WE DISCUSSED Lecture 12

• Strain Hardening of Metals, Flow Curve

• Most commonly used is Power Law “σ = Kεn “
Necking occurs after maximum load.
• Maximum Load is reached dσ /dε = σ and ε = n
• Tensile Toughness W/V= ∫σdε=area under true stress-strain curve
• When ‘n’ is high, more uniform deformation, greater formability.
• Yielding Criteria
• Strain rate sensitivity
• Super plasticity

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Chapter 4 Plasticity Theory
Yielding under complex loading – Plasticity Theory – Yield Criteria (in terms of σy)
A yield criterion is a mathematical expression of the stress states that will cause
yielding or plastic flow.

only shear stresses are important in yielding.

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Tresca (Maximum Shear Stress) Criterion

‘Yielding occurs when the largest shear stress

reaches a critical value.
Largest Shear Stress is τmax = (σmax - σmin ) / 2
Or σ1 - σ3 = Y

Von Mises Criterion

The effect of the intermediate principal stress can be
included by assuming that
yielding depends on the root-mean-square diameter of
the three Mohr’s circles.
This is von Mises criterion, which can be expressed as

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5.2: Consider an isotropic material loaded so
that the principal stresses coincide with the x, y, and z axes.
Assuming the von Mises yield criterion applies, make a plot of σy
versus σx yield locus with σz = 0.

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Tresca vs Von Mises

Tresca more conservative – predicts failure to

occur at lower stress level as compared to von
Mises – safer from designer point of view but
takes unnecessary measures to prevent an
unlikely failure.

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Chapter 6
Strain Rate and Temperature Dependence of Flow Stress

• For most materials, an increase of strain rate raises the flow stress.
• In most metallic materials, effect near room temperature is small.
• At elevated temperatures, effect of strain rate on flow stress is
much greater.

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 Strain Rate Dependence of Flow Stress

For many materials, the effect of the strain rate on the flow stress,
σ, (at a fixed strain and temperature) can be described by a power-
law expression,

ε· is dε/dt. The exponent, m, is called the strain-rate sensitivity.

If m=0, flow stress does not change when strain rate changes.
As m increases, the flow stress increases with strain rate.

Note:
1. Values are very small at room temperature.
2. Relatively higher values of m for Hexagonal Structure such as Ti,
Mg, Zn, Zr alloys
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 Role of m in uniformity of deformation

• Higher strain rate

in this region
• Low m
• Small increase in
flow stress in this
region
• Necking continues

• Higher strain rate

in this region
Necking is resisted in • High m
materials that have a • Large increase in
high strain rate flow stress in this
dependence because region
less strained regions • Necking resisted
continue to deform. 8
For most metals, the value of m
is low near room temperature
but increases with temperature.
The increase of m with
temperature is quite
rapid above half of the melting
point (T > Tm/2).

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Superplasticity
If the rate sensitivity, m, of a material is 0.5 or higher, the material
will behave superplastically, exhibiting very high tensile elongations.
The high elongations occur because the necks are extremely gradual.
Superplasticity permits forming of parts requiring very high strains.

The conditions for superplasticity are:

1. Temperatures equal to or above the half of the absolute

melting point (T ≥ 0.5Tm).
2. Very slow deformation (strain rates 10−3/s or slower).
3. Very fine grain size (a few micrometers or less).

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Long times are needed to form useful shapes at low strain rates.
With long times and high temperatures, grain growth may occur,
negating an initially fine grain size.

For this reason, most superplastic alloys either have

two-phase structures or
have a very fine dispersion of insoluble particles.
Both minimize grain growth.

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Under superplastic conditions, flow stresses are very low, and very
high elongations (1,000% or more) are observed in tension tests.
Both the low flow stress and high elongations can be useful in
metal forming.

The very low flow stresses permit slow forging of large, intricate
parts with fine detail.

The very high tensile elongation makes it possible to form very

deep parts with simple tooling.

