TELECOMMUNICATION AND

NETWORKS I

INTRODUCTION TO LOCAL AREA NETWORK AND WIDE AREA NETWORK

MR. ADEBOWALE Q R

WEEK ONE
INTRODUCTION TO LAN AND WAN

Why do we need a Network

What are the components of a
Network
What are the types of Network:
LAN, MAN & WAN
What is Node
How nodes are linked:
communications media
 CLIENT RECEIVES A DATA
Network Terminologies
 Workstations
 Clients and Hosts
 Servers: Allows lot of users to access information.
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
HOSTS GIVES THE DATA

Wireless
NIC

This is inserted inside the computer on the motherboa

Clients and Hosts

USERS

WEBSITES

SERVER
PARTS OF NETWORK
HOW THE INTERNET WORKS
CLIENTS AND HOSTS
PROTOCOLS
TOPOLOGY \ LAYOUT
 BUS
 CONSIDERING THE COST OF EQUIPMENTS
 EASE OF MAINTAINANANCE
 TERMINATORS MUST BE USED AT THE END TERMINAL OF THE CABLE SO
THE SIGNAL PROPAGATING ON THE MEDIUM DOES NOT GET MIRRORED
BACK SO AS TO AVOID DUPLICATES OF INFORMATION.
ADVANTAGES: COST EFFECTIVE
DISADVANTAGES
 IT BREAKS VERY EASY.
USAGE:
 DECENT FOR SMALL HOMES OR OFFICES
RING TOPOLOGY
 IT ITERCONNECTS ALL NODES ON THE NETWORK IN A RING FORMAT.
 Advantages: It can accommodate more data flow
 Additional components does not affect the performance of the
network
 Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between
source and destination.
 Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is
better than that of bus topology

If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets

affected.
 Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different
components.
STAR TOPOLOGY
ADVANTAGES
 IT IS EASY TO EXPAND
 IT IS COST EFFECTIVE
 EASY TROUBLESHOOTING
DRAWBACKS
 IT IS DEPENDENT ON A CENTRAL NODE.
 It is depended on capacity of the central
node to add more devices.
MESH TOPOLOGY
 All nodes on mesh topology are interconnected together
 Two types: Partial and Full Mesh
 Advantages: It can handle high amount of network traffic
 A broken node on the network would not disrupt data
transmission.
 Additional introduction of new nodes will not affect network.
connection but improve network traffic.
 Disadvantages
 Not easily managed.
 It requires more capital.
All of the technologies are used to
carry data traffics over the WANs
Device used in wide Area
Networking
The use of optical fiber for WAN
How to computer networks can be categorized
Host to Host
Geography proximity
Signaling method

Classifying network based on host to host : peer to peer

Host on peer to peer has no specific roles they play, all host
provides services and also consumes services.
Advantages of Peer to peer: It is very easy to implement
also inexpensive.
Drawbacks: it is not scalable; harder to manage when it
grows
Client-Server: the client consumes services while the server
provides services.
TELECOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS I
CIRCUIT SWITCHING & PACKET SWITCHING NETWORKS

MR. ADEBOWALE Q.R

WEEK TWO
 SWITCHING TECHNIQUE
 There are various number of devices that are not
directly connected together and there is need to
communicate with each other. The technique used
in the exchange of information from the source to
the destination is known as SWITCHING
TECHNIQUE.
 This technique is broadly divided into two parts:
 Circuit and Packet Switching
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
 Why Circuit Switching
 Switched Communication Network
 Circuit Switching Fundamentals:
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Switching Concepts:
 Space division switching :
 Crossbar switches
 Time division switching
 Routing in circuit switched networks
 Signaling in circuit switched networks
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
 On completion, the student will be able to:
 Understand the need for circuit switching
 Specify the components of a switched communication
network
 Understand how circuit switching takes place
 Understand how switching takes place using space-division
and time-division switching
 Understand how routing is performed
 Understand how signaling is performed
 INTRODUCTION

 Lets look into how two devices perform

communication when there are many devices
 One alternative is to establish point-to-point
communication between each pair of devices
using mesh topology
 But, mesh topology is impractical for large
number of devices
 A better way of exchanging information is to
use switching techniques leading to switched
communication network
Switched Communication Networks
 The end devices that wants to communicate on the network are called
stations. The switching devices are called nodes.
 The network topology is not regular.
 It uses FDM or TDM for the node to node communication.
 It has a better network reliability due to the presence of multiple paths
between the source and destination.
 The nodes are also refers to as dumb nodes because they are not
concerned about the content of the data, the send as quickly as they
receive.
 The switched communication network purpose is to provide a
switching facility that will move data from node to node until its get to
its destination
SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

 Circuit Switching: communication through circuit switching implies that there is a

dedicated communication path between the source and destination
 The path is a connected sequence of links between network nodes
 On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the connection
The circuit switching involves three important phases
Circuit Establishment
Data Transfer
Circuit disconnect
 It was originally developed for handling voice traffic, but is now also used for data
traffic.
 Once the circuit is established, the network is transparent to the users
 Information is transmitted at a fixed rate with no delay other than that required for
propagation through the communication medium dependent on the medium and
distance
Circuit Switching Continues…
 Advantages:
 Fixed bandwidth, guaranteed capacity (no congestion)
 Low variance in end-to-end delay (constant delay)
 Disadvantages:
 Circuit establishment and circuit disconnect introduces extra overhead and
delay
 Constant data rate from source to destination
 Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of the connection, even if no
data is being transferred.
 For voice connection, utilization is typically high
 Inefficient for bursty data traffic. In a typical user/host data connection, line
utilization is poor.
 Other users cannot use it even if it is free of traffic.
Switching Node
 Considering the operation of a single circuit switched node
comprising a collection of stations attached to a central
switching unit, which establishes a dedicated path between
any two devices that wish to communicate.
 Major elements of a single-node network
Digital switch: provides a transparent (full duplex) signal
path between any pair of attached devices.
Network interface: represents the functions hardware needed
to connect digital devices to the network. e.g telephone.
Control unit: establishes, maintains and tears down a
connection.
Space Division Switching
 The switching can be done in number of ways, it was
 Originally developed for the analog environment, and
has been carried over to the digital domain.
 In a space division switch, the signal paths are
physically separate from one another (divided in
space).
 Essentially a crossbar matrix: it uses electro-
mechanical relays and micro switches
Space Division Switching
 The basic building block of the switch is a metallic crosspoint or
semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit
i.e. the control unit performs the function of the digital switch and the
digital switch of the space division switching here Is the crossbar. The
cross has the a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate.
 The electromechanical switches were not reliable because when
bulky, it consumes a lot of power but due to the advancement of
technology, crossbar switches can be implemented with the help
power semiconductor devices
 Xillinx crossbar switch using FPGAs? Field programmable gate arrays
 Based on reconfigurable routing infrastructure
 High speed high capacity non-blocking switches based on FPGAs
 Sizes varying from 64X64 to 1024X1024 with data rate of 200Mbps
A CROSSBAR SWITCH

