Cu 31924029914714

\W>'
Cornell University
Library
The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in

the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029914714
— —
WORKS BY MARQUIS DE NADAILLAC.

Prehistoric America. By the Marquis de Nadaillac. Translated,
with the permission of the Author, by Nancy Bell (N. D'Anvers),
author of "History of Art." Edited, with notes, by W. H.
Dall. Large octavo, with 219 illustrations . . . $5 00
Popular edition 2 25
—
Chief Contents. Man and the Mastodon The Kjokken- —
moddings and Cave Relics —
Mound-Builders Pottery— —
Weapons and Ornaments of the Mound-Builders Cliff-Dwellers —
—
and Inhabitants of the Pueblos People of Central America
— —
Central American Ruins Peru Early Races Origin of the —
American Aborigines, etc., etc.
"The best book on this subject that has yet been published, for the
. . .
reason that, as a record of facts,it is unusually full, and because it is the first
comprehensive work in which, discarding all the old and worn-out nostrums about
the existence on this continent of an extinct civilization, we are brought face to
face with conclusions that are based upon a careful comparison of architectural
and other prehistoric remains with the arts and industries, the manners and cus-
toms, of * the only people, except the whites, who, so far as we know, have ever
l
held the regions in which these remains are found." Nation.
The Customs and Monuments of Prehistoric Peoples. By

the Marquis de Nadaillac. Translated, with the permission of
the Author, by Nancy Bell (N. D'Anvers). Fully illustrated.
8vo.
Chief Contents.— The Stone Age, its Duration, and its Place
in Time —
Food, Cannibalism, Mammals, Fish, Hunting and
Fishing, Navigation —
Weapons, Tools, Pottery Origin of the ;
Use of Fire, Clothing, Ornaments Early Artistic Efforts

;
Caves, Kitchen-Middings, Lake Stations, " Terremares," Cran-

noges, Burghs, " Nurhags," " Talayoti," and " Truddhi "
Megalithic Monuments — Industry, Commerce, Social Organiza-
tion ;
Fights, —
Wounds and Trepanation Camps, Fortifications,
Vitrified Forts; Santorin; the Towns upon the Hill of Ilissarlik
—Tombs— Index.
G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, Publishers,

NEW YORK AND LONDON.
MANNERS AND MONUMENTS
OF
PREHISTORIC PEOPLES
THE MARQUIS DE NADAILLAC

CORRESPONDENT OF THE INSTITUTE
AUTHOR OF "l'aMERIQUE PREHISTORIQUE," m LES PREMIERS HOMMES ET LES
TEMPS PREHISTORIQUES," ETC.
WITH 113 ILLUSTRATIONS
TRANSLATED BY
NANCY BELL (N. D'Anvers)

AUTHOR OF "THE ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF ART," u THE LIFE-STORY
OF OUR EARTH," " THE STORY OF EARLY MAN," ETC.
G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
A- ^3070
srzrrr
%UBRAPY^/
%'|->i" ' « " ' ' ' '
HTi892
BY
NANCY BELL
Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by

Ube ftniclietbocftet ptcee, «ew Jffort
G. P. Putnam's Sons
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE
The present volume has been translated, with the

from the French of the Marquis de
author's consent,
Nadaillac. The author and translator have carefully
brought down to date the original edition, embodying
the discoveries made during the progress of the work.
The book will be found to be an epitome of all that
'
isknown on the subject of which it treats, and covers

ground not at present occupied by any other work in
the English language.
Nancy Bell (N. D'Anveks).
SOTITHBOUKN'E-ON-SEA,
1891.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I. The Stone Age, its Duration, and its
Place in Time i
II. Food, Cannibalism, Mammals, Fish, Hunt-

ing and Fishing, Navigation . . 47
III. Weapons, Tools, Pottery Origin of the
;
Use of Fire, Clothing, Ornaments

Early Artistic Efforts 79
IV. Caves, Kitchen-Middings, Lake Stations ;
" Terremares," Crannoges, Burghs

" Nurhags," " Talayoti," and " Trud
DHI " 127
V. Megalithic Monuments . . . -174

VI. Industry, Commerce, Social Organiza-
tion ; Fights, Wounds and Trepana-
tion 231
VII. Camps, Fortifications, Vitrified Forts;
Santorin; the Towns upon the Hill
of Hissarlik 279
VIII. Tombs 343
Index 383
ILLUSTRATIONS.
i.
Fossil man from Mentone ....
Stone weapons. described by Mahudel in 1734
Frontispiece
. 8
Copper hatchets found in Hungary and now in
2.
3.
national museum of Budapest ....
Copper beads from Connett's Mound, Ohio
20
(natural size) . . . . . 21
4. Stone statues on Easter Island . • • 37
5.
6.
Fort-hill, Ohio
Group of sepulchral mounds .....
Ground plan of a pueblo of the Mac-Elmo valley
39
40
7.
8.
9.
Cliff-house on the Rio Mancos
House in a rock of the Montezuma canon
.... .
.
.
41
42
43
1. Fragments of arrows made of reindeer horn
from the Martinet cave (Lot-et-Garonne).

2. Point of spear or harpoon in stag-horn (one
third natural size).
10. < 61
3. and Bone weapons from Denmark.
4.
5. Harpoon of stag-horn from St. Aubin.

6. Bone fish-hooks pointed at each end, from
Waugen.
11. Bear's teeth converted into fish-hooks.
62
12. Fish-hook made out of a boar's tusk.
A. Large barbed arrow from one side of the Plan-
tade shelter (Tarn-et-Garonne).
13 65
B. Lower part of a barbed harpoon from the Plan-
tade deposit. J
14. Ancient Scandinavian boat found beneath a tumulus

at Gogstadten 73
15. Ancient boat discovered in the bed of the Cher 75
viH ILL US TRA TIONS.
F1GUKS
( A lake pirogue found in the Lake of Neuchatel.

16. •] 1. As seen outside. \ 76
I 2. and 3. Longitudinal and transverse sections.
Stones used as anchors, found in the Bay of j
17 Penhouet. I
> 78
1, 2, 3. Stones weighing about 160 lbs. each.
and 5. Lighter stones, probably used for canoes.
4.
18. Scraper from the Delaware valley. [

19. Implement from the Delaware valley. \
ao. Worked flints from the Lafaye and Plantade shelters

(Tarn-et-Garonne) S3
Stone javelin-head with handle. Stone hatchet
ax. i.
with handle
Fine needles.
..'... 2.
Amulet.
.89
22. 1. 2. Coarse needles. 3. 4
and 6.Ornaments. 5. Cut flints. 7. Fragment of
a harpoon. 8. Fragments of reindeer antlers with
signs or drawings. 9. Whistle. 10. One end of a
bow (?). 11. Arrow-head. (From the Vaehe,

Massat, and Lourdes caves) . . .91
Amulet made of the penien bone of a bear and
23.
24.
found in the Marsoulas cave
Various stone and bone objects from California
.... .
92
93
25. Dipper found in the excavations at the Chassey camp 95
26. Pottery of a so far unclassified type found in the
Argent cave (Franee). 98
27. i. Lignite pendant. 2. Bone pendant. (Thayngen
cave) 107
Round
28.
(
pieces of skull, pierced with
Baye's collection)
Part of a rounded piece of a
. .... holes (M. de
human parietal
no
29. X Stiletto made of the end of a human radius.

