VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.

SCHOOL(CBSE), KOVILPATTI
PHYSICS MINIMUM LEARNING MATERIAL

1. SEMI CONDUCTOR:
DEFINITIONS OF VALANCE BAND AND CONDUCTION BAND:

Valence Band:

The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons, is called the valence band.

Conduction Band:

Then energy band which includes the higher energy level which may or may not be occupied by electrons, is called
conduction band.

FORMATION OF PN JUNCTION DIODE:

Q. What is p-n junction ? Explain briefly, with the help of suitable diagram, how a p-n junction is formed.
Define the term Potential barrier and depletion region.

[Ans. p-n junction : When a semiconductor crystal is so prepared that, it’s one half is p-type and other is n-type,
then the contact surface dividing the two halves, is called p-n junction
Formation of p-n junction : potential barrier & depletion region
Diffusion and drift are the two important processes involved during the formation of a p-n junction
Due to different concentration gradient of the charge carriers on two sides of the junction, electrons from n-side
starts moving towards p-side and holes start moving from p-side to n-side. This process is called Diffusion.

Due to diffusion, positive space charge region is created on the n-side of the junction and negative space charge
region is created on the p-side of the junction. Hence an electric field called Junction field is set up
from n-side to p-side which forces the minority charge carriers to cross the junction. This process is called Drift.
The potential difference developed across the p-n junction due to diffusion of majority charge carriers, which
prevents the further movement of majority charge carriers through it, is called.
potential barrier. For Si, VB = 0.7 V and for Ge, VB =0.3 V
The small space charge region on either side of the p-n junction, which becomes depleted from mobile
charge carriers is known as depletion region (10-6m)

PN JUNCTION DIODE – FORWARD BIAS AND REVERSE BIAS:

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 1

Q. What is meant by forward and reverse biasing of a p-n junction ? Draw the circuit diagram of a forward and
reverse biasing of a p-n junction.
[Ans. (i) Forward biasing :
When the positive terminal of external battery is connected to p-side and negative terminal to the n-side, then the
p-n junction is said to be forward biased

(ii) Reverse biasing :

When the positive terminal of external battery is connected to n-side and negative terminal to the p-side, then the
p-n junction is said to be reverse biased

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

Q. Draw a labelled circuit diagram of a junction diode as a full wave rectifier. Explain its underlying principle and
working. Depict the input and output wave forms.

During the positive half cycle of a.c. input signal, diode D1 gets forward biased and conducts while D2 being
reverse biased does not conducts. Hence, there is a current in R1 due to diode D1 and we get an output voltage.
During the negative half cycle of ac input signal, diode D1 gets reverse biased and does not conduct while D2 being
forward biased conducts. Hence, now there is a current in R1, due to diode D2 and again we get an output voltage.
Thus, we get output voltage for complete cycle of a.c. input signal in the same direction
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:
Q. Explain with the help of a circuit diagram, the working of p-n junction diode as half wave rectifier.

During the positive half cycle of ac input signal, the diode is forward biased and it conducts. Hence, there is
current in the load resistance R1 and we get on output voltage.

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 2

During the negative half cycle of ac input signal, diode is reverse-biased and it does not conduct. Hence, there is
no current in the load resistance and there is no output.
Thus, we get the output only for half cycle of a.c. input signal.

2. ATOMS:

APLHA PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT:

Q. Draw a schematic arrangement of the Geiger – Marsden experiment for studying α-particle scattering by a thin
foil of gold. Describe briefly, by drawing trajectories of the scattered α-particles, how this study can be used to
estimate the size of the nucleus? Draw a plot showing the number of particles scattered versus scattering angle θ.
[Ans. Geiger-Marsden experiment (Rutherford’s α–Particle scattering experiment):