Micro
Switch
Limitations of crossbar switch
 The number of crosspoints grows with the square of the number of attached stations.
 costly for a large switch.
 The failure of a crosspoint prevents connection between the two devices whose lines
intersect at that crosspoint.
 The crosspoint are inefficiently utilized
 Only a small fraction are engaged even if all of the attached devices are active
 Solution is to build multistage space division switches
Multistage Switches
 There is more than one path through the
network to connect two endpoints, thereby
increasing reliability.
 Multistage switches may lead to blocking
 The problem may be tackled by increasing
the number or size of the intermediate
switches, which also increases the cost.
Blocking and Non blocking networks
 An important characteristics of a circuit-switch node is whether it is blocking or non-
blocking
 A blocking network is one which the node is unable to connect two stations because all
possible paths between them are already in use.
 A non-blocking network permits all stations to be connected at once and grants all
possible connection requests as long as the called party is free.
 For a network that supports voice only, a blocking configuration may be acceptable
because most calls are of short duration.
 But, for data applications where a connection can stay active for hours, non-blocking
configuration is desirable
Time Division Switching
 Both voice and data can be transmitted using digital signals.
 All modern circuit switches use digital time-division
multiplexing (TDM) technique for establishing and maintaining
circuits.
Synchronous TDM allows multiple low-speed bit streams to
share a high-speed line.
 A set of inputs is sampled in a round robin manner. The samples
are organized serially into slots (channels) to form a recurring
frame of slots
During successive time slots, different I/O pairings are enabled,
allowing a number of connections to be carried over the shared
bus.
Time Division Switching Continues…
 To keep up with the input lines, the data rate on the bus must be high enough so that
the slots recur sufficiently frequently.
 For 100 full=duplex lines at 19.200 Kbps, the data rate on the bus must be greater
than 1.92 Mbps
 The source-destination pairs corresponding to all active connections are stored in the control
memory.
 Thus, the slots need not specify the source &destination addresses.
4 2
 De-multiplexers
Multiplexer
s
Routing in Circuit-Switched Networks
 In large circuit-switched networks, connections
often require a path through more than one
switches
 Basic objective: Efficiency and Resilience
 Two basic approaches:
 Static
 Dynamic
Static Routing
 Routing function in public switched telecommunication
networks (PSTN) has been traditionally quite simple and
static.
 Switches are organized as a tree structure.
 To add some resilience to the network, additional high-
usage trunks are added that cut across the tree structure to
connect exchanges with high volumes of traffic between
them. Some redundancies.
 Limitations
 Cannot adapt to changing conditions
 Leads to congestion in case of failure
Dynamic Routing
 To overcome the limitations of static routing and to cope with growing demands of
users, all providers presently use a dynamic approach.
 Routing decisions are influenced by current traffic conditions.
 Switching nodes have a peer relationship with each other rather than a hierarchical
one.
 Routing is more complex and more flexible
 Two techniques:
 Alternate Routing
 Adaptive Routing
Alternate Routing Approach
 The possible routes to be used between two end
offices are predetermined.
 It is the responsibility of the originating switch
to select the appropriate route for each call
In practice, usually a different set of pre-
planned routes is used for different time periods
Takes advantage of different traffic patterns in
different time zones and different times of day.
Adaptive Routing Approach
 It is designed to enable switches to react to changing
traffic patterns on the network.
 Greater management overhead (switches must
exchange information).
 Has the potential for more effectively optimizing the
use of network resources
 Example: Dynamic traffic management
 A central controller collects data at the interval of
10 seconds to determine preferred alternate routes.
Control Signaling
 Apart from routing, the switch nodes must send control
signaling in other to:
 To manage the network and by which calls are established,
maintained and terminated.
 Signaling classifications:
 Supervisory: gives availability of resources
 Address: different telephone numbers or address to be sent
 Call-information: either busy or not
 Network Management: use for maintenance and
termination.
Signaling Techniques
 In-channel
 In-band: Same band of frequencies used by voice
signals are used to transmit control signals.
 Out-of-band: Uses different part of the frequency band
but uses the same facilities as the voice signal
 Common-channel
 Dedicated signaling are used to transmit control
signals and are common to a number of voice
channels
Review Questions
 What are the three steps involved in data communication through circuit switching?
 Mention the key advantages and disadvantages of circuit switching technique.
 Why data communication through circuit switching is not efficient?
 Compare the performance of space-division single-stage switch with multi-stage switch
 Distinguish between in-channel and common-channel signaling techniques used in
circuit switched networks.
TELECOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS I
CIRCUIT SWITCHING & PACKET SWITCHING NETWORKS

MR. ADEBOWALE Q.R

WEEK THREE
PACKET SWITCHING

Outline of the Lecture

 Limitations of Circuit Switching
 Message switching concepts
 Packet switching concepts
 Packet switching techniques:
Virtual circuit
Datagram
 Datagram vs virtual circuit
 Circuit switching vs packet switching
Problems with circuit switching
 Network resources are dedicated to a particular
connection,
 Two shortcomings for data communication:
 In a typical user/host data connection, line
utilization is very low: even for voice and when
it is bursty
 Provides facility for data transmission at a
constant rate: does not allow variable data rates
 Limits the utility of the method.
MESSAGE SWITCHING
 Basic idea: Each network node receives and stores the
message:
 Determines the next leg of the route and Queues the message
to go out on that link.: stored and forward approach, nodes are
provides with buffers.
 Advantages: Line efficiency is greater (sharing of links), not
dedicated.
 Data rate conversion is possible. From source to destination,
variable data rates
 Even under heavy traffic, packets are accepted, possibly with
a greater delivery delay, also message priorities can be used.
 Disadvantages

When a message of
large size is sent
through the network, it
monopolizes the link
and the storage which
reduces the efficiency
of the network. And
the solution to this is
Packet Switching
PACKET SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

 It is a new form of architecture for long distance data communication (1970).

 It has evolved over time
 Basic technology not changed
 Packet switching remains one of the few effective technologies for long data
communication.
 How it is done:
 Data are transmitted in short packets (few Kbytes)
 A longer message is broken into a series of packets
 Every packet contains some control information in its header (routing and other purposes)
PACKET SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

 As we now know that packet switching network breaks up a message

into chunks of packets, two approaches are used for handling of those
packets.
 Virtual Circuit
 Datagram
 Virtual Circuit Approach: A preplanned route is established before
packets are sent
 A call Request and Call Accept packets are used to establish the
connection
 The route is fixed for the duration of the logical connection (like circuit
switching)
 Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier as well as data.
 A Clear Request packet issued by one of the two stations terminates the
Virtual Circuit Approach
 Advantages: the packets can go parallel during the transmission
of packets.
 Main characteristics: Route between stations is setup prior to
data transfer
 A packet is buffered at each node, and it is queued for output
over a line. Due to its smaller nature, it does monopolize the
buffer, larger storage and does not take long transmission time.
 A data packet needs to carry only the virtual circuit identifier for
effecting routing decisions.
 Intermediate nodes take no routing decisions
 Often provides sequencing and error control.
Datagram Approach
 Each packet is treated independently, with
no reference to packets that have gone
before.
 Every intermediate node has to take routing
decisions
 Every packet contains source and
destination addresses
 Intermediate nodes maintain routing tables
Datagram Approach: How it works
 Advantages of Datagram Approach
 Call setup phase is avoided which makes it faster
 Because it is more primitive, it is more flexible
 Congestion/failed link can be avoided i.e. it is more
reliable
 Problems:
 Packets may be delivered out of order
 If a node crashes momentarily, all of its queued packets
are lost
Datagram Vs Virtual Circuit
 In virtual circuit:
 Node need not decide route
 More difficult to adopt to congestion
 Maintains sequence order
 All packets are sent through the same preplanned route
 In datagram:
 Each packet is treated independently
 Call setup phase is avoided
 Inherently more flexible and reliable
COMPARISON
Circuit Switching Datagram Packet Virtual Circuit Packet
Dedicated path No dedicated path No dedicated path; the path
can be shared.
Path established for entire Route established for each Route established for entire
conversation packet; separately conversation
Call setup delay Packet transmission delay Call setup delay, Packet
transmission delay
Overload may block call setup Overload increases packet Overload may block call setup
delay; packet will still be and increases packet delay
accepted and send inventually
No speed or code conversion Speed or code conversion is Speed or code conversion
possible
Fixed bandwidth Dynamic bandwidth Dynamic bandwidth
No overhead bits after call set Overhead bits in each packet; Overhead bits in each packet
up in the case of routing.
Review Questions
 How the drawback of circuit switching is overcome in
message switching
 What is the drawback of message switching and how
is it overcome in packet switching
 What are the key differences between datagram and
virtual circuit packet switching.
 Distinguish between circuit switching and virtual
circuit packet switching
 How packet size affects the transmission time in a
packet switching network
 Mathematics of computing and data representation
Data Representation in Computer Systems
The atomic unit of data in computer systems is the bit, which is actually an
acronym that stands for BInary digiT. It can hold only 2 values or states: 0 or 1,
true or false, therefore it can carry the smallest amount of meaningful information
possible. Although a bit is small and simple, it can be used to represent any kind
of information by simply using many of them. This is similar to the way a few
symbols of the alphabet can describe virtually anything. The number of possible
values that can be expressed with n bits grows very fast as n increases.
There are various ways in which computers can store and manipulate numbers and
characters:

I. Bit: The most basic unit of information in a digital computer is called a bit, which is
a contraction of binary digit.
II. Byte: In 1964, the designers of the IBM System/360 main frame computer
established a convention of using groups of 8 bits as the basic unit of addressable
computer storage. They called this collection of 8 bits a byte.
III. Word: Computer words consist of two or more adjacent bytes that are
sometimes addressed and almost always are manipulated collectively. The word size
represents the data size that is handled most efficiently by a particular architecture.
Words can be 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits.
IV. Nibbles: Eight-bit bytes can be divided into two 4-bit halves call nibbles.