'
Disk, made of the burr of a stag's antler.
30. Whistle from the Massenat collection . . 112

31. Staff of office . . . . . . .113
32. Staff of office, made of stag-horn pierced with four
holes 114
33. Staff of office found at Lafaye.
)
34. Staff of office in reindeer antler, with a horsed 115

engraved on it (Thayngen). )
ILLUSTRATIONS. lx
35. Staff of officefound at Montgaudier . . .117

36. Carved dagger-hilt (Laugerie-Basse).
37. The great cave-bear, drawn on a pebble found in \ 118
the Massat cave (Garrigou collection).
38. Mammoth or elephant from the L£na cave.
1
19
39. Seal engraved on a bear's tooth, found at Sordes.
40. Fragment of a bone, with regular designs. Frag-
ment of a rib on which is engraved a musk-ox,
41.
found in the Marsoulas cave
Head of a horse from the Thayngen cave.
.... 120
)
42. Bear engraved on a bone, from the Thayngen \ 121
cave. )
43. Reindeer grazing, from the Thayngen cave . . 122

44. Head of Ovibos moschatus, engraved on wood, found
in the Thayngen cave 123
45. Young man chasing the aurochs, from Laugerie . 124
46. Fragment of a staff of office, from the Madelaine^
cave. I
r I2 5
47. Human face carved on a reindeer antler, found in
48.
49.
the Rochebertier cave.
The glyptodon
Mylodon robustus
.
. .
....
. . . . .129
J
128
50. Objects discovered in the peat-bogs of Laybach,

A. Earthenware vase. B. Fragment of orna-
mented pottery. C. Bone needle. D. Earthen-
ware weight for fishing-net. E. Fragment of jaw-
bone 152
51. Small terra-cotta figures found in the Laybach pile
dwellings 153
52. Small terra-cotta figures from the Laybach pile
dwellings. . . . . . . .154
53. Nurhag at Santa Barbara (Sardinia) . . . 168
54. " Talayoti " at
Trepuco (Minorca) . . . 170
55. Dolmen of Castle Wellan (Ireland) . . 175
56. The large dolmen of Careoro, near Plouharnel . 176
57. Dolmen of Arrayalos (Portugal) . . . 177
Acora (Peru)
58. Megalithic sepulchre at .178 . .
59. The great broken menhir of Locmariaker with

Caesar's table . . . . . . .186
X ILL US TRA TIONS.
FIGURE
PAGE
60. Covered avenue of Dissignac (Loire-Inf erieure),view
61.
62.
Covered avenue near Antequera
Ground plan of the Gavr'innis
....
of the chamber at the end of the north gallery
monument .
.
.
189
19°
191
63.
64.
65.
Monoliths at Stennis, in the
Cromlech near B5ne (Algeria) ....
Orkney Islands
Dolmen at Pallicondah, near Madras (India)

.
.
193
19 6
201
66. Dolmen at Maintenon, with a table about 19 \ feet
.204
67.
68.
long
Part of the Mane-Lud dolmen ....
Sculptures on the menhirs of the covered avenue of
2 °8
Gavr'innis 2I °
69. Dolmen with opening (India) 211
70. Dolmen near Trie (Oise) 212

71. Bronze objects found at Krasnojarsk (Siberia) . 237
72. Prehistoric polisher near the ford of Beaumoulin,
Nemours 2 39
73. Section of a flint mine

74. Plan of a gallery of flint mine
75. Picks, hammers, and mattocks made
....
of stag-horn .
2 42
2 43
245
76. Cranium of a woman from Cro-Magnon (full face) . 249
77. Skull of a woman found at Sordes, showing a severe
wound, from which she recovered . . . 250
78. Fragment of human tibia with exostosis enclosing
the end of a flint arrow 25 2
79. Fragment of human humerus pierced at the elbow-

joint (Trou d'Argent) 253
80.
81.
trepanned ........
Mesaticephalic skull, with wound which has been
Trepanned Peruvian skull

259
268
82. Skull from the Bougon dolmen (Deux-Sevres), seen
in profile 2 73
83. Trepanned prehistoric skull 274

84. Prehistoric spoon and button found in a lake station
at Sutz 287
85. General view of the station of Fuente-Alamo . 293
86. Group at Liberty (Ohio)
87. Trenches at Juigalpa (Nicaragua)
88. Vases found at Santorin
.... 299
300
313
ILL USTRA TIONS. XI
89. Vase ending in the snout of an animal, found on the

hill of Hissarlik . . . . . . -325
90. Funeral vase containing human ashes. . 326
91. Large terra-cotta vases found at Troy . . .
327
92. Earthenware pitcher found at a depth of 19^ feet. ) „
93. Vase found beneath the ruins of Troy. )
94. Terra-cotta vase found with the treasure of Priam

329
95. Vase found beneath the ruins of Troy.
96. Earthenware pig found at a depth of 13 feet . . 330
97. Vase surmounted by an owl's head, found beneath
the ruins of Troy
98. Copper vases found at Troy
. .... 331
333
99. Vases of gold and electrum, with two ingots (Troy), 334
100. Gold and silver objects from the treasure of Priam, 335
101. Gold ear-rings, head-dress, and necklace of golden
beads from the treasure of Priam . . .
336
102. Terra-cotta fusai'oles 339
103. Cover of a vase with the symbol of the swastika . 340
104. Stone hammer from New Jersey bearing an unde-
ciphered inscription
105. Chulpa near Palca. ...
. . .
.
341
357
106.
107.
Dolmen
A
at
stone chest used as a sepulchre ....
Auvernier near the lake of Neuchatel .
359
361
108.
109.
Example of burial
Aymara mummy
no. Peruvian mummies
.......
in a jar
......
363
365
367
in. Erratic block from Scania, covered with carvings .
379
112. Engraved rock from Massibert (Lozere) . . 380
MANNERS AND MONUMENTS OF
PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
CHAPTER I.
THE STONE AGE : ITS DURATION AND ITS PLACE IN

