has large impact parameter it will get deflected thro’ a very small angle & may even
go undeviated. Also if b is small it will get scattered thro’ a large angle.
2..If an -particle travels directly towards the centre of the nucleus then the impact parameter is zero
& hence particle gets scattered thro’ 180º.

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of atom:

1. It failed to explain the stability of the atom.
2. It failed to explain the spectrum of an atom.

Postulates of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom

1. An electron moves in a circular orbit round the nucleus,the necessary centripetal force being
provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the positively charged nucleus & negatively
charged electron.
mv 2 1 zee

r 4 0 r 2

2. The electron can revolve in only those orbits for which the angular momentum of an electron is an
integral multiple of h/2 where h is Planck’s constant.
nh
L
2
nh
mvr 
2

3.An election revolving in a permitted orbit does not radiate energy. The radiation of energy occurs
only when the electron jumps from higher energy orbit to a lower energy orbit.
E n 2  E n1  h

Radius of the orbit of Hydrogen atom

Consider a hydrogen atom consisting of a nucleus having charge +e & an electron of charge –e & mass
m revolving around it with velocity v.
According to Bohr’s 1st postulate, the necessary centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force
of attraction between the nucleus & the electron.
mv 2 1 e2
 …..1
r 4 0 r 2

Also, according to the Bohr’s quantization condition,

nh
mvr 
2
nh
v …………..2
2mr

Thus, from 1 & 2

2
 nh  1 e2
m  
 2mr  4 0 r

0n 2h 2
r
me 2

Since 0, n, h, m & e are constant,

r  n2

Energy of an electron in the orbit:

The total energy of an electron in nth orbit is the sum of its kinetic energy & potential energy in
that orbit.
E n  K .E  P.E .

According to Bohr’s 1st postulate,

mv 2 1 e2

r 4 0 r 2

1 1 e2
mv 2 
2 8 0 r

1 e2
K .E. 
8 0 r

The electrostatic potential energy of the electron at a distance r from the +vely charged nucleus is
1 e2
P.E.  
4 0 r

Thus the total energy of the electron in the orbit is

1 e2  1 e2 
En     
8 0 r  4 0 r 

1 e2
En  
8 0 r

But, the radius of the nth orbit of the electron is

Radius of the orbit of Hydrogen atom is

r = є0n2h2
me2
Energy of the electron in a circular orbit is
En= - me4
є02h2n2
En = -13.6 eV
n2
 The negative sign indicates that the electron is bounded to the nucleus
The energy state corresponding to n=1 is called ground state, while the energy states corresponding
to n=2,3,4,….. are called excited states.

Velocity of an electron in a orbit is

v= e2
2є0nh
Origin of spectral lines:
1 = me4 1 - 1
 8є02h3c n12 n22

1 R 1 - 1
 n12 n22
Where R is called Rydberg’s constant

Spectral series of hydrogen:

When the electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from higher energy level to the lower energy level, the
difference of energies of the two energy levels is emitted as radiation of a particular wavelength,

1. Lyman series: n1= 1 & n2 = 2,3,4,-------

These spectral lines are in uv region.
2. Balmer Series: n1= 2 & n2 = 3,4,5,-------
The first four lines H, H, H & Hδ of Balmer series lie in the visible region of the spectrum.
3. Paschen Series: n1= 3 & n2 = 4,5,6,-------
These spectral lines lie in the infra red region.
4. Brackett Series : n1= 4 & n2 = 5,6,7,-------
This series also lies in the Infra red region of the spectrum.
5. Pfund series: n1= 5 & n2 = 6,7,8,-------
These series lies in the far infra-red region of the spectrum.

Atomic mass unit (a.m.u)

Atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12th of mass of C12 atom.
Acc. to Avogadro’s hypothesis, 12g of 6C12 has Avogadro number of atoms i.e 6.023x1023
Mass of one 6C12 atom = 12/6.023x1023
=1.992678x10-26kg
1 a.m.u = 1 x 1.992678x10-26
12
1 a.m.u = 1.660565x10-27kg
Einstein’s mass energy relation
Acc. to Einstein’s mass energy equivalence relation, the energy equivalent of mass m is given by,
E = mc2
Where c is the speed of light.
For m = 1a.m.u = 1.660565x10-27kg & c = 3x108m/s
then the energy equivalent if 1 a.m.u is
E= mc2
= 1.660565 x 10-27 x (3x108)2
= 1.49245 x 10-10 J
E = 1.4925 x10-10 eV
1.602 x10-19
E = 931.5x106 eV = 931.5 MeV

Mass Defect:
Mass defect is the difference between the rest mass of the nucleons in the nucleus and the sum of the
masses of the nucleons in the nucleus & is given as,
m = [Zmp + (A-Z)mn ]- M

Packing fraction: The packing fraction of a nucleus is defined as the mass defect per nucleon of the
nucleus.
Packing fraction = m/A

Binding energy
When a nucleus is formed from free nucleons , the mass of the nucleus is less than the mass of the
constituent nucleons.The decrease in the mass of the nucleons is released as equivalent energy . This
energy equivalent to mass defect is used in binding the nucleons & is called binding energy of the
nucleus.
If m is the mass defect of nucleus, then acc to Einsteins mass energy relation.
Binding energy of the nucleus E = mc2 joules
If the mass is one a.m.u then,
Binding energy of the nucleus = m x 931.5 MeV

Binding energy per nucleon:

Binding energy per nucleons is the average energy required to extract a nucleon from the nucleus
Binding energy per nucleon = BE/A
Higher value of B.E per nucleon indicates comparatively greater stability of the nucleus.

