Ocean topography; Relief features of Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans; Temperature and salinity of ocean water; T-S diagram, Tides and Ocean currents. • The ocean is a large body of salt water that covers around 71% of the Earth's surface, containing about 97% of the world's water. • Historically, there are four named oceans: the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic. However, most countries - including the United States - now recognize the Southern (Antarctic) as the fifth ocean. • The Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian are the most commonly known. • The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the world ocean basins. Covering approximately 63 million square miles and containing more than half of the free water on Earth, the Pacific is by far the largest of the world's ocean basins. • Arctic Ocean is the smallest among all the five oceans. Temperature and salinity of ocean water • The Distribution of Temperature and salinity of oceans play crucial roles in various phenomena such as the vertical and horizontal circulation of ocean water, the movement of surface and subsurface currents, and the climate of different locations. • Subsurface refers to the area below the surface of the earth. • These factors vary across the globe, resulting in diverse impacts on different regions. • The sea surface typically has an average temperature of approximately 20°C (68°F), although it can vary depending on the location. • In warm tropical regions, the temperature can exceed 30°C (86°F), while at high latitudes, it can drop below 0°C. Generally, as you go deeper into the ocean, the water becomes colder. Distribution of Temperature • The temperature of the water in the ocean plays a crucial role for marine organisms such as phytoplankton and zooplankton. • It also has an impact on the climate of coastal areas and the plants and animals that inhabit them. • Thermometers placed at different locations in the ocean are able to measure the temperature with an accuracy of approximately ±0.2° C. • In tropical regions, the ocean can be divided into three layers from the surface to the bottom. • The initial layer corresponds to the uppermost layer of warm ocean water and has a thickness of 500 meters. Its temperature ranges between 20° and 25°C. • The thermocline layer is a vertical zone of oceanic water located below the surface layer. It is distinguished by a significant decrease in temperature as depth increases. • A thermocline is the transition layer between the warmer mixed water at the surface and the cooler deep water below. • In the ocean, the thermocline is the layer that separates the warmer mixed water at the surface from the cooler deep water below, • The thermocline is characterized by a rapid decrease in temperature with depth, and a total temperature drop of about 15°C over its vertical extent. • The thermocline is formed through circulation that tilts the horizontal contrast in surface density into the vertical. • The thermocline depth varies spatially. At low latitudes, the thermocline is relatively strong and thin, while at high latitudes it is generally weaker and deeper. • The third layer of the ocean is characterized by extreme coldness and it stretches all the way down to the ocean floor. Factors Affecting the Distribution of Temperature • The Sun is the primary contributor to the temperature of ocean water. It emits radiant energy, known as insolation, in the form of shortwave electromagnetic waves from its photosphere. (surface of the Sun) • This energy is received at the surface of the ocean. Additionally, some energy is received from below the ocean’s bottom and through the compression of seawater. 1. Latitudes • The temperature of surface water decreases as you move from the equator towards the poles. • This is due to the Sun’s rays becoming more slanted, resulting in a decrease in the amount of sunlight reaching the water in polar regions. • However, the poles in both hemispheres, the temperature of surface water becomes higher than the air temperature. 2. Unequal Distribution of Land and Water • In the northern hemisphere, the oceans receive more heat because they come into contact with a larger amount of land compared to the oceans in the southern hemisphere. • As a result, the surface water in the northern hemisphere tends to have a higher temperature than in the southern hemisphere. • The isotherms in the northern hemisphere are irregular and do not follow latitudes due to the presence of both warm and cold land masses. 3. Prevailing Wind • The distribution of ocean water temperature is significantly influenced by wind direction. • When winds blow from the land towards the oceans and seas, they push warm surface water away from the coast, causing cold bottom water to rise up from below in a process called upwelling. • Upwelling is most likely to occur when winds blow parallel to the shore. The water that rises to the surface is usually colder and has more nutrients than the surface water it replaces. • These nutrients "fertilize" the surface waters, making them more biologically productive. Areas where upwelling is common are often good fishing grounds. • This leads to a longitudinal variation in temperature as warm water is replaced by cold water. • In contrast, when onshore winds blow towards the coast, they cause warm water to accumulate near the coast, resulting in an increase in temperature. 4. Ocean Currents. • Surface temperatures of the oceans are regulated by warm and cold ocean currents. • Warm currents increase the temperature in the regions they pass through, while cold currents decrease the temperature. • For instance, the North Atlantic Current (warm) and (Labrador cold). 5. Albedo • The reflectivity of the sea, known as Albedo, varies with angle of incoming sunlight. Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Temperature Horizontal Distribution of Temperature • On average, the surface water temperature of the oceans is 26.7°C (80°F), gradually decreasing from the equator towards the poles. • In the northern hemisphere, the oceans tend to have a higher average temperature compared to the southern hemisphere. • The average annual temperature of the Pacific Ocean is slightly higher than that of the Atlantic Ocean (16. 