Positional Numbering Systems

Radix (or Base): The general idea behind positional numbering systems is that
a numeric value is represented through increasing powers of a radix (or base).
Representing natural numbers (positive integers, commonly called unsigned integers
in CS) is very easy. It is exactly the same as with numbers in the decimal system that
humans use: we simply place the digits horizontally one after the other and the
position of each digit determines its significance. The last digit on the right hand
side is called the least-significant while the leftmost bit is called the most-significant.

System Radix Allowable Digits

---------------------------------------------------------------------
Decimal 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Binary 2 0, 1
Octal 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
 TABLE 1 Some Number to Remember

EXAMPLE 1
Three numbers represented as powers of a radix.
243.5110 = 2 * 102 + 4 * 101 + 3 * 100 + 5 * 10-1 + 1 * 10-2
2123 = 2 * 32 + 1 * 31 + 2 * 30 = 2310
101102 = 1 * 24 + 0 * 23 + 1 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 0 * 20 = 2210

Although we can use as many digits as we want/need when we do calculations,

computers cannot handle infinitely long sequences of bits directly in hardware; it
can be done in software with hardware support in the form of special instructions.
Therefore, computers operate on data types which are fixed-length bit vectors. Note
that this fixed-length constraint applies to all types of data, not just numbers.
The ‘natural’ unit of access in a computer is called a word. Nearly all
instructions operate on words. Most computers today use 32-bit words but this is
currently being changing to 64. Another commonly used data type is byte, which
is 8 bits. Other common data types include short, 16 bits, and long, which is 64
bits.
The fixed length of data types can lead to problems when operating on numbers,
as the result of an operation may be too large to be represented by the number
of bits available to a specific data type. This condition is called over-flow and it
is usually the responsibility of the program (or the operating system) to detect and
deal with them. When a number overflows, it ‘wraps around’ and appears much
smaller than what it is supposed to be. For this reason computer arithmetic using n
bits is sometimes called modulo 2n arithmetic, i.e. it appears as if each number has
been divided by 2n and what the computer stores is the remainder.
 Converting Between Bases

There are two important groups of number base conversions:

I. Conversion of decimal numbers to base-r numbers
II. Conversion of base-r numbers to decimal numbers

Converting Unsigned Whole Numbers

EXAMPLE 3
Convert 10410 to base 3 using the division-remainder method.
10410 = 102123

3|104 2
3| 34 1
3| 11 2
3| 3 0
3|1 1
0

EXAMPLE 4
Convert 14710 to binary
14710 = 100100112

2|147 1
2| 73 1
2|36 0
2|18 0
2|9 1
2|4 0
2|2 0
2|1 1
0

A binary number with N bits can represent unsigned integer from 0 to 2n – 1.

Converting Fractions

EXAMPLE 6
Convert 0.3437510 to binary with 4 bits to the right of the binary point.
Reading from top to bottom, 0.3437510 = 0.01012 to four binary places. We simply
discard (or truncate) our answer when the desired accuracy has been achieved.

0.3437510 = 0.01012

0.34375
X 2
 0.68750
X 2
1.37500
X 2
0.75000
X 2
1.50000

EXAMPLE 7
Convert 31214 to base 3

First, convert to decimal 31214 = 21710

Then convert to base 3 21710 =
220013
We have 31214 = 220013

Converting between Power-of-Two Radices

EXAMPLE 8
Convert 1100100111012 to octal and hexadecimal.

110 010 011 1012 = 62358 Separate into groups of 3 for octal conversion

1100 1001 11012 = C9D16 Separate into groups of 4 for octal conversion

Signed Integer Representation

By convention, a “1” in the high-order bit indicate a negative number.

Signed Magnitude

A signed-magnitude number has a sign as its left-most bit (also referred to as the
high-order bit or the most significant bit) while the remaining bits represent the
magnitude (or absolute value) of the numeric value.
N bits can represent –(2n-1 - 1) to 2n-1 -1

EXAMPLE 9
Add 010011112 to 001000112 using signed-magnitude arithmetic.

010011112 (79) + 001000112 (35) = 011100102 (114)

There is no overflow in this example

EXAMPLE 10
Add 010011112 to 011000112 using signed-magnitude arithmetic.

An overflow condition and the carry is discarded, resulting in an incorrect sum.

 We obtain the erroneous result of
010011112 (79) + 011000112 (99) = 01100102 (50)

EXAMPLE 11
Subtract 010011112 from 011000112 using signed-magnitude arithmetic.

We find 0110000112 (99) - 010011112 (79) = 000101002 (20) in signed-magnitude

representation.

The signed magnitude has two representations for zero, 10000000 and 00000000.

Note that all positive numbers start with 0 and all negative start with 1, exactly
as with the sign-magnitude representation. This is very convenient as we can rapidly
determine whether a number is positive or negative. Although this asymmetry can be
confusing at times, circuits implementing 2’s complement arithmetic are the same as
those for unsigned numbers, which makes 2’s complement a very good representation
for signed numbers.
To negate a number x, regardless if it is negative or positive, we simply invert (toggle
0 to 1 and vice versa) all its bits and add 1 (at the least significant bit - LSB). A faster,
but trickier, method is to start from the LSB and scan the number toward the left end. While
we encounter zeros, we do nothing; the first one seen, is also left untouched, but from then
on all bits are inverted.
With 2’s complement numbers represented differently than unsigned numbers, the
conditions and the behaviour of overflow change too. A positive over-flow, i.e. a positive
number becoming too large, will produce a negative number, since it will start with a 1.
Likewise a negative overflow produces a positive number. This explains what happens in
some programming languages when you use an integer to keep a running sum for quite
a long time and eventually (and surprisingly) you get a negative result. Note that Java
throws an exception when overflow happens.
In many situations a 2’s complement number needs to be converted to a Sign-
extension larger data type, for example a signed byte converted into a 16-bit short.
This is done by taking the most-significant bit of the byte (the origin) and
replicating it to fill the unused bits of the 16-bit short (the target data type). This
operation is called sign extension. Sign-extension is based on the fact that as adding
0’s to the left of a positive number does not change its value, adding 1’s to the left of a
negative number, does not change its value too.
A useful operation with binary numbers is shifting, i.e. moving the bits of a data
type to the left or to the right. When shifting left, 0’s fill up the empty bit places.
Note that this operation is, in effect, a multiplication; when a number is shifted left by
n bits, it is multiplied by 2n.
When shifting right a 2’s complement number, it makes sense to fill in the empty
spaces with copies of the MSB, for the same reason as with sign extension. This operation
is effectively a division by a power of 2. Because shifts are also useful for processing
data types other 2’s complement numbers, most processors have another version of shift-
right where the empty spaces are filled in with 0’s. To differentiate the two, the former is
usually called arithmetic shift right, while the latter is called logical shift right.
 Complement Systems
Since we do not have any symbols other than 0, 1 available (i.e. no ‘-’, ’+’, etc.),
we have to agree to a convention for representing negative numbers using bits. One
such convention is the sign-magnitude representation where the first bit (the leftmost)
holds the number’s sign: 1 for negative, 0 for positive. This representation complicates
the design of circuits implementing basic operations, such as addition, therefore is no
longer used in modern computers to represent integers.
Instead of sign-magnitude, a representation, called 2’s complement, is used. The
idea of how to represent negative numbers in 2’s complement comes from the result one
gets when subtracting an unsigned number from a smaller unsigned number. For
example, with 4-bit data types, subtracting 0001 from 0000 produces a result of 11112,
thus 1111 represents -1. In general for an n bit data type in 2’s complement, the most
significant bit has a negative weighting, while all the others have the usual positive
weightings.

