IRAN

Iran, historically known as Persia, has a distinctive culture and society that traces its roots
back to the Achaemenian period, which began in 550 BCE. Over the centuries, Iran has
undergone a rich and complex evolution, shaping the modern state that exists today. It is
located in the Middle East, which is part of both Asia and the larger region of Eurasia. It
boasts a significant coastline along the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf, and the Caspian Sea.
Iran shares borders with Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkmenistan, and the Caspian Sea to the
north; Pakistan and Afghanistan to the east; the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman to the south;
and Turkey and Iraq to the west.

Iran- Homeland of the Aryans

The term "Aryan" has historically been associated with a group of people who spoke Indo-
European languages, specifically the early Indo-Iranian peoples believed to have migrated
into the Iranian plateau and the Indian subcontinent around the second millennium BCE.
The name "Iran" itself derives from "Aryan," meaning "Land of the Aryans," reflecting the
region's deep literary tradition rooted in ancient cultures.

In Iran, the Aryan identity is often linked to the early Persians, who established one of the
world's first great empires, the Achaemenid Empire, around the 6th century BCE. This era
marked the consolidation of Aryan cultural practices, including the Old Persian language
and religious beliefs, primarily Zoroastrianism, which significantly shaped the moral and
ethical framework of Iranian society.

Religion of Iranian

Zoroastrianism is one of the world's oldest known monotheistic religions, founded by the
prophet Zoroaster (also known as Zarathustra) in ancient Persia, likely between 1500 and
600 BCE. It was the dominant religion in the Persian Empire before the rise of Islam and
significantly influenced the development of later religious traditions, including Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam.

Ahura Mazda was regarded as the supreme god, the creator and ruler of the cosmos, and
the embodiment of goodness and light. Ahura Mazda was supported by a host of lesser
gods, spirits, and divine beings, collectively known as yazatas, who represented various
forces of good and upheld cosmic order. These spiritual entities helped maintain Asha, the
divine order and truth that governs both the physical and spiritual realms.
Opposing Ahura Mazda was the evil spirit Angra Mainyu (also known as Ahriman), the
embodiment of chaos, destruction, and falsehood. Angra Mainyu led the forces of darkness,
perpetually locked in a cosmic battle against Ahura Mazda and the forces of good. This
dualism between good and evil is a key feature of Zoroastrian cosmology, emphasizing the
moral struggle every individual faces in choosing between righteousness and wickedness.

Sufism, also known as Tasawwuf, is the mystical branch of Islam that emphasizes the
inward search for God and the cultivation of a direct, personal relationship with the divine.
It focuses on the spiritual and ethical dimensions of Islam, rather than the external
practices of the religion. Sufism is a discipline that seeks to understand the states of the
human soul—both praiseworthy and blameworthy—and how to purify it from the
blameworthy aspects while ennobling it through the acquisition of virtuous qualities. The
aim is to journey toward Allah, the Most High, through a spiritual path, fleeing unto Him in
search of ultimate truth and connection.

The term "Sufi" has various possible etymologies. The most widely accepted comes from
*suf*, meaning "wool," referring to the traditional ascetic garment worn by prophets and
saints in the Near East. Another possible origin is from *safa˒*, meaning "purity," or
*safwa*, meaning "the chosen ones," which emphasizes the spiritual dimension of purifying
the heart and the role of divine grace in the selection of saintly individuals. Additionally,
some link the term *Sufi* to *suffa* or "bench," referring to a group of poor Muslims
contemporaneous with the Prophet Muhammad, known as the People of the Bench,
highlighting the communal aspect of shared poverty and devotion.

Introduction of Literature

Iranian literature is one of the world’s richest literary traditions. It reflects the cultural,
historical, and social evolution of the Iranian people. Persian, the dominant language of
Iranian literature, has been a literary language not only in Iran but also in other regions like
Central Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East. The literature encompasses various forms,
including epic poetry, lyrical poetry, prose, and philosophical writings.

Zarathustra (Zoroaster)

Zarathustra, also known as Zoroaster, was an ancient religious leader and philosopher born
in Urmia, Iran, sometime between 1700 BCE and 600 BCE. He is credited with founding
Zoroastrianism, one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions. Zoroaster emphasized
the division of the world into good and evil, a concept that influenced later philosophies
and religions such as Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and thinkers like Friedrich Nietzsche
(1844–1900).