TIME.
The nineteen tli century, now nearing its close, has

made an indelible impression upon the history of the
world, and never were greater things accomplished
with more marvellous rapidity. Every branch of
science, without exception, has shared in this prog-
ress, and to it the daily accumulating information
respecting different parts of the globe has greatly
contributed. Regions, previously completely closed,
have been, so to speak, simultaneously opened by the
energy of explorers, who, like Livingstone, Stanley,
and Nordenskiold, have won immortal renown. In
Africa, the Soudan, and the equatorial regions, where
the sources of the Nile lie hidden in Asia, the interior
;
of Arabia, and the Hindoo Koosh or Pamir mountains,

have been visited and explored. In America whole
districts but yesterday inaccessible are now intersected
by railways, whilst in the other hemisphere Australia
and the islands of Polynesia have been colonized new ;
2 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
have rapidly sprung into being, and even the

societies
unmelting ice of the polar regions no longer checks
the advance of the intrepid explorer. And all this is
but a small portion of the work on which the present

generation may justly pride itself.
Distant wars too have contributed in no small meas-
ure to the progress of science. To the victorious
march of the French army we owe the discovery of
new facts relative to the ancient history of Algeria ; it
was the advance of the English and Russian forces

that revealed the secret of the mysterious lands in the
heart of Asia, whence many scholars believe the Euro-
pean races to have and of this ever open
first issued,
book the French expedition to Tonquin may be con-

sidered at present one of the last pages.
Geographical knowledge does much to promote the
progress of the kindred sciences. The work of Cham-
pollion, so brilliantly supplemented by the Vicomte de
Rouge and Mariette Bey, has led to the accurate classi-
fication of the monuments of Egypt. The deciphering
of the cuneiform inscriptions has given us the dates of
the palaces of Nineveh and Babylon ; the interpreta-
tion by savants of other inscriptions has made known
to us those Hittites whose formidable power at one
time extended as far as the Mediterranean, but whose
name had until quite recently fallen into complete ob-
livion. The rock-hewn temples and the yet more
strange dagobas now belong to science.
of India
Like the sacred monuments of Burmah and Cam-
bodia they have been brought down to compara-
tively recent dates ;
and though the palaces of Yucatan
and Peru still maintain their reserve, we are able to fix
their dates approximately, and to show that long be-
THE STONE AGE. 3
fore their construction North America was inhabited

by races, one of which, known as the Mound Builders,
left behind them gigantic earthworks of many kinds,
whilst another, known as the Cliff Dwellers, built for
themselves houses on the face of all but inaccessible
rocks.
Comparative philology has enabled us to trace back
the genealogies of races, to determine their origin, and
to follow their migrations. Burnouf has brought to
light the ancient Zend language, Sir Henry Rawlin-
son and Oppert have by their magnificent works opened
up new methods of research, Max Miiller and Pictet in
their turn by availing themselves of the most diverse
materials have done much to make known to us the
Aryan race, the great educator, if I may so speak, of
modern nations.
To one great fact do all the most ancient epochs of
history bear witness : one and all, they prove the exist-
ence in a yet more remote past of an already advanced
civilization such as could only have been gradually at-
tained to after long and arduous groping. Who were

the inaugurators of this civilization ? Who were the
earliest inhabitants of the earth \ To what biological
conditions were they subject ? What were the physical
and climatic conditions of the globe when they lived ?
By what flora and fauna were they surrounded ? But
science pushes her inquiry yet further. She desires to
know the origin of the human race, when, how, and
why men first appeared upon the earth for from ;
whatever point of view he is considered, man must of

necessity have had a beginning.
We are in fact face to face with most formidable
problems, involving alike our past and future problems ;
it is hopeless to attempt to solve by human means or

by the help of human intelligence alone, yet with
which science can and ought to grapple, for they ele-
vate the soul and strengthen the reasoning faculties.
Whatever may be their final result, such studies are
of enthralling interest. Man," said a learned mem-
"
ber of the French Institute, " will ever be for man the
grandest of all mysteries, the most absorbing of all
1
objects of contemplation."
Let us work our way back through past centuries
and study our remote ancestors on their first arrival
upon earth let us watch their early struggles for exist-
;
ence We will deal with facts alone we will accept

! ;
no theories, and we must, alas, often fail to come to any

conclusion, for the present state of prehistoric knowl-
edge rarely admits of certainty. We must ever be
ready to modify theories by the study of facts, and
never forget that, in a science so little advanced, theo-
ries must of necessity be provisional and variable.
Truly strange is the starting-point of prehistoric
science. It is with the aid of a few scarcely even
rough-hewn flints, a few bones that it is difficult to
classify, and a few rude stone monuments that we have
to build up, it must be for our readers to say with
what success, a past long prior to any written history,
which has left no trace in the memory of man, and
during which our globe would appear to have been
subject to conditions wholly unlike those of the present
day.
The
stones which will first claim our attention, some
of them very skilfully cut and carefully polished,
have been known for centuries. According to Sueto-
1
M. Gaston.
THE STONE AGE. 5
nius, the Emperor Augustus possessed in his palace

on the Palatine Hill a considerable collection of
hatchets of different kinds of rock, nearly all of them
found in the island of Capri, and which were to their
royal owner the weapons of the heroes of mythology.
Pliny tells of a thunder-bolt having fallen into a
lake, in which eighty-nine of these wonderful stones
were soon afterwards found. Prudentius represents 1
ancient German warriors as wearing gleaming ceraunia

on their helmets in other countries similar stones
;
ornamented the statues of the gods, and formed rays

about their heads. 2
A subject so calculated to fire the imagination has
of course not been neglected by the poets. Claudian's
verses are well known :
Pyrenseisque sub antris

Ignea fluminese legere ceraunia nymphse.
Marbodius, Bishop of Rennes, in the eleventh cen-

tury, sang of the thunder-stones in some Latin verses
which have come down to us, and an old poet of the
sixteenth century in his turn exclaimed, on seeing the
strange bones around him :
Le roc de Tarascon hebergea quelquefois

Les geants qui couroyent les montagnes de Foix,
Dont tant d'os successifs rendent le temoignage.
With these stones, in fact, were found numerous

bones of great size, which had belonged to unknown
creatures. Latin authors speak of similar bones found
in Asia Minor, which they took to be those of giants
1
Pliny calls them ceraunia gemma ("Natural History," book ii.,. ch. 59;
bookxxxvii., ch. 51).
2
S. Reinach proves clearly enough that the collections of the Emperor
Augustus were from Capri.
of an extinct race. This belief was long maintained ;
in 1547 and again in 1667 fossil remains were found

in the cave of San Ciro near Palermo and Italian ;
savants decided that they had belonged to men eighteen

feet high. Guicciadunus speaks of the bones of huge
elephants carefully preserved in the Hotel de Ville at
Antwerp as the bones of a giant named Donon, who
lived 1300 years before the Christian era.
In days nearer our own the most cultivated people
1
accepted the remains of a gigantic batrachian as
those of a man who had witnessed the flood, and it
was the same with a tortoise found in Italy scarcely
thirty years ago. Dr. Carl, in a work published at
Frankfort took up another theory, and, such
2
in 1709,
was the general ignorance at the time, he used long
arguments to prove that the fossil bones were the
result neither of a freak of nature, nor of the action
of a plastic force, and it was not until near the end of
his life that the illustrious Camper could bring him-
self toadmit the extinction of certain species, so totally
against Divine revelation did such a phenomenon
appear to him to be.
Prejudices were not, however, always so obstinate.
For more than three centuries stones worked by the
hand of man have been preserved in the Museum of
the Vatican, and as long ago as the time of Clement
VIII. his doctor, Mercati, declared these stones to
have been the weapons of antediluvians who had been
still ignorant of the use of metals.
1
This skeleton was discovered in 1726 by Scheuchzer, a doctor of CEningen,
and by him placed in the Leyden Museum, with the pompous inscription :
Homo diluvii testis {Philosophical Transactions, vol. xxxiv.). Cuvier, by

scraping away the stone, revealed the true nature of the fossil.
2 " Ossium Fossilium Dociraasia."
THE STONE AGE. 7
During the early portion of the eighteenth century

a pointed black flint, evidently the head of a spear,
was found in London with the tooth of an elephant.