I. One’s Complement
This sort of bit-flipping is very simple to implement in computer hardware.

EXAMPLE 12
Express 2310 and -910 in 8-bit binary one’s complement form.

2310 = + (000101112) = 000101112

-910 = - (000010012) = 111101102

The primary disadvantage of one’s complement is that we still have two

representations for zero: 00000000 and 11111111

II. Two’s Complement

Find the one’s complement and add 1.

EXAMPLE 13
Express 2310, -2310, and -910 in 8-bit binary two’s complement form.

2310 = + (000101112) = 000101112

-2310 = - (000101112) = 111010002 + 1 = 111010012
-910 = - (000010012) = 111101102 + 1 = 111101112

EXAMPLE 14
Add 910 to -2310 using two’s complement arithmetic.

000010012 (910) + 111010012 (-2310) = 111100102 (-1410)

00001001 <= Carries

000010012 ( 9)
+ 111010012 +(-23)
111100102 (-14)
 EXAMPLE 15
Find the sum of 2310 and -910 in binary using two’s complement arithmetic.

000101112 (2310) + 111101112 (-910) = 000011102 (1410)

11110111 <= Carries

000101112 ( 23)
+ 111101112 +(- 9)
000011102 ( 14)

A Simple Rule for Detecting an Overflow Condition: If the carry in the sign bit equals
the carry out of the bit, no overflow has occurred. If the carry into the sign bit is different
from the carry out of the sign bit, over (and thus an error) has occurred.

EXAMPLE 16
Find the sum of 12610 and 810 in binary using two’s complement arithmetic.

011111102 (12610) + 000010002 (810) = 100001102 (-12210)

01111000 <= Carries

011111102 ( 126)
+ 000010002 +( 8)
100001102 (-122)

A one is carried into the leftmost bit, but a zero is carried out. Because these carries
are not equal, an overflow has occurred.

N bits can represent –(2n-1) to 2n-1 -1. With signed-magnitude number, for example, 4
bits allow us to represent the value -7 through +7. However using two’s complement,
we can represent the value -8 through +7.

Integer Multiplication and Division

For each digit in the multiplier, the multiplicand is “shifted” one bit to the left. When
the multiplier is 1, the “shifted” multiplicand is added to a running sum of partial products.

EXAMPLE 17
Find the product of 000001102 (610) and 000010112 (1110).
00000110 ( 6)
x 00001011 (11)

Multiplicand Partial Products

00000110 + 00000000 (1; add multiplicand and shift left)
00001100 + 00000110 (1; add multiplicand and shift left)

00011000 + 00010010 (0; Don’t add, just shift multiplicand left)

00110000 + 00010010 (1; add multiplicand and shift left)

 = 01000010 (Product: 6 X 11 = 66)

When the divisor is much smaller than the dividend, we get a condition known as divide
underflow, which the computer sees as the equivalent of division by zero.
Computer makes a distinction between integer division and floating-point division.

I. With integer division, the answer comes in two parts: a quotient and a remainder.
II. Floating-point division results in a number that is expressed as a binary fraction.
III. Floating-point calculations are carried out in dedicated circuits call floating-point
units, or FPU.

Unsigned Versus Signed Numbers

If the 4-bit binary value 1101 is unsigned, then it represents the decimal value 13, but
as a signed two’s complement number, it represents -3. C programming language has int
and unsigned int as possible types for integer variables. If we are using 4-bit unsigned
binary numbers and we add 1 to 1111, we get 0000 (“return to zero”). If we add 1 to the
largest positive 4-bit two’s complement number 0111 (+7), we get 1000 (-8).

Computers, Arithmetic, and Booth’s Algorithm

Consider the following standard pencil and paper method for multiplying two’s
complement numbers (-5 X -4):
1011 (-5)
x 1100 (-4)
+ 0000 (0 in multiplier means simple shift)
+ 0000 (0 in multiplier means simple shift)
+ 1011 (1 in multiplier means add multiplicand and shift)
+ 1011 (1 in multiplier means add multiplicand and shift)

10000100 (-4 X -5 = -124)

As obvious from example above, regular multiplication clearly yields the incorrect
result. However, Booth’s algorithm as one of the many arithmetic algorithms d o e s . In most
cases, Booth’s algorithm carries out multiplication faster and more accurately than naïve
pencil-and-paper methods. The general idea of Booth’s algorithm is to increase the speed
of a multiplication when there are consecutive zeros or ones in the multiplier. Let us consider
the following standard multiplication example (3 X 6):
0011 (3)
x 0110 (6)
+ 0000 (0 in multiplier means simple shift)
+ 0011 (1 in multiplier means add multiplicand and shift)
+ 0011 (1 in multiplier means add multiplicand and shift)
+ 0000 (0 in multiplier means simple shift)
 0010010 (3 X 6 = 18)

In Booth’s algorithm, if the multiplicand and multiplier are n-bit two’s complement
numbers, the result is a 2n-bit two’s complement value. Therefore, when we perform our
intermediate steps, we must extend our n-bit numbers to 2n-bit numbers. For example,
the 4-bit number 1000 (-8) extended to 8 bits would be 11111000.

Booth’s algorithm is interested in pairs of bits in the multiplier and proceed according to
the following rules:

I. If the current multiplier bit is 1 and the preceding bit was, we are at the
beginning of a string of ones, so subtract (10 pair) the multiplicand form the
product.
II. If the current multiplier bit is 0 and the preceding bit was 1, we are at the end of
a string of ones, so we add (01 pair) the multiplicand to the product.
III. If it is a 00 pair, or a 11 pair, do no arithmetic operation (we are in the middle of
a string of zeros or a string of ones). Simply shift. The power of the algorithm
is in this step: we can now treat a string of ones as a string of zeros and do nothing
more than shift.
0011 (3)
x 0110 (6)
+ 00000000 (00 = simple shift; assume a mythical 0 as the previous bit)
+ 11111101 (10 = subtract = add 1111 1101, extend sign)
+ 00000000 (11 simple shift)
+ 00000011 (01 = add )

01000010010 (3 X 6 = 18; 010 ignore extended sign bit that go beyond 2n)

010 extended sign bit that go beyond 2n is ignored.

EXAMPLE 18
(-3 X 5) Negative 3 in 4-bit two’s complement is 1101. Extended to 8 bits, it is
11111101. Its complement is 00000011. When we see the rightmost 1 in the multiplier, it
is the beginning of a string of 1s, so we treat it as if it were the string 10:
1101 (-3; for subtracting, we will add -3’s complement, or 00000011)
x 0101 (5)
+ 00000011 (10 = subtract 1101 = add 0000 0011)
+ 11111101 (01 = add 1111 1101 to product: note sign extension)
+ 00000011 (10 = subtract 1101 = add 0000 0011)
+ 11111101 (01 = add 1111 1101 to product)
 100111110001 (-3 X 5 = -15; using the 8 rightmost bits, 11110001 or -15)

Note that: Ignore extended sign bit that go beyond 2n.

Carry Versus Overflow

For unsigned numbers, a carry (out of the leftmost bit) indicates the total number of
bits was not large enough to hold the resulting value, and overflow has occurred. For signed
numbers, if the carry in to the sign bit and the carry (out of the sign bit) differ, then
overflow has occurred.

TABLE 2 Examples of Carry and Overflow in Signed Numbers

Binary Multiplication and Division Using Shifting

We can do binary multiplication and division by 2 very easily using an arithmetic

shift operation. A left arithmetic shift inserts a 0 in for the rightmost bit and shifts everything
else left one bit; in effect, it multiplies by 2. A right arithmetic shift shifts everything one
bit to the right, but copies the sign bit; it divides by 2

EXAMPLE 1 9 :
Multiply the value 11 (expressed using 8-bit signed two’s complement
representation) by 2.

We start with the binary value for 11:

00001011 (+11)
We shift left one place, resulting in:
00010110 (+22)
The sign bit has not changed, so the value is valid.