The Zend-Avesta literally means "interpretation of the Avesta," where the term "Zend"
refers to commentary or explanation, and "Avesta" is the core Zoroastrian scripture. Thus,
the Zend-Avesta combines the sacred texts (Avesta) with accompanying explanations or
interpretations (Zend). It is a collection of religious hymns, prayers, laws, and teachings
that outline Zoroastrian theology, rituals, and cosmology. The original Avesta was
significantly larger, but was lost when Alexander the Great conquered Persia, what remains
was compiled under the Sasanian kings (3rd–7th century CE).

The extant version is divided into five main sections, each serving a distinct purpose in
Zoroastrian practice and belief.

1. Yasna: The central liturgical text, including the Gāthās, a collection of hymns
attributed to Zoroaster himself. The Yasna includes rites like the preparation and
sacrifice of haoma (a sacred plant).
2. Visp-rat: A supplementary liturgical text paying homage to Zoroastrian spiritual
leaders.
3. Vendidad (Vidēvdāt): A text on Zoroastrian law, both ritual and civil, and an
account of creation, including the first man, Yima.
4. Yashts: 21 hymns to various yazatas (angels) and ancient heroes.
5. Khūrda Avesta (Little Avesta): Minor texts, hymns, and prayers for specific
occasions.

The Gathas are a collection of hymns composed by the prophet Zoroaster, forming a key
part of the Zoroastrian scripture known as the Avesta. These sacred texts reflect
Zoroaster's teachings on ethics, theology, and cosmology, emphasizing the duality of good
and evil and the importance of individual choice in aligning with truth (Asha) against
falsehood (Druj). The Gathas are considered some of the oldest parts of the Avesta (The
holy book of Zoroastrianism) and are fundamental to understanding Zoroastrianism's core
beliefs.

The Gathas are divided into 17 hymns, each expressing profound philosophical
ideas about the nature of existence, divinity, and morality.
These hymns were written in an ancient dialect known as Avestan, making them
crucial for scholars studying early Iranian languages and culture.
Zoroaster's teachings in the Gathas emphasize personal responsibility and the need
for individuals to actively choose good over evil.
The Gathas are regarded as not only religious texts but also as early examples of
poetic literature that articulate moral and existential dilemmas.
Zoroastrians recite selections from the Gathas during rituals and prayers,
underlining their ongoing significance in contemporary practice.
Hakim Abu al-Qasim Mansur

Hakim Abu al-Qasim Mansur also Firdawsi or Ferdowsi, was a Persian poet and the
author of Shahnameh ("Book of Kings"), which is one of the world's longest epic poems
created by a single poet, and the greatest epic of Persian-speaking countries. Ferdowsi is
celebrated as one of the most influential figures of Persian literature and one of the greatest
in the history of literature.

Ferdowsi is one of the undisputed giants of Persian literature. After Ferdowsi's Shahnameh,
a number of other works similar in nature surfaced over the centuries within the cultural
sphere of the Persian language. Without exception, all such works were based in style and
method on Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, but none of them could quite achieve the same degree
of fame and popularity as Ferdowsi's masterpiece.

The Shahnameh
“Book of Kings”(composed 977-1010 CE) is a medieval epic written by the poet Abolqasem
Ferdowsi in order to preserve the myths, legends, history, language, and culture of ancient
Persia. It is the longest work by a single author in world literature at a length of 50,000
rhymed couplets, 62 stories, and 990 chapters.

Character List
● Sam/Saum: A mythic hero serving under multiple Shahs; embodies loyalty.
● Zal: Son of Sam, known for his albinism and destined greatness; critical of kings yet
loyal.
● Rudabeh: Daughter of Mehrab, king of Kabul; her love story with Zal is central to the
narrative.
● Rostam/Rustem: The greatest warrior of the *Shahnameh*, known for his strength
and heroism.
● Sohrab: Son of Rostam, tragically killed by his father in a duel.
● Mihrab/Mehrab: King of Kabul, father of Rudabeh.
● Afrasiyab: The main antagonist, king of Turan, representing the forces against Iran.