It was described in the newspapers of the day, and
placed in the British Museum.
In 1723 Antoine de Jussieu said, at a meeting of
the Academie des Sciences, that these worked stones
had been made where they were found, or brought
from distant countries. He supported his arguments
by an excellent example of the way in which savage
races still polish stones, by rubbing them continuously
together.
A few years later the members of the Academie
des Inscriptions in their turn, took up the question,
and Mahudel, one of its members, in presenting several
stones, showed that they had evidently been cut by
the hand of man. " An examination of them," he
said, " affords a proof of the efforts of our earliest

ancestors to provide for their wants, and to obtain the
necessaries of life." He added that after the re-
peopling of the earth after the deluge, men were

ignorant of the use of Mahudel's essay is
metals.
illustrated which we reproduce
by drawings, some of
(Fig. 1), showing wedges, hammers, hatchets, and flint
arrow-heads taken, he tells us, from various private
1
collections.
Bishop Lyttelton, writing in 1736, speaks of such
weapons as having been made at a remote date by
savages ignorant of the use of metals, 3 and Sir W.
Dugdale, an eminent antiquary of the seventeenth
century, attributed to the ancient Britons some flint
1 " Mem. Acad, des Inscriptions," 1734, vol. x., p. 163.

' Archaologia, vol. ii., p. 118.
hatchets found in Warwickshire, and thinks they were

1
made when these weapons alone were used.
Fig. I. —Stone weapons described by Mahudel in 1734.
A communication made by Frere to the Royal

Society of London deserves mention here with a
2
few supplementary remarks.
The Antiquities of Warwickshire," vol. iv., 1656.
z, vol. xiii., pt 105.
THE STONE AGE. g
This distinguished man of science found at Hoxne,

in Suffolk, about twelve feet below the surface of
the soil, worked which had evidently been
flints,
the natural weapons of a people who had no knowl-

edge of metals. With these flints were found some
strange bones with the gigantic jaw of an animal then
unknown. Frere adds that the number of chips of
flint was so great that the workmen, ignorant of their
scientific value, used them in road-making. Every-

thing pointed to the conclusion that Hoxne was the
place where this primitive people manufactured the
weapons and implements they used, so that as early as
the end of last century amember of the Koyal Society
now fully accepted, that
formulated the propositions, 1
at a very remote epoch men used nothing but stone
weapons and implements, and that side by side with
these men lived huge animals unknown in historic
times. These facts, strange as they appear to us,
attracted no attention at the time. It would seem
that special acumen is needed for every fresh discov-
ery, and that until the time for that discovery comes,
evidence remains unheeded and science is altogether
blind to its significance.
But resume our narrative. It is interesting to

to
note the various phases through which the matter
passed before the problem was solved. In 1819, M.
Jouannet announced that he had found stone weapons
near Perigord. In 1823, the Rev. Dr. Buckland pub-
lished the " Reliquiae Diluvianae," the value of which,
though it is a work of undoubted merit, was greatly
lessened by the preconceived ideas of its author. A
few years later, Tournal aunounced his discoveries in
1
Castelfranco : Revue d' Anthropologic, 1887.
IO PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
the cave of Bize, near Narbonne, in which, mixed

with human bones, he found the remains of various
animals, some extinct, some still native to the district,
together with worked and fragments of pottery.
flints
After this, Tournal maintained that man had been the

contemporary of the animals the bones of which were
mixed with the products of human industry. 1 The
results of the celebrated researches of Dr. Schmerling
in the caves near Liege were published in 1833. He
states his conclusions frankly " The shape of the :
flints," he says, " is so regular, that it is impossible
to confound them with those found in the Chalk or

in Tertiary strata. Keflection compels us to admit
that these flints were worked by the hand of man, and
that they may have been used as arrows or as knives."
Schmerling does not refer, though Lyell does, and that
in terms of high admiration, to the courage required
for the arduous work involved in the exploration
of the caves referred to, or to the yet more serious
obstacles the professor had to overcome in publish-
ing conclusions opposed to the official science of the
day.
In 1835, M. Joly, by his excavations in the Nabrigas
cave, established the contemporaneity of man with
the cave bear, and a little later M. Pomel announced
his belief that man had witnessed the last eruptions of
the volcanoes of Auvergne.
In spite of these discoveries, and the eager discus-
sions to which they led, the question of the antiquity
of man and of his presence amongst the great Quater-
1
Annales des Sciences Nalurelles, vol. xvii., p. 607. Cartailhac : Maleriaux,
1884.
2 " Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles de la Province de Liege."
THE STONE AGE. II
nary animals made but little progress, and it was

reserved to a Frenchman, M. Boucher de Perthes, to
compel the scientific world to accept the truth.
It was in 1826 that Boucher de Perthes first pub-
lished his opinion; but it was not until 1846 and 1847
that he announced his discovery at Menchecourt, near
Abbeville, and at Moulin-Quignon and Saint Acheul,
in the alluvial deposits of the Somme, of flints shaped
into the form of hatchets associated with the remains
of extinct animals such as the mammoth, the cave lion,
the Rhinoceros incisivus, the hippopotamus, and other

animals whose presence in France is not alluded to either
in history or tradition. The uniformity of shape, the
marks of repeated chipping, and the sharp edges so
noticeable in the greater number of these hatchets, can-
not be sufficiently accounted for either by the action of
water, or the rubbing against each other of the stones,
by the mechanical work of glaciers. We must
still less
therefore recognize in them the results of some delib-

erate action and of an intelligent will, such as is pos-
1
sessed by man, and by man alone. Professor Ramsay
tells us that, after twenty years' experience in examin-
ing stones in their natural condition and others fash-
ioned by the hand of man, he has no hesitation in
pronouncing the and hatchets of Amiens and
flints
Abbeville as decidedly works of art as the knives

of Sheffield. The deposits in which they were found
showed no signs of having been disturbed so that we ;
may men who worked

confidently conclude that the
where the banks of the Somme now
these flints lived
are, when these deposits were in course of being laid
down, and that he was the contemporaiy of the ani-