To multiply 11 by 4, we simply perform a left shift twice.

EXAMPLE 20:

Divide the value 12 (expressed using 8-bit signed two’s complement representation) by
2.
We start with the binary value for 12:
00001100 (+12)
We shift right one place, resulting in:
00000110 (+6)
(Remember, we carry the sign bit to the right as we shift.)
 To divide 12 by 4, we right shift twice.

Floating-Point Representation

In addition to integers, computers are also used to perform calculations with real
numbers. The representation of these numbers in computers is typically done using
the floating point data type. Real numbers can be represented in binary using the
form (−1)s × f × 2e. Therefore a floating point type needs to hold s (the sign), f and e.
Note that floating point numbers use sign-magnitude for the fraction part, f.
Under IEEE 754, the most prevalent floating point format, f is normalized before
storage, which means shifting the binary point so that there is one non-zero digit before
the binary point. For example, the value 3/4 is represented as 1.1 × 2−1. The value 1.1 is
known as the mantissa and the −1 as the exponent.
Because the non-zero digit before the binary point must always be a 1, it is not
necessary to store it. The 32-bit format uses one bit to store the sign of the number, 8
bits to store the exponent, and 23 bits to store the digits of the mantissa after the binary
point. In contrast, the 64-bit format uses 11 bits for the exponent, and 52 bits for the
mantissa, giving a greater range of numbers and more accuracy.
Arithmetic operations on floating point numbers can be performed in multiple steps
using integer arithmetic, shifting, etc. To speed them up, modern processors contain a
specialized floating point arithmetic unit and special instructions. Most processors also
provide a separate bank of registers for floating point numbers and there are instructions
to transfer values between these and the general purpose registers. The MIPS provides
add, subtract, multiply, divide, negate, absolute value and comparison instructions on
32-bit and on 64-bit floating point numbers, as well as instructions to convert numbers
between the 32 and 64-bit formats and between floating point and integer representations.

A Simple Model

In digital computers, floating-point number consist of three parts: a sign bit, an

exponent part (representing the exponent on a power of 2), and a fractional part called
a significand (which is a fancy word for a mantissa).

1 bit 5 bits 8 bits

Sign bit Exponent Significand

FIGURE 1 Simple Model Floating-Point Representation

 Floating-Point Errors

We intuitively understand that we are working in the system of real number. We

know that this system is infinite. Computers are finite systems, with finite storage. The more
bits we use, the better the approximation. However, there is always some element of
error, no matter how many bits we use.

The IEEE-754 Floating-Point Standard

The IEEE-754 single precision floating point standard uses bias of 127 over its 8-bit
exponent. An exponent of 255 indicates a special value. The double precision standard has
a bias of 1023 over its 11-bit exponent. The “special” exponent value for a double
precision number is 2047, instead of the 255 used by the single precision standard.

Special bit patterns in IEEE-754

Range, Precision, and Accuracy

The range of a numeric integer format is the difference between the largest and
smallest values that is can express. The precision of a number indicates how much information
we have about a value while accuracy refers to how closely a numeric representation
approximates a true value.

Additional Problems with Floating-Point Numbers

Because of truncated bits, you cannot always assume that a particular floating point
operation is commutative or distributive.

This means that we cannot assume:

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
or
a * (b + c) = ab + ac
 Character Codes

Human-understandable characters must be converted to computer-

understandable bit patterns using some sort of character encoding scheme.

Binary-Coded Decimal

Binary-coded Decimal (BCD) is a numeric coding system used primarily in IBM

mainframe and midrange systems in the 1950s and 1960s. BCD is very common in
electronics, particularly those that display numerical data, such as alarm clocks and
calculators. BCD encodes each digit of a decimal number into a 4-bit binary form. When
stored in an 8-bit byte, the upper nibble is called the zone and the lower part is called the
digit.

TABLE 2.5 Binary-Coded Decimal

EBCDIC
In 1964, BCD was extended to an 8-bit code, Extended Binary-Coded Decimal
Interchange Code (EBCDIC). EBCDIC was one of the first widely-used computer codes
that supported upper and lowercase alphabetic characters, in addition to special characters,
such as punctuation and control characters. EBCDIC and BCD are still in use by IBM
mainframes today.

ASCII

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a derivative of this

alphabet th at became the official standard in 1967.

Unicode

Unicode is a 16-bit alphabet that is downward compatible with ASCII and Latin-1
character set. Because the base coding of Unicode is 16 bits, it has the capacity to
encode the majority of characters used in every language of the world. Unicode is currently
the default character set of the Java programming language.

TABLE 3 Unicode Codespace

The Unicode codespace is divided into six parts. The first part is for Western
alphabet codes, including English, Greek, and Russian. The lowest-numbered Unicode
characters comprise the ASCII code. The highest provide for user-defined codes.
 Error Detection and Correction

No communications channel or storage medium can be completely error-free.

Network is responsible for transmission of data from one device to another device. The end
to end transfer of data from a transmitting application to a receiving application involves
many steps, each subject to error. With the error control process, we can be confident that
the transmitted and received data are identical. Data can be corrupted during transmission.
For reliable communication, error must be detected and corrected. Thus, error control is
the process of detecting and correcting both the bit level and packet level errors.

Error Detection ‐ Error detection as the process of detecting error during the
transmission between the sender and the receiver are of various types, which are:
• Parity checking

• Redundancy checking

• Checksum

Parity checking
Parity adds a single bit that indicates whether the number of 1 bits in the preceding data
is even or odd. If a single bit is changed in transmission, the message will change parity
and the error can be detected at this point. Parity checking is not very robust, since if the
number of bits changed is even, the check bit will be invalid and the error will not be
detected.

1. Single bit parity

2. Two dimension parity

Moreover, parity does not indicate which bit contained the error, even when it can
detect it. The data must be discarded entirely, and retransmitted completely. On a noisy
transmission medium a successful transmission could take a long time, or even never occur.
Parity does have the advantage, however, that it is about the best possible code that uses only
a single bit of space.

Redundancy
Redundancy allows a receiver to check whether received data was corrupted during
transmission. So that he can request a retransmission. Redundancy is the concept of using
extra bits for use in error detection. As shown in the figure sender adds redundant bits (R)
to the data unit and sends to receiver, when receiver gets bits stream and passes through
checking function. If no error then data portion of the data unit is accepted and redundant
bits are discarded, otherwise the sender is asked for the retransmission of the data.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) - CRC is a very efficient redundancy checking

technique. It is based on binary division of the data unit, the remainder of which (CRC) is
added to the data unit and sent to the receiver. The Receiver divides data unit by the same
divisor. If the remainder is zero then data unit is accepted and passed up the protocol stack,
otherwise it is considered as having been corrupted in transit.
Sequential steps in CRC are as follows:
 Sender’s steps

• Data unit is composite by number of 0s, which is one less than the divisor.

• Then it is divided by the predefined divisor using binary division technique. The
remainder is called CRC. CRC is appended to the data unit and is sent to the receiver.

Receiver’s steps.

• When data unit arrives followed by the CRC it is divided by the same divisor which
was used to find the CRC (remainder).
• If the remainder result in this division process is zero then it is error free data, otherwise
it is corrupted.

Checksum
Check sum is the third method for error detection mechanism. Checksum is used in the
upper layers, while Parity checking and CRC is used in the physical layer. Checksum is
also on the concept of redundancy.
In the checksum mechanism two operations to perform are:
1. Checksum generator
Sender uses checksum generator mechanism. First data unit is divided into equal
segments of n bits. Then all segments are added together using 1’s complement. Then
it complements ones again. It becomes Checksum and sends along with data unit.
Example 21:
If 16 bits 10001010 00100011 is to be sent to receiver.
So the checksum is added to the data unit and sends to the receiver. Final data unit is
10001010 00100011 01010000.
2. Checksum checker
Receiver receives the data unit and divides into segments of equal size of segments. All
segments are added using 1’s complement. The result is completed once again. If the
result is zero, data will be accepted, otherwise rejected.
Error Correction/Flow Control - Error control allows a receiver to reconstruct
the original information when it has been corrupted during transmission. CRC, Reed-
Soloman, and Hamming codes are three important error control codes.