Zal and Rudabeh's Love Story

Among the most cherished tales within Shahnameh is the romance between Zal and
Princess Rudabeh. This love story transcends social barriers and familial expectations.
Their union embodies the transformative power of love and the resilience of the human
spirit in the face of adversity.
Zal and Rudabeh are the fate of two lovers in Shahnameh. Zāl's love for Rudabeh begins
when he enters the suburbs of Kabul under the rule of the governor and hears Mehrab, the
ruler of Kabul, have a daughter in the palace. Zal was ruling as a teenager in Zabol and was
ordered by King Manuchehr of Iran(the eighth ruler of the Pishdadian dynasty,grandson of
Iraj, who was the son of Fereydun, a legendary king who defeated the demon Zahhak.). It
was likely that the tax collection of the countries under the command of Iran was with Zal.

Zal, the son of Sam, falls in love with Rudabeh, the daughter of Mehrab, the governor of
Kabul. Sam and King Manuchehr oppose the marriage because Rudabeh is descended from
Zahhak, a tyrannical demon king who was overthrown by the hero Fereydun. This lineage
is seen as a stain on her family. However, astrologers predict that Zal and Rudabeh's union
will produce a son who will be the most glorious hero of Persia, destined to protect the
kingdom. This prophecy convinces Sam and Manuchehr to allow the marriage. As
predicted, Zal and Rudabeh's son, Rostam, becomes the greatest hero of Persia, renowned
for his strength, courage, and loyalty.

SAADI SHIRAZI

Saadi Shirazi was a prominent Persian poet of the 13th century, writing during a period
known as the "Golden Age of Persian Literature."

He is revered for his mastery of the ghazal form, a lyrical style of poetry consisting of
rhyming couplets and a refrain at the end of the second line.

His ghazals often explore themes of love, loss, spirituality, and the human condition. Saadi's
work is characterized by its eloquence, wit, and profound philosophical insights.

GULISTAN

The Gulistan is a book of Persian prose written in 1258 by Sheikh Sadi Shirazi, a writer
widely recognized as one of the greatest masters of the classical Persian literary tradition.
Gulistan means ‘the rose garden’ and the text is divided into eight chapters called babs
(‘gates’) corresponding to the eight gates to the garden of paradise. It is a moralistic and
anecdotal work mostly written in hikayats (short prose vignettes) combined with verse.

Moral stories divided into eight chapter:

1. The Conduct of Kings

2. The Character of Dervishes

3. The Superiority of Contentment

4. The Benefits of Silence

5. Love and Youth

6. Feebleness and Old Age

7. The Effects of Education

8. The Art of Conversation

Chapter 1: The Conduct of Kings

Story 1

I heard a padshah giving orders to kill a prisoner. The helpless fellow began to insult the
king on that occasion of despair, with the tongue he had, and to use foul expressions
according to the saying:

Who washes his hands of life

Says whatever he has in his heart.

When a man is in despair his tongue becomes long and he is like a vanquished cat assailing
a dog.

In time of need, when flight is no more possible,

The hand grasps the point of the sharp sword.

When the king asked what he was saying, a good-natured vezier replied: ‘My lord, he says:
Those who bridle their anger and forgive men; for Allah loveth the beneficent.'
The king, moved with pity, forbore taking his life but another vezier, the antagonist of the
former, said: ‘Men of our rank ought to speak nothing but the truth in the presence of
padshahs. This fellow has insulted the king and spoken unbecomingly.’ The king, being
displeased with these words, said: ‘That lie was more acceptable to me than this truth thou
hast uttered because the former proceeded from a conciliatory disposition and the latter
from malignity; and wise men have said: “A falsehood resulting in conciliation is better
than a truth producing trouble."'

He whom the shah follows in what he says,

It is a pity if he speaks anything but what is good.

The following inscription was upon the portico of the hall of Feridun:

O brother, the world remains with no one.

Bind the heart to the Creator, it is enough.

Rely not upon possessions and this world

Because it has cherished many like thee and slain them.

When the pure soul is about to depart,

What boots it if one dies on a throne or on the ground?

Chapter 4: The Benefits of Silence

Story 8:

Several officials of Sultan Mahmud asked Hasan Muimandi one day what the sultan had told
him about a certain affair. He replied: ‘You must yourselves have heard it.’ They rejoined:
‘What he says to thee he does not think proper to communicate to the like of us.’ He
answered: ‘Because he trusts that I shall not reveal it. Then why do you ask me to do so?'