1
Athenceum, 16 July, 1859.
mals whose bones lay side by side with, the products

of his industry.
This conclusion, which now appears so simple, was
not accepted without difficulty. Boucher de Perthes
defended his discoveries in books, in pamphlets, and
in letters addressed to learned societies. He had the
courage of his convictions, and the perseverance which
insures success. For twenty years he contended pa-
tiently against the indifference of some, and the con-
tempt of others. Everywhere the proofs he brought
forward were rejected, without his being allowed the
honor of a discussion or even of a hearing. The earliest
converts to De Perthes' conclusions met with similar
attacks and with similar indifference. There is noth-
ing to surprise us in this ; it is human nature not to
take readily to anything new, or to entertain ideas
opposed to old established traditions. The most dis-
tinguished men find it difficult to break with the

prejudices of their education and the yet more firmly
established prejudices of the systems they have them-
selves built up. The words of the great French
fabulist will never cease to be true:
Man is ice to truth ;
But fire to lies.
One of the masters of modern science, Cuvier, has

said Everything tends to prove that the human
' :
"
race did not exist in the countries where the fossil

bones were found at the time of the convulsions which
buried those bones but I will not therefore conclude
;
that man did not exist at all before that epoch ; he may
1
" Discours sur les Revolutions du Globe," third edition, p. 13, Paris, Didot,
1861.
— 3
THE STONE AGE. 1
have inherited certain districts of small extent whence

he repeopled the earth after these terrible events."
Cuvier's disciples went beyond the doctrines of their
master. He made certain reservations ; they admitted
none, and one of the most illustrious, Elie de Beaumont,
rejected with scorn the possibility of the co-existence
of man and the mammoth. 1
Later, retracting an asser-
tion of which perhaps he himself recognized the ex-
aggeration, he contented himself with saying that the
district where the flints and bones had been collected
belonged to a recent period, and to the shifting de-
posits of the slopes contemporary with the peaty
alluvium. —
He added scientific passions are by no
means the least intense, or the least deeply rooted
that the worked flints may have been of Roman origin,
and that the deposits of Moulin-Quignon may have
covered a Roman road This might indeed have been
!
the case in the Department du JVord, where a road

-laid down by the conquerors of Gaul has completely
disappeared beneath deposits of peat, but it could not
be true at Moulin-Quignon, where gravels form the
culminating point of the ridge. Moreover, the laying
down of the most ancient peats of the French valleys
did not begin until the great watercourses had been
replaced by the rivers of the present day ; they never
contain relics of any species but such as are still ex-
tant ; whereas it was with the remains of extinct mam-

mals that the flints were found.
was against powerful adversaries such as this
It
that the modest savant of Abbeville had to maintain
his opinion. " No one," he says, " cared to verify the
facts of the case, merely giving as a reason, that these
1
Acad, des Sciences, iSth and 23d May, 1863.
facts were impossible." Weight was added to Lis

complaint by the refusal in England about the same
time to print a communication from the Society of
Natural History of Torquay, which announced the
discovery of flints worked by the hand of man, asso-
ciated, aswere those of the Somme, with the bones of
extinct animals. The fact appeared altogether too
incredible !
But the time when justice would be done was to

come at last. Dr. Falconer visited first Amiens and
then Abbeville, to examine the deposits and the flints
and bones found in them. In January, 1859, and in
1860, other Englishmen of science followed his exam-
ple and excavations were made, under their direction,
;
in the massive strata which rise, from the chalk forming

their base, to a height of 108 feet above the level of
the Somme. Their search was crowned with success,
and they lost no time in making known to the world
the results they had obtained, and the convictions to
1
which these results had led. In 1859 Prestwich an-
nounced to the Royal Society of London that the
flints found in the bed of the Somme were undoubtedly
the work of the hand of man, that they had been

found in strata that had not been disturbed, and that
the men who cut these flints had lived at a period
prior to the time when our earth assumed its present
configuration. Sir Charles Lyell, in his opening ad-
dress at a session of the British Association, did not
hesitate to support the conclusions of Prestwich. It
1
Lubbock : "On the Evidence of the Antiquity of Man Afforded by the
Physical Structure of the Somme Valley " (Nat. Hist. Review, vol. ii.).
Prestwich :
" On the Occurrence of Flint Implements Associated with the
Remains of Extinct Species in Beds of a Late Geological Period " (Phil. Trans.,
i860). Evans " Flint Implements in the Drift" (Arch., 1860-62).
:
5
THE STONE AGE. 1
was now the turn of Frenchmen of science to arrive

at Abbeville. MM. Gaudry
and Pouchet themselves
extracted hatchets from the Quaternary deposits of the
Somme. 1 These facts were vouched for by the well-
known authority, M. de Quatrefages, who had already
constituted himself their advocate. All that was now
needed was the test of a public discussion, and the
meeting of the Anthropological Society of Paris sup-
plied a suitable occasion. The question received long
and searching scientific examination. All doubt was
removed, and M. Isidore Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire was
the mouth-piece of an immense majority of his col-
leagues, when he declared that the objections to the

great antiquity of the human race had all melted
away. The conversion of men so illustrious was fol-
lowed of course by that of the general public, and,
more fortunate than many another, Boucher de Perthes
had the satisfaction before his death of seeing a new
branch of knowledge founded on his discoveries, attain
to a just and durable popularity in the scientific world.
It must not, however, be supposed that popular
superstition yielded at once to the decisions of science,
and it is curious to meet with the same ideas in the
most different climates, and in districts widely separated
from each other. 2 Everywhere worked flints are
attributed to a supernatural origin everywhere they
;
are looked upon as amulets with the power of protect-

ing their owner, his house or his flocks. Russian
peasants believe them to be the arrows of thunder,
and fathers transmit them to their children as precious
1
Acad, des Sciences, 1859, 1863.
2
Cartailhac
: " L'Age de Pierre dans les Souvenirs et les Superstitions
Populaires."
6
heirlooms. The same belief is held in France, Ireland,

and Scotland, in Scandinavia, and Hungary, as well as
in Asia Minor, in Japan, China, and Burmah in Java, ;
and amongst the people of the Bahama Islands, as

amongst the negroes of the Soudan or those of the
west coast of Africa, who look upon these stones as
1
bolts launched from Heaven by Sango, the god of

thunder amongst the ancient inhabitants of Nicaragua
;
as well as the Malays, who, however, still make similar

implements.
The name given to these flints recalls the origin
attributed to them. The Romans call them ceraunia
from nepawos, thunder, and in the catalogue of. the
possessions of a noble Veronese published in 1656,
we find them mentioned under this name. 2 Every one
knows Cymbeline's funeral chant in Shakespeare's
play:
Fear no more the lightning flash
Nor the all dreaded thunder-stone.
In Germany we are shown Donner-Ifeile, in Alsace