1. Cyclic Redundancy Check

Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is a type of checksum used primarily in data

communications that determines whether an error has occurred within a large block or
stream of information bytes. By Arithmetic Modulo 2, the rules are as follows:

0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=0
 EXAMPLE 22:
Find the sum of 10112 and 1102 modulo 2. 10112 + 1102 = 11012 (mod 2)

Calculating and Using CRC

Suppose we want to transmit the information string: 10010112. The receiver and
sender decide to use the (arbitrary) polynomial pattern, 1011. The information string is
shifted left by one position less than the number of positions in the divisor. I =
10010110002 The remainder is found through modulo 2 division (at right) and added
to the information string: 10010110002 + 1002 = 10010111002. If no bits are lost or
corrupted, dividing the received information string by the agreed upon pattern will give
a remainder of zero. Real applications use longer polynomials to cover larger information
strings. A remainder other than zero indicates that an error has occurred in the
transmission. This method work best when a large prime polynomial is used. There are
four standard polynomials used widely for this purpose:

I. CRC-CCITT (ITU-T): X16 + X12 + X5 + 1

II. CRC-12: X12 + X11 + X3 + X2 + X + 1
III. CRC-16 (ANSI): X16 + X15 + X2 + 1
IV. CRC-32: X32 + X26 + X23 + X22 + X16 + X12 + X11 + X10 + X8 + X7 + X6 + X4 + X
+1

CRC-32 has been proven that CRCs using these polynomials can detect over 99.8%
of all single-bit errors.
 2. Reed-Soloman

A Reed-Soloman (RS) code can be thought of as a CRC that operates over entire
characters instead of only a few bits. For instance, if we expect errors to occur in blocks, then
we should use an error-correcting code that operates at a block level, as opposed to a
Hamming code, which operates at the bit level. RS codes, like CRCs, are systematic: The
parity bytes are append to a block of information bytes. RS (n, k) code are defined using
the following parameters:
I. s = The number of bits in a character (or “symbol”).
II. k = The number of s-bit characters comprising the data block.
III. n = The number of bits in the code word.
RS (n, k) can correct (n-k)/2 errors in the k information bytes. Reed-Soloman error-
correction algorithms lend themselves well to implementation in computer hardware. They
are implemented in high-performance disk drives for mainframe computers as well as
compact disks used for music and data storage.

3. Hamming Codes

Data communications channels are simultaneously more error-prone and more

tolerant of errors than disk systems. Hamming code use parity bits, also called check bits or
redundant bits. The final word, called a code word is an n-bit unit containing m data bits and
r check bits.
n=m+r
The Hamming distance between two code words is the number of bits in which two
code words differ.
10001001
10110001
*** Hamming distance of these two code words is 3
The minimum Hamming distance, D(min), for a code is the smallest Hamming distance
between all pairs of words in the code. Hamming codes can detect (D(min) - 1) errors and
correct [(D(min) – 1) / 2] errors.

EXAMPLE 23
00000
01011
10110
11101

D(min) = 3. Thus, this code can detect up to two errors and correct one single bit
error.

We are focused on single bit error. An error could occur in any of the n bits, so each
code word can be associated with n erroneous words at a Hamming distance of 1. Therefore,
we have n + 1 bit patterns for each code word: one valid code word, and n erroneous words.
With n-bit code words, we have 2n possible code words consisting of 2m data bits (where m
= n + r).
This gives us the inequality:
 (n + 1) * 2m < = 2n

Because m = n + r, we can rewrite the inequality as:

(m + r + 1) * 2m <= 2 m + r or
(m + r + 1) <= 2r
EXAMPLE 24:
Using the Hamming code and even parity, encode the 8-bit ASCII character K. (The high-
order bit will be zero.) Induce a single-bit error and then indicate how to locate the error.

m = 8, we have (8 + r + 1) <= 2r then we choose r = 4 Parity

bit at 1, 2, 4, 8

Char K 7510 = 010010112

1=1 5=1+4 9=1+8

2=2 6=2+4 10 = 2 + 8
3=1+2 7=1+2+4 11 = 1 + 2 + 8
4=4 8=8 12 = 4 + 8

We have the following code word as a result:

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Parity b1 = b3 + b5 + b7 + b9 + b11 =1+1+1+0+1=0

Parity b2 = b3 + b6 + b7 + b10 + b11 =1+0+1+0+1=1
Parity b4 = b5 + b6 + b7 + b12 =1+0+1+0=0
Parity b8 = b9 + b10 + b11 + b12 =0+0+1+0=1

Let’s introduce an error in bit position b9, resulting in the code word:
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Parity b1 = b3 + b5 + b7 + b9 + b11 =1+1+1+1+1=1 (Error, should be 0)
Parity b2 = b3 + b6 + b7 + b10 + b11 =1+0+1+0+1=1 (OK)
Parity b4 = b5 + b6 + b7 + b12 =1+0+1+0=0 (OK)
Parity b8 = b9 + b10 + b11 + b12 =1+0+1+0=0 (Error, should be 1)

We found that parity bits 1 and 8 produced an error, and 1 + 8 = 9, which in exactly
where the error occurred.
TELECOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS I
SIGNALS AND TRANSMISSION

MR. ADEBOWALE Q.R

WEEK FIVE
 Outline of the Lecture
 Concepts and Terminology
 Analog and Digital Data Transmission
 Transmission Impairments
 Channel Capacity
Concepts and Terminology

 Data transmission occurs between transmitter and receiver over some

transmission medium.
 Transmission media may be classified as guided or unguided. In both cases,
communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves.
 Direct link is used to refer to the transmission path between two devices in
which signals propagate directly from transmitter to receiver with no
intermediate devices, other than amplifiers or repeaters used to increase
signal strength
 A guided transmission medium is point to point if it provides a direct link
between two devices and those are the only two devices sharing the medium.
 A transmission may be simplex, half duplex, or full duplex. In simplex
transmission, signals are transmitted in only one direction; one station is
transmitter and the other is receiver. In half-duplex operation, both stations
may transmit, but only one at a time. In full-duplex operation, both stations
 Frequency, Spectrum, and Bandwidth
 The signal is a function of time, but it can also be expressed as a function
of frequency; that is, the signal consists of components of different
frequencies. i.e. time function of a signal is converted into sum of sine
waves of different frequencies and of which represent a frequency
components
 Time Domain Concepts Viewed as a function of time, an electromagnetic
signal can be either analog or digital. An analog signal is one in which the
signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time. In other words, there
are no breaks or discontinuities in the signal.
 A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a constant
level for some period of time and then abruptly changes to another
constant level.
 The simplest sort of signal is a periodic signal which means the same
signal pattern repeats over time.
Periodic
The spectrum of a signal is the range of
frequencies that it contains.
The bandwidth of a signal is the width of the
spectrum. Also, it is the spread of the
frequency components. One final term to
define is dc component. If a signal includes a
component of zero frequency, that component
is a direct current (dc) or constant component.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION

 Data is an entity that convey meaning, or information.