High energetic collimated beam of –Particles is allowed to fall on a very thin gold foil as shown. The scattered α-
particles are observed through a rotating detector consisting of ZnS screen and microscope.
Observations and Conclusions :
(i) most of the α–Particles passed un deflected through the foil.
It indicates that most of the space in an atom is empty.
(ii) some α–Particles were deflected through small angles and only a few
(1 in 8000) were deflected through large angles (>900) to return back
It concludes that whole of the positive charge and almost whole mass is
concentrated in a tiny central core known as nucleus.
(iii) The number of α-Particles at a scattering angle θ is
1
N   
sin  / 2 
4

It is due to the fact that, scattering of α-particles

is in accordance with Coulomb’s force.
Size of nucleus : It can be estimated by distance of closest approach

1 1  Ze  2e 
m v2 
2 4 0 r0

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 3

 r0 
1  2Ze   2.5 10
2
14
m]
4 0 1 m v 2
2

BOHR’S QUANTISATION CONDITION:

Q. Postulates of Bohr’s Theory:
(a) An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission of radiant energy.
(b) An electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which angular momentum is an integral
multiple of h/2π, where h is the Planck’s constant.
nh
i.e. L  and h = 6.6 × 10-34 Js
2
(c) An electron might make a transition from one of its specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy.
Due to transition, a photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and final
states. The frequency of emitted photon is given by
hv = Ei – Ef

RADIUS OF nth ORBIT OF HYDROGEN ATOM:

Q. Using Bohr’s postulates, derive the expression for the total energy of the electron in the stationary states of the
hydrogen atom. Hence, derive the expression for the orbital velocity and orbital period of the electron moving in
the nth orbit of hydrogen atom.
[Ans. Bohr’s theory of H-atom :
As the electrostatic force of attraction between electron and nucleus
provides the necessary centripetal force

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 4

ENERGY OF ELECTRON:
Q. Using Rutherford model of the atom, derive the expression for the total energy of the electron in hydrogen atom.
What is the significance of total negative energy possessed by the electron?
Ans: The potential energy of an electron revolving in an orbit of radius r in hydrogen atom is given by
1 e2
P.E.   …..(i)
4 0 r
1 2
The kinetic energy of the electron is given by K.E.  mv
2
mv 2 1 e2
As 
r 4 0 r 2
(..Centripetal force for revolution of electron is provided by electrostatic force between nucleus and electron.)
1  e2 
.. K.E.    ……(ii)
2  4 0 r 
Total energy, En = K.E. + P.E.
1  e2 
.. En    ……(iii)
2  4 0 r 
The negative sign signifies that the electron is bound to the nucleus of the atom. the binding energy is

1  e2 
B.E.    
2  4 0 r 

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 5

SPECTRAL SERIES AND ENERGY LEVELS:
Q. (a) Explain the origin of spectral series/ lines of hydrogen atom using Bohr’s atomic model.
(b) Draw the energy level diagram showing how the line spectra corresponding to Lyman/Balmer series occur
due to transition between energy levels in a hydrogen atom.
[Ans. (a) Spectral series of hydrogen atom:
According to Bohr’s frequency condition, if an electron makes a transition from higher energy level E2 to lower
energy level E1, then

Where v is called wave number (number of waves per unit distance), & R is the Rydberg’s constant
(1.097 X 107 m-1)
(i) Lyman Series
When an electron jumps from any higher energy level to the first level, we get Lyman series. This series lies in
ultraviolet region (912 – 1215 A0) and hence not visible. It is given by

where n2 = 2, 3, 4, 5, -----------
(ii) Balmer Series
When an electron jumps from any higher energy level to the second level, we get Balmer series. This series lies in
visible region (3646 – 6563 A0) and is given by

(iii) Paschen Series

When an electron jumps from any higher energy level to the third level, we get Paschen series. This series lies in
infrared region,(8204 – 18752 A0) hence not visible and is given by

(iv) Brackett Series

When an electron jumps from any higher energy level to the fourth level, we get Brackett series. This series lies in
infrared region, (14576 – 40589 A0) hence not visible & is given by