Donner-Axt, in Holland Pomier-Peitels, in Denmark
Tordensteen, in Norway Tordenlceile, in Sweden Thor-
soggar, Thor having been the god of thunder amongst
northern nations ; while with the Celts 3 the Mengurun,
in Asia Minor the Ylderim-tachi,
in Japan the Rai-fu-
Pedrus de Lamp, and in
seki-no-rui, in Roussillon the
Andalusia the Piedras de Payo have the same significa-
1
A short time before his tragic end, the noble and patriotic Gordon sent to
Cairo three hatchets or stone wedges found amongst the Niams-Niams, who
said they had from Heaven, and who worshipped them with supersti-
fallen
tious rites (Bull. Institut Egyptien, 1886, No. 14).
2 "
Museo Moscardo," Padova, 1656.
3
According to M. Pitre de Lisle, the Bretons think that these stones vibrate
at every clap of thunder.
7;
THE STONE AGE. 1
tion. The
inhabitants of the Mindanao islands call these
stones the teeth of the thunder animal, and the Japan-
ese the teeth of the thunder. 1 In Cambodia, worked
stones, celts, adzes, and gouges or knives, are known
as thunder stones. A Chinese emperor, who lived in
the eighth century of our era, received from a Buddhist
priest some valuable presents which the donors said
had been sent by the Lord of Heaven, amongst which
were two flint hatchets called loui-kong, or stones of
the god of thunder. In Brazil we meet with the same
idea in the name of corisco, or lightnings, given to
worked flints ;
whilst in Italy, by an exception almost
unique, they are called Unguesan Paolo.
May we not also attribute to the worship of stones
some of the religious and funeral rites of antiquity?
According to Porphyry, Pythagoras, on his arrival on
the island of Crete, was purified with thunder-stones
by the dactyl priests of Mount Ida. The Etruscans
wore flint arrow-heads on their collars. They were
sought after by the Magi, and the Indians gave them
an honored place in their temples. According to
Herodotus, the Arabs sealed their engagements by
making an incision in their hands with a sharp stone
in Egypt the body of a corpse before being embalmed
Avas opened with a flint knife a similar implement
;
was used by the Hebrews for the rite of circumcision

and it was also with cut stones that the priests of
Cybele inflicted self-mutilation in memory of that of
Atys. At Rome the stone hatchet was dedicated to
Jupiter Latialis, and solemn treaties were ratified by
the sacrifice of a pig, the throat of which was cut with
a sharp flint. According to Virgil, this custom was
1
Roulin : Acad. desSciences. December 28, 1868.
8
handed down to the ancient Romans by the uncouth

nation of the Equicoles. At the beginning of the
Christian era, the heroes commemorated by Ossian
had in the centre of their shields a polished stone

still
consecrated by the Druids, and a saga maintains that

the ceraunia assured certain victory to their owners.
On the other side of the Atlantic, the Aztecs used
obsidian blades for the sacrifices, in which hundreds of
human victims perished miserably ; and similar blades
are used by the Gruanches of Teneriffe to open the
bodies of their chiefs after death. At the present day,
the Albanian Palikares use pointed flints to cut the
flesh off the shoulder-blade of a sheep with a view to
seeking in its fibres the secrets of the future, and when
the god Gimawong temple of Labode, on the
visits his
western coast of Africa, his worshippers offer him a
1
bull slain with a stone knife. Lumholtz, in the second
of his recent explorations in Queensland, tells us that
the natives still use stone weapons, varying in form
and in the handles used, and that the weapons of the
Australians living near Darling River, as well as those
of the Tasmanians, are without handles.
During the first centuries of the Christian era, strange
rites were still performed in honor of dolmens and
menhirs. The councils of the Church condemned
them, and the emperors and kings supported by their
authority the decrees of the ecclesiastics. 2 Childebert
in 554, Carloman in 742, Charlemagne by an edict
issued at Aix-la-Chapelle in 789, s forbid their subjects
to practise these rites borrowed from heathenism. But
1
" Congrfe d'Anthropologie et d'Archeologie Prehistorique, " Paris, 1889.
2
Council of Aries in 452, of Tours in 567, of Nantes in 658, of Toledo in
681 and 692, and of Leptis in 743.
"Baluze " Capitularia Regum Francorum,'' vol. i., pp. 518, 1234, 1237.
:
9
THE STONE AGE. 1
popes and emperors are alike powerless in this direc-

tion, and one generation transmits its traditions and
superstitions to another. In the seventeenth century

a Protestant missionary called in the aid of the secular
arm to destroy a superstition deeply rooted in the
minds of his people in England, sorcerers were pro-
;
ceeded against for having used flint arrow-heads in

their pretended witchcraft in Sweden, a polished
;
hatchet was placed in the bed of women in the pangs

of labor in Burmah, thunder-stones reduced to powder
;
were looked upon as an infallible cure for ophthalmia;

and the Canaches have a collection of stones with a
special superstition connected with each. But why
seek examples so far away and in a past so remote?
In our own day and in our own land we find men who
think themselves invulnerable and their cattle safe if
they are fortunate enough to possess a polished flint.
Prehistoric times are generally divided into three
epochs —
the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron
Age. We owe this classification to the archaeologists
1
of Northern Europe. It is neither very exact nor
very satisfactory, and fresh discoveries daily tend to
2
unsettle it. Alsberg maintained that iron was the
first metal used, founding his contention on the scarcity
of tin, the difficulty of obtaining alloys, and on the
sixty-one iron foundries of Switzerland which may date
from prehistoric times. The rarity of the discovery
of iron objects, he urged, is accounted for by the ease
with which such objects are destroyed by rust. There
has never been a Bronze or an Iron age in America, so
1
Forchammer, Thomsen, Worsaae, and Nillsson. The commis-
Steenstrup,
sion appointed by the Copenhagen Academy of Sciences presented six reports
on the subject between 1850 and 1856.
s "
Die Anfang des Eisens Cultur," Berlin, 1886.
thatit would seem very doubtful whether all races
went through the same cycles of development. I my-

self prefer the division into the Palaeolithic period,
when men only used roughly chipped stones, and the
Neolithic period, when they carefully polished their
stone weapons. "There may" says Alexander Ber-
trand, 1 "be one immutable law for tbe succession of
strata throughout the entire crust of the earth, but
there is no corresponding law applicable to human
Fig. 2. —Copper hatchets found in Hungary, and now in the National Museum
of Budapest.
agglomerations or to the succession of the strata of

civilization. It would be a very grave error to adopt
the theory according to which all human races have
passed through the same phases of development and
have gone through the same complete series of social
conditions."
It may perhaps be convenient to introduce a fourth
period when copper alone was used and our ancestors
were still ignorant of the alloys necessary for the pro-
1
" Archeologie Celtique et Gauloise," p. 46.
THE STONE AGE. 21
duction of bronze. Hesiod speaks of a third genera-

tion of men copper only, and although it
as possessing
does not do to attach undue importance to isolated
facts, recent discoveries in the Cevennes, in Spain, in
Hungary, and elsewhere, appear to confirm the exist-
ence of an age of copper (Fig. 2). We may add that
the mounds of North America contain none but copper
implements and ornaments, witnesses of a time when
that metal alone was known either on the shores of
the Atlantic or of the Pacific * (Fig. 3).
It is impossible to fix the duration of the Stone
age. It began with man, it lasted for countless
FIG. 3. — Copper beads, from Connett's Mound, Ohio (natural size).
centuries, and we find it still prevailing amongst certain

races who set their faces The against all progress.
scenes sculptured upon Egyptian monuments dating
from the ancient Empire represent the employment of
stone weapons, and their use was continued throughout
the time of the Lagidae and even into that of the
Roman domination. A few years ago, on the shores
of the Nile, I saw some of the common people shave
!
Dr. Much :
" L'Age de Cuivre en Europe et son Rapport avec la Civilisa-
tion des Indo-Germains," Vienna, 1886. Pulsky :
" Die Kilpfer Zeit im Un-
garn," Budapest, 1884. Cartailhac : "Ages Prehistoriques de l'Espagne et du
Portugal," p. 2ii. E. Chantre : Mat., June, 1887 ;
and Berthelot : Journal
des Savants, September, 1889.
their heads with stone razors, and the Bedouins of