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Superplastic
Forming
Process of
Sheet Metal

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 Superplastic Forming (SPF)

1. Zn – Al alloys with small additions of elements like Cu, Mg, Mn

2. Al-6% Cu-0.5%Zr

3. Aluminium alloy reinforced by particles or whiskers such

as SiO2, Si3N4, and SiC

4. Ti–6Al–4V

5. Ti-Al-Mn alloy

6. Fe-Mn-Al alloy

7. Fe-28Al, Fe-28Al-2Ti and Fe-28Al-4Ti

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superplasticity is a state in which solid crystalline material is deformed well beyond
its usual breaking point, usually over about 600% during tensile deformation. Such a
state is usually achieved at high homologous temperature. Examples of superplastic
materials are some fine-grained metals and ceramics.

Superplastically deformed material gets thinner in a very uniform manner, rather

than forming a "neck" (a local narrowing) that leads to fracture. Also, the formation
of microvoids, which is another cause of early fracture, is inhibited.

In metals and ceramics, requirements for it being superplastic include a fine grain
size (less than approximately 20 micrometres) and a fine dispersion of thermally
stable particles, which act to pin the grain boundaries and maintain the fine grain
structure at the high temperatures and existence of two phases required for
superplastic deformation. Those materials that meet these parameters must still
have a strain rate sensitivity (a measurement of the way the stress on a material
reacts to changes in strain rate) of >0.3 to be considered superplastic.

The mechanisms of superplasticity in metals are believed to be atomic diffusion and

the sliding of grains past each other.

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Deformation Mechanisms (Why very fine grains?)

At high temperature, under stress, there is a net diffusional flux of

atoms from grain boundaries parallel to the tensile axis to grain
boundaries normal to the tensile axis, causing a tensile elongation.
This amounts to a net diffusion of vacancies in opposite direction.

At high temperature, under stress, grain boundary sliding may occur.

With grain boundary sliding, compatibility where three grains meet
must be accommodated by another mechanism. Such
accommodation could occur either by slip or by diffusion.

Both diffusional creep and grain boundary sliding need a very fine
grain size, high temperatures, and low strain rates.

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Combined Strain and Strain Rate Effects

If both strain and strain rate hardening are considered, the true
stress may be approximated by
σ = C εn ˙εm
Remember
C, n and m are functions of temperature

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Deformation in Crystal

Control theory in nature

Disorders in order

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Atomic Arrangement in a Metal

Very very large

force required to
change shape
Movement of an Earthworm
Concept of Dislocation
Formation of dislocations in a structure
during growth is a natural process

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 Points to Ponder
‘Disorder in Order’
Practical strengths are much lower than theoretically
calculated values : Because

• Lower Yield strengths explained by dislocations which

make slip easy in metals

• Lower fracture strengths explained by presence of

microcracks:
Present in brittle nonmetals

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Caused by deformation in metals
 Ductile Fracture

Deformation - A life saver

How deformation occurs in metals?

Slip

Twinning
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Crystal structures of pure metals

cubic close-packed (fcc)

close-packed plane of atoms

Crystal structures of pure metals

"bcc" metal structure

almost close-packed atom planes

Fe, V, Cr, Mo, W, Ta…… some empty space

 SLIP

• Parallel levels of material move past each

other along specific crystallographic
directions.
• Slip occurs in tension when the shear stress
exceeds the critical resolved shear stress.
• The slip bands are very distinct and at the
about 45 degree. Upon closer inspection,
each slip band contains tiny slip lines within.

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 SLIP
Plastic deformation of crystalline materials usually occurs by slip,
which is the sliding of planes of atoms over one another.

The planes on which slip occurs are called slip planes, and the
directions of the shear are the slip directions. These are
crystallographic planes and directions that are characteristic of the
crystal structure.

The fact that we can see these indicates that slip is inhomogeneous
on an atomic scale. Displacements of thousands of atomic
diameters must occur on discrete or closely spaced planes to create
steps on the surface that are large enough to be visible.