Expression for B.E. per nucleon :

Consider a nucleus of atom z XA with atomic mass number A & atomic number Z. (A-Z) is the number
of neutrons.
Let mp: mass of proton mn : mass of neutron
me: mass of electron M: mass of the nucleus
mass defect of the nucleus
m = (Zmp + (A-Z) mn –M) ------(1)
:. Binding energy of the nucleus
(BE)N =[Zmp + (A-Z)mn –M] c2 ------(2)
If me is the mass of the electron,then BE of the electrons is
(BE)e =[(M + Zme) –m] c2 ------(3)
Where, m is the mass of the atom.
But BE for electrons is negligible compared to BE of the nucleus. (BE)e = 0
from eqn 3, (M + Zme –m) = 0
M = m + Zme -------(4)
Subs in eqn 2,(BE)N = [Zmp+(A-Z)mn– m+ Zme] c2
(BE)N = [Z(mp+me)+(A-Z)mn–m] c2
but, mp+me = mH atomic massof hydrogen atom
(BE)N =[Z(mH)+(A-Z)mn–m] c2
B.E per nucleon B = [Z(mH)+(A-Z)mn–m] c2
A
B = (BE)N
A
Binding energy per nucleon is also called binding fraction.

Binding energy curve:It is a graph of BE per nucleon against mass number.

The following conclusions can be drawn from the binding energy curve.
1.The BE of some very light nuclides is very small & independent of the size of the nucleus.As the
mass number increases ,the BE per nucleon increases.
2.The average BE per nucleon in a region of nuclei with mass number 40 - 120 is about 8.5 MeV with
maximum for A = 56 i.e. 8.8 MeV.
3.Average BE per nucleon is less than 8 MeV for the nuclei of A < 40 & A>120.
4.BE per nucleon is less for heavier nuclei & hence they are unstable & radioactive.

Size of the nucleus: Volume of the nucleus is proportional to the mass number of the nucleus
4R3  A
3
 R3  A
 R  A1/3
 R =R0 A1/3
where, R0 = 1.1 x 10-15m is the nuclear unit radius
1fermi = 10-15m

Radioactivity: The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radioactive radiations from a heavy

nucleus is called radioactivity. The substances which emit these radiations are called radioactive
substances.

Alpha decay: is a process by which a heavy unstable nucleus gains stability by emitting -particles.
Since -particle contains 2 protons & 2 neutrons, after the emission of an -particle, the parent nucleus
X is transformed into a daughter nucleus Y which has an atomic number less by 2 & mass number less
by 4.
 A A-4
ZX Z-2Y + 2He4 + Q
The energy Q is shared by the daughter nucleus & the -particle & is given as Q = (mX –mY –mHe)c2.

Beta decay: is a process of emission of an electron from a nucleus in order to achieve a greater
stability.
Inside the nucleus a neutron is transformed into a proton & an electron. Due to this the atomic number
of the resulting element increases by 1, but mass number remains the same.
A A
ZX Z+1Y + e-1
Electrons emitted during beta decay came out with energies varying from zero to maximum. To
account for this, Pauli postulated that along with the beta particle another uncharged particle which
weakly interacts with the matter & hence goes undetected, called anti-neutrino, is emitted that shares
the energy of beta decay in all proportions.
A A
ZX Z+1Y + e-1 + ν
Also the decay of the neutron is given as
n p+ + e - + ν
Also note the Beta+ decay.
Gamma decay: is a process of emission of high energy photons or gamma rays by a nucleus.
Most of the radio-isotopes after an alpha decay or beta decay leave the daughter nucleus in an excited
state. The daughter nucleus, by single transition or by successive transitions reaches the ground state
emitting one or more gamma rays.
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations of very short wavelength & have high penetrating power,
since they are uncharged.

Properties of alpha, beta & gamma rays

Rutherford & Soddy’s conclusions on radioactive disintegration:

1. In any radioactive transformation, either  or -particle is emitted, but never both are emitted
simultaneously. Also, not more than one -particle or one -particle is emitted at a time.
2. When an atom emits an -particle, it changes into an atom with mass number less by 4 units &
atomic number less by 2 units compared to that of the parent atom.
3. When an atom emits a -particle, it changes into an atom with same mass number, but with atomic
number increased by 1.
4. Emission of gamma rays does not change the mass nor the charge on an atom.
5. The rate of disintegration of the atoms at any instant is directly proportional to the number of atoms
present at the instant of disintegration.
Law of radioactive decay:
It states that the number atoms disintegrating per second at any instant is directly proportional to the
number of atoms of that substance present at that instant.
Let N be the number of atoms of a radioactive substance present at a certain instant t.
dN  N
dt
dN = - N ----1
dt
Where  is the decay constant & its value depends on the nature of the substance.
The -ve sign indicates that the number of nuclei decreases with time.
from eqn 1, dN = -dt
N
Integrating both sides,
dN = - dt
N
logeN = -t + C ---- 2
Where, C is the constant of integration.
If N0 is the number of atoms present at t = 0, then
at t = 0 ,N = N0 from eqn 2
logeN = -t + logeN0
loge N = -t
N = e-t
N0

N = N0 e-t
--3

The graph of N v/s t of the radioactive substance decreases exponentially with time. It also shows that
the substance will disintegrate completely only at
t = ∞.