(v) Pfund Series

When an electron jumps from any higher energy level to the fifth level, we get Pfund series. This series also lies in
infrared region, (22775 – 74536 A0) hence not visible & is given by

(b) Hydrogen spectrum :

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 6

3. NUCLEI:

MASS DEFECT AND ITS FORMULA:

Mass defect  m
Difference between the sum of the masses of neutrons and protons forming a nucleus and actual mass of the
nucleus is called mass defect.
Certain mass disappears in the formation of a nucleus in the form of mass defect. This mass loss appears in
the form of energy (Einstein’s theory of mass energy equivalence) called binding energy.
Thus, binding energy is the energy which should be supplied to the nucleus in order to break it up into its
constituent particles
Binding energy =  Zmp   A  Z  mn  mN  c 2 or

Binding energy =  ZmH   A  Z  mn  m

  Z X A   c 2

When, m  Z X A  is mass of the atom, mH is mass of the hydrogen atom, mN is mass of the nucleus, mP is
mass of the proton and mn is mass of the neutron.

Binding energy per nucleon =

NUCLEUS FORCES :
Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature. It acts between the nucleons. The relative strength of
gravitational, Coulomb’s and nuclear forces are
Fg : Fe : Fn ::1:1036 :1038.
Properties of Nuclear Forces

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 7

 (i) Nuclear forces are short range forces. For a distance of the order of 1 fermi, they are quite strong.
(ii) Magnitude of nuclear force is same for n-n, n-p and p-p as it is charge independent.
(iii) These forces show property of saturation. It means each nucleon interacts only with its immediate
neighbours.
(iv)These forces are spin dependent forces.
(v) Nuclear forces do not obey inverse square law. They are non- central and non-conservative forces.
(vi)These forces are exchange forces. Nuclear force between two nucleons is the result of exchange of
 
measons  0 ,   and  between them.

4. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER:

WORK FUNCTION:
The Work Function of a metal is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to eject an electron from
the surface of the metal.
a) It is related to the threshold frequency v0 as
0  hv0
It follows from Einstein’s photoelectric equation that when v  v0 , the kinetic energy of photoelectrons
will be zero.
b) Work function varies from metal to metal.
c) When the temperature of a metal increases, the work function decreases.
PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT AND EQUATION:
Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation. State clearly the three salient features observed in photoelectric
effect, which can be explained on the basis of the above equation.
Ans: - Einstein’s photoelectric equation is K max  hv  0
(i) We find K max depends linearly on v only. It is independent of the intensity of radiation.
(ii) Since, K max must be positive,
hv  0  0  hv0 
v  v0
So, greater the work function 0  , higher is the minimum frequency (threshold frequency) required to
emit the photoelectrons.
(iii) Greater the number of energy quanta, greater is the number of photoelectrons. So, photoelectric current
is proportional to intensity.
EFFECT OF POTENTIAL ON PHOTO CURRENT:
Stopping Potential

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 8

 (a) It is the minimum retarding potential which should he applied across a photoelectric tube in order to
make photoelectric current zero. The photoelectrons of maximum kinetic energy 2 eV can thus, be
completely stopped by a potential difference of -2V (or by a stopping potential of 2V).
1 2
(b) If V0 = stopping potential required and e = charge on electron, then e V0 = mv max and Einstein’s
2
equation can be rewritten as
1
h  v  v0  = mv 2 max  eV0
2
(c) The variation of stopping potential with frequency is an shown below.
The slope of graph is given by
h
Slope =
e
(d) For threshold frequency, the stopping potential is zero.
(e) At stopping potential, the photoelectric current is zero.

(f) Stopping potential is directly proportional to the frequency of incident light.

(g) Stopping potential is independent of: (i) intensity of incident light (ii) distance of source from metal
surface, and (iii) illuminating power of source.
EFFECT OF INTENSITY ON PHOTO CURRENT:
Light of intensity I and frequency v incident on a photosensitive surface and causes photoelectric emission.
What will be the effect on anode current when (i) the intensity of light is gradually increased, (ii) the
frequency of incident radiation is increased, and (iii) the anode potential is increased? In each case, all
other factors remain the same.
Explain, giving justification in each case.
(i) Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the number of photoelectrons emitted per second per unit
area (intensity).