Grournah using spears headed with pointed flints. The
Ethiopians in the suite of Xerxes had none but stone
weapons, and yet their civilization was several centuries
older than that of the Persians. The excavations on
the site of Alesia yielded many stone weapons, the
glorious relics of the soldiers of Vercingetorix. At
Mount Beuvray, on the site of Bibracte, flint hatchets
and weapons have been discovered associated with
Gallic coins. At Rome, M. de Rossi collected similar
objects mixed with the JEs rude. Flint hatchets are
mentioned in the life of St. Eloy, written by St. Owen,
and the Merovingian tombs have yielded hundreds of
small cut flints, the last offerings to the dead. William
of Poitiers tells us that the English used stone weapons
at the battle of Hastings in 1066, and the Scots led by
Wallace did the same as late as 1288. Not until many
centuries after the beginning of the Christian era did
the Sarmatians know the use of metals; and in the
fourteenth century we find a race, probably of African
origin, making their hatchets, knives, and arrows of
stone, and tipping their javelins with horn. The
Japanese, moreover, used stone weapons and imple-
ments until the ninth and even the tenth century a.d.
But there is no need to go back to the past for
examples. The Mexicans of the present day use ob-
sidian hatchets, as their fathers did before them the ;
Esquimaux use nephritis and jade weapons with Rem-

ington rifles. Nordenskiold tells us that the Tchout-
chis know of no weapons but those made of stone ;
that they show their artistic feeling in engravings on

bone, very similar to those found in the caves of the
south of France. In 1854, the Mqhavi, an Indian
THE STONE AGE. 23
tribe of the Eio Colorado (California), possessed no

metal objects and it is the same with the dwellers on
;
the banks of the Shingu River (Brazil), the Oyacoulets

of French Guiana, and many other wandering and
savage races. Pere Pelitot tells us that the natives
living on the banks of the Mackenzie River are still in
the stone age; and Schumacker has given an interest-
ing example of the manufacture of stone weapons by
the Klamath Indians dwelling on the shores of the
Pacific. It has been justly said " The Stone age is :
not a fixed period in time,. but one phase of the de-

velopment of the human race, the duration of which
varies according to the environment and the race."
1
In thus limiting our idea of the stone age, we may

conclude that alike in Europe and in America, 2 there
has been a period when metal was entirely unknown,
when stones were the sole weapons, the sole tools of
man, when the cave, for which he had to dispute
possession with bears and other beasts of prey, was
his sole and precarious refuge, and when clumsy heaps
of stones served alike as temples for the worship of his
gods and sepulchral monuments in honor of his chiefs.
Excavations in every department of France have
yielded thousands of worked flints, and there are few
more interesting studies than an examination of the
mural map in the Saint Germain Museum on which are
marked with scrupulous exactitude the dwelling-places
of our most remote ancestors, and the megalithic monu-
ments which are the indestructible memorials of our
forefathers.
1
Irene'e Cochut :
" These presentee a la Faculte' de The'ologie Protestante
de Montauban."
2
See my translation of the author's admirable and exhaustive work on
—
" Prehistoric America," chapters i. and iv. Nancy Bell.
In the Crimea were picked up a number of small

flints cut into the shape of a crescent exactly like those
found in the Indies and in Tunis, and the Anthropo-
logical Society of Moscow has introduced us to a Stone
age the memory of which is preserved in the tumuli
of Russia. On the shores of Lake Lagoda have been
found some implements of argillaceous schist, in Carelia
and in Finland tools made of slate and schist, often
adorned with clumsy figures of men or of animals.
The rigor of the climate did not check the develop-
ment of the human race \ in the most remote times
Lapland, Nordland, the most northerly districts of
Scandinavia, and even the bitterly cold Iceland, were
peopled. The Exhibition of Paris, 1878, contained
some stone weapons found on the shores of the
White Sea.
On several parts of the coast of Denmark we meet
with mounds of an elliptical shape and about nine feet
high, with a hollow in the centre, marking the site of
a prehistoric dwelling. It was not until about 1850
that the true nature of these mounds was determined.
Excavations in them have brought to light knives, hatch-
ets, all manner and bone implements,
of stone, horn,
fragments of pottery, charred wood, with the bones
of mammals and birds, the skeletons of fishes, the
shells of oysters and cockles buried beneath the ashes
of ancient hearths. To these accumulations the char-
acteristic name of Kitchenmiddings, or kitchen refuse,
has been given.
Several caves have recently been examined in Poland,
one of which, situated near Cracow, appears to belong
to Palaeolithic times. Count Zawiska has already
given an account of his interesting discoveries to the
THE STONE AGE. 25
Prehistoric Congress at Stockholm. In the Wirzchow

cave he identified seven different hearths, and took out
of the accumulations of cinders various amulets, clumsy
representations of fish cut in ivory, split bones, bears',
wolves', and elks' teeth pierced with a hole for thread-
ing, and more than four thousand stone objects of a
similar type to those found in Russia, Scandinavia, and
Germany. We meet with similar traces of successive
habitation in a cave near Ojcow the valuable contents
;
ofwhich included some beautiful flint tools, some awls,

bone spatula?, and some gold ornaments, mixed, in the
lower of the hearths, with the bones of extinct animals,
and in the upper, with those of species still living.
The discoveries made in the Atter See and in the
Salzburg lakes with those in the Moravian caves prove
what had previously been very stoutly denied, the ex-
istence in those districts of ancient races at a very
remote date.
The most ancient inhabitants of Hungary, however,
cannot be traced further back than to Neolithic times.
In that country have been found, with polished stone
implements, thousands of objects made of stag-horn,
or bone, almost all without exception finely finished
off. The discovery of copper tools and ornaments of
a peculiar form in the Danubian provinces, bears wit-
ness to a distinct civilization in those districts, and
confirms what we have just said about a Copper age.
From the Lake Stations of Austria and Hungary, we
pass naturally to those of Switzerland. We shall have
to introduce to our readers whole villages built in the
midst of the waters, and a people long completely
forgotten. In many of these stations, none but stone
implements have been found, and on the half-burnt
piles on which the huts had been set up, it is still easy
to make out the notchescut with flint hatchets.
We meet with similar pile dwellings, as these struc-
tures are called, in France, Italy, Germany, Ireland,
and England, for from the earliest times man was con-
stantly engaged in sanguinary contests with his fellow-
men, and sought in the midst of the waters a refuge
from the ever present dangers surrounding him.
The discoveries made in Belgium must be ranked
amongst the most important in Etirope, and we shall
often have occasion to refer to them. Holland, on
the other hand, having much of it been under the
sea for so long, yields nothing to our researches
bat a few arrow-heads, hatchets, and knives made
of quartz or diorite, and all of them of the coarsest
workmanship.
No less fruitful in results to prehistoric science are
the researches made in the south of Europe. The con-
gress that met at Bologna, in 1871, showed us that in
the Transalpine provinces man was witness of those
physical phenomena which gave to Italy its present
configuration and the exhibition in connection with
;
the congress enabled us to get a good idea of the