A knowing man will not utter every word which occurs to him.

It is not proper to endanger one’s head for the king’s secret.

Chapter 5: Love and Youth

Story 5:

A schoolboy was so perfectly beautiful and sweet-voiced that the teacher, in accordance
with human nature, conceived such an affection towards him that’ he often recited the
following verses:

I am not so little occupied with thee, O heavenly face,

That remembrance of myself occurs to my mind.

From thy sight I am unable to withdraw my eyes

Although when I am opposite I may see that an arrow comes.

Once the boy said to him: ‘As thou strivest to direct my studies, direct also my behaviour. If
thou perceivest anything reprovable in my conduct, although it may seem approvable to
me, inform me thereof that I may endeavour to change it.’ He replied: ‘O boy, make that
request to someone else because the eyes with which I look upon thee behold nothing but
virtues.'

The ill-wishing eye, be it torn out

Sees only defects in his virtue.

But if thou possessest one virtue and seventy faults

A friend sees nothing except that virtue.

OMAN KHAYYAM

Omar Khayyam, a Persian astronomer, mathematician, and poet, died Dec. 4, 1131, at the
age of 83. Khayyam came from Nishapur, now in northeastern Iran, was educated at
Samarkand, now in eastern Uzbekistan, and spent much of the rest of his life in Bukhara
(now in western Uzbekistan), returning to Nishapur to live out his old age. He wrote
important treatises on algebra – a branch of mathematics invented by Muslim scientists –
and geometry, and did important work in astronomy, helping establish a sophisticated
astronomical calendar. He was a philosopher and a follower of Avicenna. In his spare time,
he wrote poetry. It is as a poet that he is now best known.

Khayyam wrote poems in a form called ruba'i, a four-line quatrain, and he wrote many of
them. It used to be claimed that he composed over 1200 ruba'is, for that many have been
attributed to him. Many modern scholars think the number might be one-tenth of that, or
120 (although there are also scholars who maintain that not a single ruba'i can be
attributed to Omar with certainty).

RUBAIYAT

Rubaiyat describes a collection of a specific type of poem, or rubai, that contains stanzas of
four quatrains or lines. The rubai often has a rhyming pattern of A-A-B-A.

The Rubaiyat gained interest in the West after the 1859 English translation by Edward
FitzGerald, although there are numerous English translations and the collection has been
translated into almost every major language.

The first edition of Khayyam's poem contains only 75 stanzas. However, Edward
FitzGerald, an English poet and translator, translated Khayyam's poem into English and
added his own insight, which resulted in 101 stanzas and was published as the fifth edition.

With them the Seed of Wisdom did I sow,

And with my own hand labour'd it to grow:

And this was all the Harvest that I reap'd—

"I came like Water, and like Wind I go."

And strange to tell, among that Earthen Lot

Some could articulate, while others not:

And suddenly one more impatient cried—

"Who is the Potter, pray, and who the Pot?"

The Worldly Hope men set their Hearts upon

Turns Ashes—or it prospers; and anon,

Like Snow upon the Desert's dusty Face

Lighting a little Hour or two—is gone.

Landayan, Shanel

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran, reigned from 1941 to 1979, a period
marked by both modernization and turmoil. His life and reign were intertwined with the
complex geopolitical landscape of the 20th century, including the Cold War, the rise of
nationalism, and the increasing influence of Islamic fundamentalism. This biography will
explore his early life, his key policies, his role in the Iranian Revolution, and his legacy.

Early Life and Rise to Power

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi was born on October 26, 1919, in Tehran, Iran. He was the
eldest son of Reza Shah Pahlavi, the founder of the Pahlavi dynasty and the first Shah of
Iran. His early life was shaped by his father's authoritarian rule and his own upbringing,
which instilled in him a sense of duty and a desire to modernize Iran.

Mohammad Reza received his education at the prestigious Institut Le Rosey in Switzerland,
where he developed a fondness for French culture. Upon his return to Iran, he enrolled in
the Tehran Military Academy, graduating in 1938.