1 °C or 60°F) and the Indian Ocean (17°C or 60. °F). • The surface water temperature of the oceans is higher than the air temperature above the ocean surface, indicating that the ocean surface releases heat to the atmosphere. Vertical Distribution of Temperature Solar Penetration and Oceanic Zones Solar Penetration: • Sunlight can penetrate the ocean up to a maximum depth of approximately 200 meters. Heat Transmission : • Below the sunlit layer, heat is transferred downwards mainly through conduction. • Sunlight is able to penetrate up to a depth of 20 meters in the ocean and rarely goes beyond 200 meters Oceanic Zones: • The upper surface of the ocean, known as the Photic or Euphotic zone, extends up to a depth of 200 meters and is where solar radiation is received. • Stretches from 200 m. to the ocean floor and is devoid of sunlight. Characteristics : Non-Uniform temperature decreases : • As depth increases, ocean temp. generally decline, though not uniform. Beyond a depth of 2000 meters, temp. variation is minimal. Temperature stability : • Temperature fluctuations on a daily and yearly basis dissipate beyond depths of 5 fathoms (30 feet) and 100 fathoms ( 600 feet) • The rate of temp. decrease with depth is steeper near the equator compared to the pole. OCEANIC ZONE • Benthic Zone : It is the ocean bottom, across all depths. • Pelagic Zone : The open ocean water above the benthic zone, subdivided 1. Neritic Zone : Extends from the high tide line to depths less than 600 feet, covering the continental shelf. 2. Oceanic Zone –Beyond 600 feet deep classified into several layers : a. Epipelagic zone (Sunlight Zone ) : Reaches down to about 200 m. receiving enough sunlight to support photosynthesis. • Temp. in this zone can vary widely from 40d. C near the surface to -3 d C. at its depth limit. b. Mesopelagic Zone ( Twilight Zone) : • Extends from 200 m. to around 1000 m. with minimal light penetration and temp. ranging from 5d. C to 4 d. C. c. Bathypelagic Zone (Mid night Zone ): Below 1000 m. where no light penetrates and the water remains consistently cold, typically between 0d. C and 6d. C. The General Distribution of Salinity in the Ocean Salinity of Ocean Water • The salinity of sea water refers to the overall weight of dissolved salts in one kilogram of sea water. • Salinity is measured in units of g/kg, often denoted as p.p.t. (Parts per thousand) or ‰ (per mil). • On average, sea water contains approximately 3½ percent salt, meaning that every 1,000 grams of sea water contains nearly 35 grams of salt. • Out of the total salt content, sea water consists of about 77% sodium chloride or common salt. • The Salinity levels affect the freezing point of seawater, higher salinity results in a lower freezing point. The Boiling point of seawater increases with salinity. • Salinity impacts the rate of evaporation, with higher salinity waters exhibiting lower evaporation rates compared to less saline waters. • Highest salinity in water bodies Lake Van in Turkey , Dead Sea, Great Salt lake. Significant salts in the Ocean • Sodium Chloride • Magnesium Chloride • Calcium Sulphate • Magnesium Sulphate • Potassium Sulphate • Calcium Carbonate Factors Affecting Distribution of Salinity of Ocean Water Evaporation • Areas near the tropics have higher salinity compared to the equator due to the high rate of evaporation in these regions. • This is particularly true when dry air is present over the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Precipitation • Precipitation and salinity have an inverse relationship. In other words, when precipitation is high, salinity is low, and vice versa. • This is why areas with high rainfall, like the equatorial zone, tend to have lower salinity compared to regions with low rainfall, such as the sub-tropical high pressure belts. Influx of river water • The rivers transport salt from the land to the oceans. However, when large and voluminous rivers flow into the oceans, they bring a significant amount of water, which leads to a reduction in salinity at their mouths. Atmospheric Pressure and Wind Direction • The salinity of the ocean’s surface water rises under anticyclone conditions of stable air and high temperature. • High pressure zones in the subtropics are examples of these circumstances. • Winds also aid in the redistribution of salt in the oceans and by driving salty water to less salty places, which causes the former to become less salty and the latter to become saltier. • These areas are known as upwelling regions because they see the replacement of saline surface water with substantially less saline subsurface water. Impact of Ocean Currents • Through the mixing of seawaters, ocean currents influence the regional distribution of salinity. • Warm equatorial currents transport salt away from the continents’ western coasts and collect it along their eastern coastlines. Horizontal Distribution of Salinity Higher Salinity Near Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn • The temperature near the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn is very high. • Evaporation is very high near the tropics because the sky is usually clear and the oceans are exposed to the onshore trade winds. • This causes concentration of salts. The salinity of seas and oceans in these regions is very high. Lower Salinity in Equatorial Regions • In the equatorial region, the salinity is comparatively low due to the higher amount of rainfall. This region is impacted by various large rivers that bring fresh water into the ocean. • The combination of increased rainfall, higher relative humidity, cloud cover, and the influx of fresh water prevents significant evaporation, resulting in lower salinity levels. Lowest Salinity in Pole ward Region • The melting of ice provides the fresh water which leads to decrease the salinity in the polar region.
Vertical Distribution of Salinity
Salinity Increases with Increasing Depth • Salinity tends to rise as the depth increases in high latitudes. However, in middle latitudes, this trend is limited to a depth of 200 fathoms from the surface, after which salinity decreases with increasing depth. • This distribution varies significantly depending on geographical location, local weather condition and the depth profile of the specific body of water. • The Halocline is a layer within the water column where there is a rapid change in salinity with depth. this layer is between the freshwater and salt water. Salt Budget / Salt Cycle • Moving water including ground water, dissolves and carries minerals from rocks through surface erosion. • This mineral rich water eventually flows into rivers and streams that discharge into the oceans, contributing to the overall salinity of the ocean waters. • Some salts settle on the seabed through sedimentation and gradually turn into mineralized rocks. • Salt is aerosolized from ocean waters by wind, dispersing it into the atmosphere. This airborne salt is eventually deposited back onto land through precipitation. • The salinity level of ocean water affects its rate of evaporation, with higher salinity generally leading to slower evaporation rates. • variation of salinity contribute the development of ocean currents by creating density gradient that drive the movt. Of water.