(ii) The energy of emitted photoelectrons depends on the frequency of incident radiation. Greater the
frequency; greater is stopping potential. Saturation current depends on intensity of radiation, so it remains

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 9

 same.

(iii) On increasing anode potential, photoelectric current increases. At a particular value of anode potential,
photoelectric current becomes constant (saturation current). It is so because on increasing the anode
potential, number of photoelectrons reaching anode per second also increases and becomes constant.

WAVE NATURE OF MATTER:

The de Broglie hypothesis attributes a wave like character to matter. According to this hypothesis a beam of
particles (called corpuscles) each having a momentum p can exhibit the properties of a monochromatic wave
of wavelength  given by
h h
= 
p mv
If a charge q of rest mass m is accelerated through a potential difference V, then the de Broglie wavelength
associated with the charged particle is
h
  P  2mqV 
 
2qmV
12.27Å
For electrons 
V

5. MAGNETISM AND MATTER:

TORQUE ON A MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

A magnetic dipole (e.g., a bar magnet) of dipole moment M when placed in a uniform magnetic field B (e.g.,
earth’s magnetic field at a place), experiences a torque.
  MB sin 
Here  is the angle between M and B
Vectorially,   MXB
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A CURRENT LOOP IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
When a current loop of magnetic dipole moment, M= INA is held in a uniform magnetic field B in such a
VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 10
 Way that the direction of M Makes an angle  with B , the potential energy of the dipole is given as
U  M .B  MB cos 
Where the zero of potential energy corresponds to   90 .
(a) When   0 , U   MB and is minimum.
Moreover,   0 for   0
So,   0 is the orientation or position of stable equilibrium of a current loop (or a magnetic dipole) in
uniform magnetic field.
(b) When   180 , U  MB and is maximum.
Through   0 for   180 also
So,   180 corresponds to the position or orientation of unstable equilibrium of a current loop or a
magnetic dipole in uniform magnetic field
DIAMAGNETISM, PARAMAGNETISM, FERROMAGNETISM(EXAMPLES AND PROPERTIES):
Q. Mention the properties of diamagnetic materials. Give an example.
Ans: i) Diamagnetic materials are weakly repelled by a magnet.
OR They tend to move from a region of stronger to weaker magnetic field.
ii) Magnetic susceptibility  of the substance is low and negative. (  < 0)
OR They weakly magnetised in a direction opposite to the applied magnetic field.
iii) Relative permeability (μr) of the substance is slightly less than unity (μr < 1).
OR Permeability of the substance µ < µ0
iv) The resultant magnetic dipole moment of an atom is zero.
OR Atoms of diamagnetic material have no unpaired electrons.
v) The magnetic field lines are expelled out of the diamagnetic material when placed in an external magnetic
field.
vi) The magnetic susceptibility/ permeability/ magnetisation is independent of temperature.
OR They do not obey Curie’s law.
vii) Example: Bismuth, copper, lead, silicon
Q. Mention the properties of paramagnetic materials. Give an example.
Ans: i) They weakly attracted by a magnet.
ii) They weakly magnetised in the direction of the applied magnetic field.
iii) The relative permeability (μr) is slightly greater than unity. i.e., μr >1
iv) Magnetic susceptibility  is low and positive. (  > 0)
v) Susceptibility  inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T.
vi) The resultant magnetic moment in an atom is not zero.
vii) Ex: Aluminium, Sodium, Calcium, Copper chloride
Q. Mention the properties of ferromagnetic materials. Give an example.
Ans: i) They strongly attracted by a magnet.
ii) They strongly magnetised in the direction of the applied magnetic field.
iii) The relative permeability (μr) of a ferromagnetic material is very high.i.e., μr ≫ 1
iv) Magnetic susceptibility  is positive & very high. (  ≫ 0)
v) Above the Curie temperature, its susceptibility is varies inversely proportional to the excess of temperature.
vi) The domain of molecules having magnetic moment.
vii) By placing ferromagnetic bar in a external magnetic field, the magnetic field lines are highly
concentrated.
viii)They exhibit magnetic hysteresis.
ix) Ex: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel etc.,