Half life: (T)

Half life of a radioactive substance is defined as the time during which the nuclei of half of the atoms
of a radioactive substance will disintegrate.
Consider a radioactive substance containing N0 atoms at t = 0.
If N is the number of atoms left after time t, then N = N0 e-t
From the definition of half life ,at t = T, N = N0/2
N0/2 = N0 e-T
e-T = 1/2
e T = 2
T = loge 2
T = 2.303x 0.3010

T = 0.693


The disintegration constant of a radioactive substance can be defined as the ratio of its instantaneous
rate of disintegration to the number of atoms present at that instant. Or
It is the reciprocal of time during which the number of atoms of a radioactive substance decays to
36.8% or 1/e of its original number.
Mean life or average life of a radioactive substance:
Mean life is defined as the sum of lives of all atoms divided by the total number of atoms.
If at t = 0, N = N0,
N = N0 e-t
Activity (A) :Activity or rate of decay is defined as the number of radioactive disintegrations per
second
A = dN/dt = -N
A0 = dN0/dt = -N0
A = A0 e-t
Units of activity:
1bequerrel = 1Bq = 1 disintegrations/second
1 rutherford = 1Rd = 106 disintegrations/second
1 curie = 1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations/second

Nuclear Fission:The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of nearly
comparable masses with the liberation of energy is called nuclear fission.
When 92U235 was bombarded with slow neutrons,it forms a compound nucleus 92U236.This nucleus
141
disintegrates into two lighter nuclei of 56Ba & 36Kr92 with the release of three neutrons & a large
amount of energy.
235
92U + 0n1 92U
236
56Ba
141
+ 36Kr92 + 30n1+ Q
The energy Q was estimated to be 200MeV per fission.
Chain reaction:When uranium nucleus undergoes fission,two or more neutrons are released.
These neutrons inturn can be captured by the nearby uranium nuclei.
These nuclei undergo subsequent fission causing more release of neutrons & more fissions.
This results in a chain reaction.

Neutron multiplication factor

Nuclear reactor:A nuclear reactor is an assembly in which a nuclear fission chain reaction is
maintained in a controlled manner.It is also called an atomic pile.
Parts of a nuclear reactor:
Nuclear fuel:The material like U-233,U-235 & Plutonium-239 which is fissionable with slow neutrons
is called nuclear fuel.The continuous chain reaction takes place only if the size of the fuel is greater
than the critical size.It is generally filled in long hollow aluminium tubes called fuel rods.
Moderator:Material used to slow down the fast moving neutrons produced due to nuclear fission
inorder to produce chain reaction is called a moderator.
The slowing down of the neutrons takes place due to the elastic collisions between the neutrons & the
atoms of the moderator,hence these atoms should be light & also should not absorb neutrons.
Commonly used moderators are graphite,water & heavy water(deuterium oxide).
Control rods:The materials like,cadmium or boron, which can absorb the neutrons produced in the
nuclear reactor are used to control the chain reaction are called control rods.
Coolant:The material used to absorb the heat generated as a consequence of the controlled chain
reaction is called coolant.
Carbondioxide gas or water are the commonly used coolants.
Protective shield:The nuclear fission chain reaction in the nuclear reactor produces radioactive
fragments that emit radioactive radiations.The spreading of these harmful radiations is stopped by
enclosing the nuclear reactor in thick concrete walls called protective shield.It is more than 2m thick.

Nuclear reactor is used to generate electric power,to supply neutrons for research,to produce
radioisotopes for medical,industrial & other purposes.
The disposal of the nuclear waste which is highly radioactive is on of the drawbacks of the nuclear
reactor.

Nuclear fusion:When two or more lighter nuclei fuse together to form a heavy nucleus with the
liberation of energy,the process is called nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fusion forms the basis of hydrogen bomb.
When two deuterons fuse together to form a helium nucleus,it releases 24MeV of energy.This reaction
is a source of energy to all stars & is given as
2 2 4
1H + 1H 2He + 24MeV
Nuclear fusion reaction more energetic than fission because the energy released per unit mass of fusion
material is much greater than that in fission material.
To carry out fusion of two nuclei,they must be brought so close to each other that they overcome the
electrostatic force of repulsion and come within the attractive range of the nuclear forces.This is
possible only at high densities & temperatures of 107K.Such conditions exists in the interior of the sun
& hence fusion reaction takes place in the core of the sun.
At these temperatures the thermal motion of the nuclei is with the kinetic energy of 0.1MeV.Hence
fusion reaction is also called as the thermonuclear reaction.