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Slip Systems

The slip planes and directions for several

common crystals are summarized in
Table. Almost without exception, the slip
directions are the crystallographic
directions with the shortest the distance
between like atoms or ions, and the slip
planes are usually densely packed planes.

Slip directions and planes

Structure Slip direction Slip planes
fcc <110> {111}
bcc <111> {110}, {112}, {123}, pencil glide∗
hcp <1120> (0001), {1100}, {1101}, <1123>† {1101}
dia. cub. <110> {111}
NaCl <110> {110}
CsCl <001> {100}
fluorite <110> {001}, {110}†, {111}†
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Schmid’s Law

Schmid discovered that if a crystal is stressed, slip begins when the shear
stress on a slip system reaches a critical value, τ c , often called the critical
resolved shear stress. So, the condition necessary for slip can be written as
τnd = τ c

The subscripts n and d refer to the slip plane normal and the direction of slip,
respectively. This simple yield criterion for crystallographic slip is called
Schmid’s law. In a uniaxial tension test along the x-direction, the shear stress
can be found from the stress transformation
τnd = nxdxσxx

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 x
X’
(n)

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 Slip

• Slip is due to movement of line defects called

dislocations.

• There are basically two types of dislocations, edge and

screw. However, in practice we get mixed dislocations.

• Theory of dislocations was thoroughly developed much

before they were actually observed in TEM.

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Schematic showing mixed dislocation and the
resulting deformation
Dislocations are real things – TEM observations
Dislocations are real things – TEM observations
A screw dislocation is required for growth of a crystal
Dislocations are real things – Atomic Level
HRTEM observations
Burgers Vectors
Dislocations are characterized by Burgers vectors. Consider an atom-to-atom
circuit that would close on itself if made in a perfect crystal. If this same
circuit is constructed so that it goes around a dislocation, it will not close. The
closure failure is the Burgers vector, denoted by b. The Burgers vector can be
considered a slip vector because its direction is the slip direction and its
magnitude is the magnitude of the slip displacement caused by its movement
of the dislocation.

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Independent Slip Systems

For a polycrystalline material to have appreciable ductility, each

grain must be able to undergo the same shape change as the
entire body. That is, each grain in a polycrystal must deform with
the same external strains as the whole polycrystal.

Each grain in a polycrystal is surrounded by other grains, so it

must deform in such a way that its change of shape is compatible
with its neighbors. To satisfy this compatibility, there must be slip
on many systems within a grain.

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For an individual grain, this amounts to an imposed set of strains
ε1, ε2, γ 23, γ 31, γ 12 along the crystal axes. Five independent
strains, ε1, ε2, γ 23, γ 31, γ 12 describe an arbitrary strain state or
shape change. The third normal strain, ε3, is not independent
because ε3 = – ε1 – ε2.

If a material has less than five independent slip systems, a

polycrystal of that material will have limited ductility unless
another deformation mechanism supplies the added freedom
necessary. The number of independent slip systems is the same as
the number of strain components, ε1, ε2, γ 23, γ 31, γ 12 that can be
independently satisfied by slip.

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 Dislocations

Slip phenomenon was known. It was realized that the measured

stresses were far lower than those calculated from a simple model
of slip.

It was postulated that pre-existing crystal defects (dislocations) were

responsible for the discrepancy between measured and calculated
strengths.

It took another two decades and the development of the electron

microscope before dislocations were observed directly.

Slip occurs by the motion of dislocations. Dislocation movement

requires much lower stress. Many aspects of the plastic behavior of
crystalline materials can be explained by dislocations.
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Theoretically calculated strength comes out to be 1000 times or
more than the practical values.

The problem with the theoretical calculations is that it was

assumed that slip occurs by one entire plane of atoms sliding over
another at the same time.

Taylor, Orowan, and Polanyi realized that it is not necessary for a

whole plane to slip at the same time. They postulated that crystals
have pre-existing defects termed dislocations. Movement of a
dislocation allows slip to occur. The critical stress for slip is the
stress required to move a dislocation. At any instant, slip need
only occur at the dislocation rather than over the entire slip plane.

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