6. EM WAVES:

PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:

Q. Characteristics of electromagnetic radiation.
Ans: Properties of electromagnetic waves:
i) The e.m.waves are transverse in nature
ii) They are produced by oscillating or accelerating charged particles.
iii) They do not require any medium for their propagation.

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 11

 iv) All e.m. waves travel in vacuum with the same speed c = 3×108ms-1
v) They obey principle of superposition.
vi) They transport energy and momentum as they travel through space.
vii) When these waves strike the surface, a pressure is exerted on the surface.
viii) They also exhibit the phenomenon of reflection, refraction, dispersion, total internal reflection,
interference, diffraction & polarisation.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM-RANGE OF FREQUENCY AND WAVE LENGTH –
APPLICATION-PROPERTIES:

Q. Write an application of micro wave.

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 12

Ans: Micro wave are used
i) in radar system for aircraft navigation.
ii) in microwave ovens for heating.
iii) to measure the speed of tennis ball, cricket ball, automobile.
Q. Mention the applications of infrared radiations.
Ans: IR rays are used
i. in long distance photography.
ii. to treat sprains & muscular pains.
iii. for weather forecasting.
iv. in remote switches such as TV sets, video recorders etc.,
Q. Give any two applications of X-rays.
Ans: i) X-rays are used as diagnostic tool in medicine & as treatment of certain form of cancer.
ii) X-rays are used to study crystal structure.
Q. Give any two applications of ultraviolet radiations.
Ans: UV- radiations are used
i) in eye surgery (LASIK – Laser Assisted in Situ keatatomileusis)
ii) UV- lamps are used to kill germs in water purifier.
iii) to increase the resolving power of a microscope.
iv) to distinguish between real & artificial gems.
v) to sterilize air & water.
Q. Mention the uses of  – rays.
Ans:  – rays are used
i) in medicine to destroy cancer cells.
ii) for detecting flaws in metal casting.

7. ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD:

QUANTISATION OF CHARGE:
The charge (q) of a body is always an integral multiple of basic unit of charge (e).

COULOMB’S LAW VECTRO FORM:

Q. Write Coulomb’s law in vector form. What is the importance of expressing it in vector form?

ELECTRIC FLUX:
Q. Define electric flux through an area element. Mention the SI unit of electric flux.
Ans:
Electric flux is the total number of electric field lines passing normally through the given surface.
SI unit of electric flux is newton square metre per coulomb (Nm2C-1) or Vm.
ELECTRIC DIPOLE, ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT:
Q. Define electric dipole moment. Write its S.I. unit.
Ans:
Electric dipole moment is defined as the product of magnitude of either charge of the dipole and distance
between the dipole.
Magnitude of electric dipole moment, P = q × 2a.
Where, q – magnitude of either charge of the dipole and 2a – distance between the dipole
The S.I. unit of electric dipole moment is coulomb metre (C m)
Electric Dipole:
Equal and opposite charge separated by some distance.
STATE GAUSS’S LAW:

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 13

 1
The total electric flux through any closed surface in free space is equal to times the net charged enclosed by
0
1
the surface.  q
0
Where, 0 is the permittivity of free space.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE (a) FOR POINTS ON THE AXIS(b) ON THE
EQUATORIAL PLANE:
Q. (a) Derive an expression for the electric field E due to a dipole of length ‘2a’ at a point distant r from the centre
of the dipole on the axial line.
(b) Draw a graph of E versus r for r >> a.

Q. Derive an expression for the electric field intensity at a point on the equatorial line of an electric dipole of dipole
moment p and length. What is the direction of this field?