 Signals are electric or electromagnetic representations of data.
Signaling is the physical propagation of the signal along a suitable
medium. Transmission is the communication of data by the
propagation and processing of signals.
 Analog data
 Digital data: Frequency components of typical speech may be found
between approximately 100 Hz and 7 kHz. Although much of the
energy in speech is concentrated at the lower frequencies.
 Test have shown that frequencies below 600 or 700 Hz add very little
to the intelligibility of speech to the human ear.
Analog and Digital Signals

 this is the continuous waveforms of electromagnetic signals that is

propagated through transmission media.
 A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that may be
transmitted over a wire medium.
 For example, a constant positive voltage level may represent binary 0
and a constant
 negative voltage level may represent binary 1.
 The advantages of digital signaling are that it is generally cheaper than
analog signaling and is less susceptible to noise interference.
 Disadvantage: is that digital signals suffer more from attenuation than
do analog signals.
ATTENUATION OF DIGITAL SIGNALS
Analog and Digital Transmission
 Analog transmission is a means of transmitting analog signals without
regard to their content; the signals may represent analog data (e.g., voice)
or digital data (e.g., binary data that pass through a modem). In either case,
the analog signal will become weaker (attenuate) after a certain distance.
To achieve longer distances, the analog
 In other to achieve long distance communication, transmission system
includes amplifiers that boost the energy in the signal. Unfortunately, the
amplifier also boosts the noise components.
 With amplifiers cascaded to achieve long distances, the signal becomes
more and more distorted.
 For analog data, such as voice, quite a bit of distortion can be tolerated and
the data remain intelligible.
 However, for digital data, cascaded amplifiers will introduce errors.
Analog and Digital Transmission
 Digital transmission assumes a binary content to the
signal.
 A digital signal can be transmitted only a limited
distance before attenuation, noise, and other
impairments endanger the integrity of the data.
 To achieve greater distances, repeaters are used.
 A repeater receives the digital signal, recovers the
pattern of 1s and 0s, and retransmits a new signal.
Then, attenuation is overcome.
 Then, what is the preferred method of transmission?
Analog and Digital Transmission
 The answer being supplied by the telecommunications industry
and its customers is DIGITAL. Both long-haul
telecommunications facilities and intra-building services have
moved to digital transmission.
 Digital technology: The advent of large-scale integration (LSI)
and very-large scale integration (VLSI) technology has caused a
continuing drop in the cost and size of digital circuitry. Analog
equipment has not shown a similar drop.
 Data integrity: With the use of repeaters rather than amplifiers,
the effects of noise and other signal impairments are not
cumulative. Thus it is possible to transmit data longer distances
and over lower quality lines by digital means while maintaining
the integrity of the data.
Analog and Digital Transmission
 Security and privacy: Encryption techniques can be readily
applied to digital data and to analog data that have been digitized.
 Integration: By treating both analog and digital data digitally,
all signals have the same form and can be treated similarly
economies of scale and convenience can be achieved by
integrating voice, video, and digital data.
 Capacity utilization: It has become economical to build
transmission links of very high bandwidth, including satellite
channels and optical fiber. A high degree of multiplexing is
needed to utilize such capacity effectively, and this is more easily
and cheaply achieved with digital (time division) rather than
analog (frequency division).
TELECOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS I
SIGNALS AND TRANSMISSION

MR. ADEBOWALE Q.R

WEEK FIVE
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS AND CHANNEL CAPACITY

Outline of the Lecture

 Sources of impairment
 Attenuation and Unit Attenuation
 Bandwidth of a Medium
 Distortions
 Data Rate Limits
 Nyquist Bit Rate
 Bit Rate and Baud Rate
 Noise Sources
 Shannon Capacity in a Noisy Channel
Impairment

 In other to send data through a communication network, we have to send

signal through the same communication medium.
 The medium, is not ideal. The imperfections causes impairments in the
signal.
 Impairments: Attenuation, Distortion and Noise

Attenuation
 This is the reduction in signal strength (loss of energy) as its propagates
through the communication medium. It is expressed in decibel
dB=10log10 (P2/P1) :It decides how signal can travel without amplification
P2= Power received at the destination
P1= Power transmitted from the source
An amplifier can be used to compensate the attenuation experienced by the
medium.
Decibel is used to measure relative strengths of two signals experienced by two
different points. dB=10log10 (P2/P1)
Example1: if energy strength at point 2 is 1/10 th with respect to the point 1. Then
attenuation in dB is 10log(1/10)= -10dB Note that the loss of power takes form of
negative. If the gain 100 times at point 3 with respect to point 2. Then gain in dB is
10log(100/1)=20 dB
 Also note that signal strength at point 3 with respect to 1 which can form a
cascaded systems can be obtained by adding the two values: (-10) + 20= 10 dB
The above means the number of values in cascaded forms can be added.
Data rate Limits: How fast data can be sent?
Depends on three factors/parameters:
Bandwidth of the channel
Number of levels used in the signal and Noise level in the channel
Bandwidth of a medium

Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies

that a medium can pass without a loss of one-
half of the power (-3dB) contained in the
signal. Measured frequency components
(signal)
Digital signal requires low-pass channel

 Bandwidth of a medium decides quality of the signal at the other

end.
 A digital signal (usually aperiodic) requires a bandwidth from 0 to
infinity, so therefore, it needs a low-pass channel.
 While analog signals requires band-pass channel.

Distortion

 Attenuation of all frequency components are not same. Some

frequencies are passed without attenuation, some are weakened and
some are blocked which leads to distortion

The diagram shows that the

signal sent is not the same
received which means that
the signal is distorted
Attenuation Distortion

 Attenuation varies as a function of frequency.

Attenuation distortion is affected by analog
signals the more.
 Delay Distortion: this arises in case of guided
media, the velocity of propagation varies with
frequency. This means the signal component sent
will have different velocities for different
frequency components as it travels through the
guided media. The digital signals is affected
more in delay distortion than analog signals.
Nyquist Bit Rate

 Noiseless Channel: In the case of noiseless channel,

the maximum bit rate is given by the Nyquist bit
rate. The signal that you can send is dependent on
the bandwidth of the channel, noise.
 Bit Rate, C= 2*Blog2 L
 C is known as channel capacity, B is the
bandwidth,
 L is the number of signals levels used. To
understand number of signal levels, u must know
the parameter called Baud Rate
 Baud Rate

 The baud rate or signaling rate is defined as the number of distinct

symbols transmitted per second, irrespective of the form of encoding.
 For baseband digital transmission L = 2
 Bit Rate: the bit rate or information rate is the actual equivalent
number of bits transmitted per second.
 I=Baud rate*Bits per Baud, Baud *N=Baud rate *log2 M= no of levels
 Baud is no of possible values that can be send while Bit rate is the
bit sent per second.

For binary encoding, the

bit rate and the baud rate
are the same; i.e. I=Baud
Rate
 For maximum use of the channel we can use multilevel
encoding
 Example: A telephone channel having bandwidth B= 4 kHz.
Assuming it is a noiseless channel, determine the channel
capacity for the following encoding levels.
 (i) 2, (ii) 128
 (i) C= 2B=2 *4000= 8Kbits/s
 (ii) C= 2*4000log2 128=8000*7 = 56 Kbps which a practical
example is the Modem that sends data at the rate of 56kbps
Effects of Noise
 When there is noise present in the medium, the
limitations of both bandwidth and noise must be
considered.
 A noise spike may cause a given level to be
interpreted as a signal of greater level if it is in
positive phase or a smaller level if it is negative
phase.
 Noise becomes more problematic as the number
of levels increases. E.g. 128 levels
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
 Let P= average signal power
 Let N= average noise power

Used in quantifying
signal to noise level
Shannon Capacity (Noisy Channel)
 Shannon capacity gives the highest data rate for a noisy
channel
 C=B* log2 (1+S/N)
 S/N is signal to noise ratio, in case of extremely noisy channel
C=0 when the noise is very high.
 Between the Nyquist Bit rate and the Shannon limit, the result
providing the smallest channel capacity is the one that
establishes the limit. The lower must be taken as the channel
capacity.
Example
 A channel has B = 4KHz, determine the channel capacity for each of
the following signal-to-noise ratios: (a) 20dB (b) 30dB (c) 40dB.
 Solution:
The results indicates that the more we have increase in signal to noise
ratio, we also have higher capacity.
Example2: A channel has B = 4KHz and a signal-to-noise of 30dB,
determine maximum information rate for 4 level encoding.
For B= 4KHz and 4-level encoding the Nyquist Bit rate is 16 Kbps and
for B=4KHz and S/N of 30dB the Shannon capacity is 39.8Kbps. In
other words, the smallest of the two values has to be taken as the channel
capacity
I= 16Kbps
Example

Example3: A channel has B = 4KHz and a signal-

to-noise of 30dB, determine maximum information
rate for 128 level encoding.
For B= 4KHz and 4-level encoding the Nyquist
Bit rate is 56 Kbps and for B=4KHz and S/N of
30dB the Shannon capacity is 39.8Kbps. In other
words, the smallest of the two values has to be
taken as the channel capacity
C= 39.8Kbps
Example

Example4: The digital signal is to be designed to

permit 160kbps for a bandwidth of 20 KHz.
Determine (a) number of levels and (b) S/N ratio
Solution:
On the Board..
This tells us how to design a transmission system
to provide suitable no of encoding and suitable no
of signal to noise ratio so we can achieve a suitable
data rates.
Noise
Types of noise:
Thermal Noise: Because of the movement of the electrons in
the wire in other to generate current, this movement also create
noise in the medium. Dependent on 3 parameters N=KTB, it
increases with temperature.
Intermodulation: it occurs when signals of different frequencies
share the same medium
Crosstalk: This is due to unwanted coupling between two
media.
Impulse noise: This arises due to disturbances such as lighting,
electrical sparks; in this case Digital Signals are more affected
TELECOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS I
MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

MR. ADEBOWALE Q.R

WEEK SEVEN
Course Outline

Outline of the Lecture

 Why Multiplexing
 Basic concepts of Multiplexing
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing
 Time Division Multiplexing
 Synchronous
 Asynchronous
 Inverse TDM
Why Multiplexing?