In 1941, during World War II, the Soviet Union and Great Britain invaded Iran, fearing that
Reza Shah would cooperate with Nazi Germany. Reza Shah was forced into exile, and
Mohammad Reza ascended to the throne on September 16, 1941.

Reign and Key Policies

Mohammad Reza Shah's reign was marked by a series of reforms known as the White
Revolution, aimed at modernizing Iran and improving the lives of its people. These reforms
included:

- Land reform: Redistributing land to small farmers, breaking up large estates, and
promoting agricultural development.

- Women's suffrage: Granting women the right to vote and participate in politics.
- Literacy programs: Establishing literacy corps to combat illiteracy and promote
education.

- Industrialization: Encouraging industrial growth and investment in infrastructure,

including roads, railways, and dams.

These reforms were met with mixed reactions. While they led to economic growth and
improved living standards for some, they also alienated traditional religious leaders and
fueled resentment among those who felt excluded from the benefits of modernization.

The Iranian Revolution and Exile

By the 1970s, opposition to the Shah's rule had grown significantly. Dissatisfaction with his
autocratic style of governance, corruption within his government, and the unequal
distribution of oil wealth fueled protests and unrest.

The rise of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a prominent Shi'a cleric living in exile in Paris,
further galvanized opposition. Khomeini's anti-Shah rhetoric and calls for an Islamic
revolution resonated with many Iranians who felt alienated by the Shah's secular policies.

In January 1979, the Shah fled Iran, marking the beginning of the Iranian Revolution.
Khomeini returned to Iran and established an Islamic Republic, ending the Pahlavi dynasty.

The Shah spent his final years in exile, traveling to various countries seeking medical
treatment for lymphatic cancer. He died in Cairo, Egypt, on July 27, 1980.

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran, was known for his political leadership
and modernization efforts, but he also authored several works that reflected his vision for
Iran. Here are some examples:

1. "Answer to History" (1979)

- This memoir, written during his exile, presents his perspective on the Iranian Revolution
and defends his policies.

- It details his vision for Iran's modernization and his belief in a "Great Civilization" for the
nation.

- It also criticizes the Islamic Revolution and its leaders, arguing that they were not in the
best interests of Iran.

2. "The Shah's Story" (1980)

- This autobiography provides a personal account of his life and reign.

- It covers his childhood, his rise to power, and his efforts to modernize Iran through the
White Revolution.

- It also discusses his relationship with his father, Reza Shah Pahlavi, and his views on the
challenges he faced as Shah.

3. "Mission for My Country" (1961)

- This book, written in Persian, outlines his vision for Iran's future.

- It highlights his commitment to modernization, economic development, and social

progress.

- It also emphasizes his belief in a strong and independent Iran.

4. "Toward the Great Civilization" (1977)

- This work, also written in Persian, elaborates on his vision for a "Great Civilization" in
Iran.

- It discusses his plans for education, science, technology, and cultural development.

- It reflects his ambition to transform Iran into a modern and prosperous nation.

5. Speeches and Addresses:

- Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi delivered numerous speeches and addresses throughout
his reign.

- These speeches often focused on his policies, his vision for Iran, and his interactions with
foreign leaders.

- They provide valuable insights into his political thought and his approach to governing
Iran.

These works offer a glimpse into Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi's worldview and his
aspirations for Iran. They provide a valuable resource for understanding his reign, his
policies, and the challenges he faced in leading Iran during a period of rapid change.

REFERENCES:
Indo-Iranian languages | History, Characteristics & Classification | Britannica

Tasawwuf - Sufism (livingislam.org)

Tasawwuf | Encyclopedia.com

Biography of Zarathustra, Founder of Zoroastrianism (learnreligions.com)

Zoroastrianism | Religions of Asia Class Notes | Fiveable

Avesta | Definition, Contents, & Facts | Britannica

The Avesta and Zoroastrianism: The Creation, Disappearance and Resurgence of an Ancient
Text | Ancient Origins (ancient-origins.net)

Translation of Gathas - The Holy Songs Of Zarathushtra

Ferdowsi - Wikipedia

The Gulistan of Sa'di: Chapter 1, | Obelisk Art History (arthistoryproject.com)

The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam - My Favorite Quatrains

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi | Biography, History, & White Revolution | Britannica