TORQUE ON A DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD:

Q. (i) An electric dipole is held in a uniform electric field. Using suitable diagram show that it does not undergo
any translatory motion. Derive the expression for the torque acting on it.
(ii) What would happen if the field in non-uniform ?
(iii) What would happen if the external electric field E is increasing
(a) parallel to p and (b) anti-parallel to p ?

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 14

 (ii) If the electric field is non-uniform, the net force on the dipole will not be zero hence there will be the
translator motion of the dipole.
(iii) (a) Net force will be in the direction of increasing electric field.
(b) Net force will be in the direction opposite to the increasing field
APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
(a) Field due to charged long wire
Q. Using Gauss’s law, derive an expression for the electric field intensity due to an infinitely long, straight
wire of linear charge density  C/m.
[ Ans. Charge enclosed by Gaussian surface, q  l

(b) charged plane sheet

Q. Using Gauss’s law, obtain the expression for electric field intensity at a point due to an infinitely large,
plane sheet of charge of charge density  C/m2. How is the field directed if the sheet is
(i) positively charged (ii) negatively charged?

(c) Charged Thin spherical shell

Q. Using Gauss’s law, deduce the expression for the electric field due to uniformly charged spherical
conducting shell of radius at a point (i) outside and (ii) inside the shell.
Plot a graph showing variation of electric field as a function of r > R and r < R.

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 15

8. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE:

PROPERTIES OF EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES:

Q. Mention any three properties of equipotential surface.
Ans: i) Electric field lines are always perpendicular to the equipotential surface.
ii) No two equipotential surfaces intersect each other.
iii)Work done in moving a charge between any two points over an equipotential surface is zero.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE:
Q. Define electrostatic potential due to a point charge and arrive at the expression for electric potential at a
point due to a point source charge.
Definition: The electrostatic potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done in
bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point against electric field.
Expression for electric potential at a point due to a point source charge:

Consider a point charge +Q at O in free space.

Let P be a point at a distance r from +Q at which electric potential is to be calculated.
Let a unit +ve charge (+1C) placed at P| at a distance r| from +Q. Force on a unit +ve charge at P| is given by,

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 16

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A DIPOLE AT:
a) Axial Point
Q. Derive an expression for the potential at a point along the axial line of a short dipole. For this dipole draw a plot
showing the variation of potential V versus r, where (r >> 2a), is the distance from the point charge –q along the
line joining the two charges.

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A DIPOLE IN AN EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD:

Q. (i) Derive the expression for the potential energy of an electric dipole moment p placed in a uniform electric
field E .
(ii) Find out the orientation of the dipole when it is in (a) stable equilibrium (b) unstable equilibrium.

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 17

CAPACITANCE OF A CAPACITOR:
Q. What is a capacitor? Deduce an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with air as the
medium between the plates.

Q. Three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2 & C3 are connected (a) in series (b) in parallel. Show that the energy
stored in the series combination is the same as that in the parallel combination.

CAPACITANCE WITH DIELECTRIC:

Q. A dielectric slab of thickness ‘t’ is introduced without touching between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor
separated by a distance ‘d’ (t < d). Derive an expression for the capacitance of the capacitor.

Q. Why does the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor increase on introduction of a dielectric in between its
plates?

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 18

9. CURRENT ELECTRICITY:

OHM’S LAW:
The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between its ends, provided the
temperature & other physical conditions remain constant.
i.e., V = IR
MOBILITY:
Q. Define mobility of electron& mention its S.I. unit.
Ans: Mobility of electron is the magnitude of drift velocity of free electron per unit electric field.
vd
i.e.,  
E
SI unit of electron mobility is m2V-1s-1 or C m N-1s-1

INTERNAL RESISTANCE, EMF, POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:

Q. Define internal resistance of a cell.
Ans: The resistance offered by the material of the cell to flow of electric current through the cell is called
internal resistance of the cell.
Q. Define emf of a cell.
Ans: Emf of a cell is the amount of work done to drive a unit charge all around the circuit in which it is
connected.
Q. Define Potential Difference:
Ans: Terminal potential difference is defined as the potential difference between the terminals of the cell in a
closed circuit. The SI Unit of terminal potential difference is volt.
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS:
Q. State & explain Kirchhoff’s first laws/ rules.
1. Kirchhoff’s first law/rule: [Junction rule or current rule] : (KJR)
Statement: At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving the
junction.
OR
The algebraic sum of currents at a node in an electrical network is always zero. i.e.,  I 0
2. Kirchhoff’s second law/rule: [ loop rule or voltage rule ]: (KLR)
Statement: The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and cells in the
loop is zero.
i.e., V  0 in a closed loop.
OR
In any closed loop, the algebraic sum of emf’s & the algebraic sum of product of current & resistances
in the various arms of the loop is zero. i.e.,  
  IR  0
RELATION I = neAvd :
Q. Deduce the relation between current I flowing through a conductor and drift velocity vd of free electrons.

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 19

EXPRESSION OF RESISTIVITY IN TERMS OF RELAXATION TIME AND NUMBER DENSITY:
Q. Deduce Ohm’s law using the concept of drift velocity.
OR
On the basis of electron drift, derive an expression for resistivity of a conductor in terms of number density of
free electrons and relaxation time.

VECTOR FORM OF Ohm’s LAW:

Q. Derive the relation j   E using ohm’s law
Or
Derive the Vector form of ohm’s law or [Equivalent form of ohm’s law]

CELLS IN SERIES:
Q. Derive an expression for the equivalent resistance of combination of cells in series.

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 20

CELLS IN PARALLEL:
Q. Two cells of emfs E1 and E2 and internal resistances r1 and r2 are connected in parallel as shown in the figure.
Deduce an expression for the
(i) equivalent emf of the combination
(ii) equivalent internal resistance of the combination
(iii) potential difference between the points A and C

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE AND BALANCING CONDITION:

Q. What is Wheatstone bridge ? When is the bridge said to be balanced ? Use Kirchhoff’s rules to obtain conditions
for the balanced condition in a Wheatstone bridge.
[Ans. Wheatstone bridge: It is an arrangement of four resistances which is used to determine one of these
resistance in terms of the remaining three resistances
Balanced condition: If the resistances in the Wheatstone bridge are so arranged that current in the
galvanometer (Ig) is zero then the bridge is said to be balanced and in this balanced
condition

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 21

10. MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM:

LORENTZ FORCE EQUATION:

11. EMI:

FARADAY’S LAWS:

12. AC:

SERIES LCR CIRCUIT, PHASOR:

13. RAY OPTICS:

TOTAL INTERNAL REGLECTION – CONDITIONS AND APPLICATIONS:

Q. What is total internal reflection of light?
[Ans. Total internal reflection: When a ray of light travelling from denser to a rarer medium is incident on the
interface at an angle greater than the critical angle, it is totally reflected back in to the denser medium. This
phenomenon is called total internal reflection of light.
Q. State the conditions for the phenomenon of total internal reflection to occur.
[Ans. Conditions for TIR :
(i) light ray must travel from denser to a rarer medium
(ii) angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle ( i > ie)
Q. Name one phenomenon which is based on total internal reflection.
[Ans. Mirage/ sparkling of diamond/ optical fibre/ totally reflecting prisms

REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACE:

Q. A point object O on the principal axis of a spherical surface of radius separating two media of refractive
indices μ1 and μ2 from an image 1’ as shown in the figure.
Prove that

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 22

LENS MAKER’S FORMULA:
Q. Derive expression for the lens maker’s formula using necessary ray diagrams.
1 1 1 
  21  1   
f  R1 R2 
Also state the assumptions in deriving the above relation and the sign conventions used.
[Ans. For the refraction at the interface ABC,

Assumptions Used:
(i) Lens used is very thin
(ii) Aperture of the lens is very small
(iii) Object is a point object placed at the principal axis
(iv) All the rays are paraxial
New Cartesian Sign Conventions Used:
(i) All distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens
(ii) Distances measured in the direction of incident ray are positive
(iii) Distances measured in the opposite direction of incident ray are negative.