Observations
Most individual data-communication devices typically
require modest data rate, 4kbps for voice requirement.
Communication media usually have much higher
bandwidth; coaxial optical have several megabits per
sec.
Two communication stations do not utilize the full
capacity of a data link
The higher the data rate, the most cost effective is the
transmission facility.
Why Multiplexing?

If the bandwidth of a medium is greater than

individual signals to be transmitted through the
channel, a medium can be shared by more than
one channel of signals by using multiplexing.
 For efficiency, the channel capacity can be
shared among users.
Common use of multiplexing is in long-haul
communication using coaxial cable, microwave
and optical fiber.
A device known as multiplexer (MUX) combines n channels for transmission
through a single medium.
At the receiver end a demultiplexer (DEMUX) is used to separate out the n
channels.
This highlight the basic operation of multiplexing.
How FDM is Implemented

Its divide the available bandwidth of a single physical

medium into a number of smaller, independent
frequency channels.
Using modulation, independent message signals are
translated into different frequency bands.
All the modulated signals are combined in a linear
summing circuit to form a composite signal for
transmission.
The carriers used to modulate the individual message
signals are called sub-carriers.
Guard band
Channels must be separated by strips of unused
bandwidth to prevent inter-channel cross-talk.
Applications of FDM

Transmission of AM/FM radio broadcasting

TV broadcasting
Cable television
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Optical fiber medium provides enormous bandwidth
WDM is the most viable technology that overcomes the huge opto-
electronic bandwidth mismatch.
WDM optical fiber network comprises optical wavelength
switches/routers interconnected by point-to-point fiber links
End-users may communicate with each other through all optical (WDM)
channels known as light-paths, which may span over more than one fiber
links.
Time division Multiplexing

 This is possible when the bandwidth of the

medium exceeds the data rate of digital signals to
be transmitted.
 Multiple digital signals can be carried on a single
transmission path by interleaving portions of
each signal in time.
 Interleaving can be at the bit level or in blocks of
bytes.
 Time Division Multiplexing

 The incoming data from each source are briefly

buffered.
 Each buffer is typically one bit or one character
in length.
 The buffers are scanned sequentially to form a
composite data stream.
 The scan operation is sufficiently rapid so that
each buffer is emptied before more data can
arrive.
Synchronous TDM
 Composite data rates must be a least equal to the
sum of the individual data rates.
 The composite signal can be transmitted directly
or through a modem.
Synchronization and Pulse Stuffing
 Framing Synchronization is a process of adding a
special bit pattern in the control channel.
 Pulse Stuffing: synchronization of different data
sources.
Limitations of the Synchronous TDM
 In synchronous TDM, many of the time slots in a
frame may be wasted.
 The problem is overcome in Statistical
/Asynchronous /Intelligent TDM.
 In statistical TDM, timeslots are allocated
dynamically on demand.
 It takes advantage of the fact that not all the
attached devices may be transmitting all of the
time
Asynchronous TDM
 Since data arrive from the input line and are distributed unpredictably,
address information is required to assure proper delivery.
 This leads to more overhead per slot but, relative addressing can be
used to reduce overhead.
TELECOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS I
ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION

MR. ADEBOWALE Q.R

WEEK EIGHT
Course Outline

Outline of the Lecture

 Why error detection and correction?
 Types of error
 Error detection techniques
 Parity check
 Two dimensional parity check
 Checksum
 Cyclic redundancy check
 Error correcting codes
Why Error Detection and Correction?

Because of attenuation, distortion, noise and

interferences, errors during transmission are
inevitable leading to corruption of transmitted
bits
The longer the frame size, the higher the
probability of single bit error, and lower is the
probability of receiving a frame without error.
This clearly emphasizes the need for error
detection and error correction
TYPES OF ERROR

Single-bit error: This is when only one

bit gets corrupted which is common in
parallel transmission.
Burst error: More than one bits get
corrupted very common in serial
transmission of data. It occurs when the
duration of noise is longer than the
duration one bit.
Error Detection Techniques

Use of redundancy: this is the addition of

extra bits to facilitate detection and
correction of errors.
Popular techniques:
Simple Parity check
Two-dimensional Parity check
Checksum
Cyclic redundancy check
Parity Check

This is the simplest and the most popular error detection

scheme.
Its appends a parity bit to the end of the data.
Performance of Simple Parity check

Simple parity check can detect all single bit

errors.
It can also detect burst errors, if the number of
bits in error is odd.
The techniques is not foolproof against burst
errors that inverts more than one bits. If an even
number of bits are inverted due to error , the error
is not detected.
Two Dimensional Parity Check

The performance can be improved by using two-

dimensional parity check, which organizes the
block of bits in the form of a table
Parity check bits are calculated for each row
which is equivalent to a simple parity check bit.
Parity check bits are also calculated for all
columns.
Both are sent along with the data.
At the receiving end these are compared with the
Two Dimensional Parity Check
performance of Two Dimensional Parity Check

Extra overhead is traded for better error detection

capability
Two-dimensional parity check significantly
improves error detection capability compared to
simple parity check.
It can detect many burst errors, but not all.
CHECKSUM

The senders end: The data is

divided into k segments each of m
bits.
The segments are added using ones
complement arithmetic to get the
sum.
The sum is complemented to get the
checksum
The checksum segment is sent along
with the data segments.
The receivers end:
All received segments are added using
ones complement arithmetic to get the
sum.
The sum is complemented.
If the result is zero, the received data is
accepted, otherwise it is discarded.
The performance of cheksum:
The checksums detects all errors
involving an odd number of bits.
Also detects most errors involving even
number of bits.
Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC)
 The basic Approach:
 When given an m-bit block of bit sequence, the
sender generates an n-bit sequence known as
frame check sequence(FCS), then the resulting
frame consist of m+n bits and it is exactly
divisible by same predetermined number.
 The receiver divides the incoming frame by
that number and if there was no remainder, it
means the message is error free.
Performance of CRC
 CRC can detect all single-bit errors
 Can also detects all double-bit errors (three 1’s)
 CRC can detect any odd number of errors (x+1)
 CRC can detect all burst errors of less than the
degree of the polynomial
 CRC detects most of the larger burst errors with
a high probability.
Error Correction
 Two basic approaches:
 Backward error correction: This process involves the
automatic request sent by the receiver to the sender to
retransmit the data or frame when an error is detected
in a frame. This is known as Automatic Repeat
Request (ARQ) technique.
 Forward error correction: the system uses more
redundancy bits in the transmitted data not only for
detection of errors but also correct error in the
received data.
Error Correction
 The Idea
 Requirement for error detection: A code is an error
detecting code if and only if the minimum distance
between any two code words is two.
Hamming Code
 Basic approach:
 To each group of m information bits k, parity bits are added to
form (m+k) bit code.
 Location of each of the (m+k) digits is assigned a decimal
value.
 The k parity bits are placed in positions 1,..2,--2to the power of
k-1 positions.
 k parity checks are performed on selected digits of each
codeword
 At the receiving end the parity bits are recalculated. The
decimal value of the k parity bits provide the bit-position in