COMBINATION OF THIN LENSES IN CONTACT:

Q. Two thin convex lenses L1 and L2 of focal lengths f1 and f2 respectively, are placed coaxially in contact. An
object is placed at a point beyond the focus of lens L1. Draw a ray diagram to show the image formation and hence
derive the expression for the focal length of the combined system.

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 23

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM – PRISM FORMULA:
Q. Draw a ray diagram to show the refraction of light through a glass prism. Hence derive the relation
 A  m 
SIN  
  2 
sin A / 2

MAGNIFYING POWER OF MICROSCOPE AND TELESCOPE:

Q. (i) Draw a labelled ray diagram to show the image formation by an astronomical telescope in normal
adjustment.
(ii) Define magnifying power of an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment (i,e, when the final image is
formed at infinity).
(iii) Derive the expression for its magnifying power in normal adjustment.

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 24

Q. (i) Draw a labelled ray diagram of an astronomical telescope when the final image is formed at least distance of
distinct vision.
(ii) Define its magnifying power and deduce the expression for the magnifying power of telescope.

Q. Draw a labelled ray diagram of a compound microscope when image is formed at least distance of distinct
vision.
Define its magnifying power and deduce the expression for the magnifying power of the microscope.

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 25

Q. (i) Draw a labelled ray diagram for the formation of image by a compound microscope in normal adjustment.
(ii) Define magnifying power of a compound microscope in normal adjustment and derive an expression for
it.
[ Ans. ray diagram of a compound microscope in normal adjustment

14. WAVE OPTICS:

HYGEN’S PRINCIPLE:
Q. When monochromatic light is incident on a surface separating two media, the reflected and refracted light both
have the same frequency as the incident frequency. Why?
[Ans. Reflection and refraction arise through interaction of incident light with atomic constituents of matter which
vibrate with the same frequency as that of incident light. Hence frequency remains unchanged.

DEFINITION OF WAVE FRONT:

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 26

Q. When a wave is propagating from a rarer to a denser medium, which characteristic of the wave does not change
and why?
[ Ans. frequency, as frequency is a characteristic of the source of waves
OR
When monochromatic light travels from one medium to another, its wavelength changes but its frequency remains
same. Why ?
[Ans. frequency is a characteristic of the source of waves. That is why it remains the same. But wavelength is
characteristic of medium. So wavelength and velocity both change.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION:

DEFINITION OF INTERFERENCE AND REFRACTION:

Interference of light:
The phenomenon of redistribution of light energy in a medium on account of superposition of light waves from two
coherent sources is called interference.
Refraction:
The phenomenon of change in the path of light as it travels from one medium to another is called refraction.

LAWS OF REFLECTION:
Q. Using Huygens Principle, show that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection during a plane
wave front reflected by a plane surface.
Ans:

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 27

Consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN.
If v is the speed of the wave in the medium & if is the time taken by the wave frontto advance from the
point B to C then, the distance BC = v
In order to construct the reflected wave front, draw a sphere of radius v with A as centreas shown in Fig. The
tangent plane CE drawn from the point C to this sphere represents reflected wave front and let r be the angle
of reflection.

LAWS OF REFRACTION:
Q. Arrive at Snell’s law of refraction, using Huygens Principle for refraction of a Plane Wave.

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 28

CONDITION FOR CONSTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:
Q. Give the condition for constructive and destructive interference in terms of path difference between the
interfering waves.
Let two waves of same frequency travel in a medium along the same direction.
The displacement at any point produced by the two waves at any instant of time t are,

Where, a is amplitude of the wave & ∅ is the constant phase difference between the waves.
By the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement is,

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 29

VEL’S VIDHYALAYA SR.SEC.SCHOOL(KVP) Page 30