primitive industry which has left relics behind it in
every district of the peninsula.
Some hatchets of a similar type to the most ancient
found in France were dug out of a gravel pit at San
Isidro on the borders of the Mancanares, associated
with the bones of a huge elephant that has long been
extinct and a cave has recently been discovered near
;
Madrid from which were dug out nearly five hundred

skeletons, the greater number thickly coated with
stalagmite. Near the bodies lay several flint weapons,
THE STONE AGE. 2J
and some fragments of pottery. 1 Cartailhac tells us of

similar discoveries in various parts of Portugal. 2 The
caves of Santander have yielded worked bones and
barbed harpoons and those of Castile, various objects
;
resembling those of the Reindeer period of France. It

is, however, an interesting and important fact that the
reindeer never crossed the Pyrenees. Although so far

excavations have been anything but complete, we are
already able to assert that during Palaeolithic times the
was occupied by
ancient Iberia races whose industrial
development was similar to that of modern Europe.
be well to mention also the excavations made
It will
on the slopes of Mount Hymettus, and in the ever-
famous plains of Marathon. Finlay has brought to-
gether in Greece a very interesting collection of stone
weapons and implements which he picked up in great
numbers at the base of the Acropolis of Athens. All
these discoveries prove the existence of man at a time
about which but yesterday nothing was known, and to
which it is difficult as yet to give a name, this existence
being proved by the most irrefragable of evidence, the
work of his own hands.
Although the proofs of there having been a Stone
age in Western Europe are absolutely convincing, it is
difficult to feel equally sure with regard to the portions

of the globe where so many districts are closed to the
explorer. Everywhere, however, where excavations
have been made, they have yielded the most remarka-
ble results. M. de Ujfalvy has brought diorite and
serpentine hatchets and wedges from the south of
1
Acade'mie des Sciences, May 23, 1881 ;
" Antiquites du Musee de Minous-
sink," Tomsk, 1886-7.
s " Les Ages Prehistoriques en Espagne et en Portugal."
Siberia, and Count Ouvaroff tells us of a Quaternary

deposit, the only one known at present at Irkutsk, in
Eastern Siberia, containing cut flints. Near Tobolsk,
Poliaskoff found some beautifully worked stones.
Other archaeologists tell us of having found, in the
east of the Ural Mountains and on the shores of the
Joswa, hammers, hatchets, pestles, nuclei the shape of
polygonal prisms, and round or long pieces of flint, all
pierced with a central hole, which are supposed to have
been spindle whorls. Lastly, Klementz tells us that
the lofty valleys of the Yenesei and its tributaries
were inhabited in the most remote times by races who
developed a special civilization.
At the other extremity of the great Asiatic conti-
nent, a deposit of cinders found at the entrance of a
cave near the Nahr el Kelb yielded some flint knives

or scrapers, and more recently a prehistoric station
has been made out at Hanoweh, a little village of
Lebanon, east of Tyre. The flints are of primitive
shapes, not unlike most ancient forms found in
the
France. They were discovered in a mass of debris of
all kinds, forming a very hard conglomerate. Some
teeth, which had belonged to animals of the bovidse,
cervidse, and equidae groups, were got out with con-
siderable difficulty, but the bones in the conglomerate
were too much broken up to be identified. Worked
flints and arrow- or spear-heads were also found in con-
siderable quantities in various parts of the table-land

of Sinai, and at the openings of the caves in which the
ancient inhabitants took refuge. It was with stone
tools that these people worked the mines riddling the
sides of the mountains, and it is still easy to make out
traces of their operations.
THE STONE AGE. 29
We have already alluded to Japan ; for a long time

the barbarian Ainos, the earliest inhabitants of the
country, were acquainted with nothing but stone.
Flint arrows were presented to the Emperor Wu-Wang
eleven hundred years before our era ; the annals of one
of the ancient dynasties speak of flint weapons, and
an encyclopaedia published in the reign of the Em-
peror Kang-Hi speaks of rock hatchets, some black and
some green, and all alike dating from the most remote
antiquity.
Agates worked by the hand of man are found in
great quantities in the bone beds of the Grodavery.
Some javelin heads in sandstone, basalt, and quartz,
with scrapers and knives, most of them fiat on one side
and rounded on the other, appear to be even more
ancient than the agate implements. Some of the celts
resemble those of European type, others the flint
weapons found in Egypt, and the clumsiest forms may
be compared to those still in use amongst the natives
of Australia. We may also mention a somewhat rare
type lately discovered in the island of Melas, which
have been characterized as saw-bladed knives. A letter
from Rivett-Carnac announces the discovery of weapons
and stone implements in Banda, a wild mountain dis-
trict on the northwest of India. The scrapers, he says,
strangely resemble those of the Esquimaux, and the
arrow-heads those of the most ancient inhabitants of
America. 1
Many megalithic monuments are met with in places
widely removed from each other in the vast Indian
Empire. Captain Congreve, after describing the cairns
1 " Stone Implements from the Northwestern Provinces of India," Journal
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1883.
;
with their rows of stones ranged in circles, the kist-

vaens or dolmens, the huge rocks placed erect as at
Stonehenge, the barrows hollowed out of the cliffs,
declares with undisguised astonishment that there is
not a Druidical monument of which he had not seen

1
the counterpart in the Neilgherry Mountains.
General Faidherbe divides Africa into two distinct
regions —one north of the Great Desert, where the
inhabitants and the fauna and flora have all alike cer-
tain characteristics in common with those of Europe

and the other south of the Sahara, which was at one
time separated from that in the north by a vast inland
sea. In this southern region we are in Nigritia, or the
Africa of the negroes, where the inhabitants in their
physical characteristics and in their language, the
mammals, and the plants, differ altogether from those
of the north. In one point, however, these two regions
resemble each other in both we recognize a Stone
:
age,which existed in Algeria and in Egypt, as well as

on the banks of the Senegal and at the Cape of Good
Hope. The valley of the Nile from Cairo to Assouan
has yielded a series of objects in flint, porphyry, and
hornblendic rock, retaining traces of human workman-
ship, and reminding us of similar implements of Euro-
pean type. These objects, 2 says M. Arcelin, are always
found either beneath modern deposits or at the surface
of the upper plateaux at the highest point to which
the river rises ; nothing has, however, been found in
the alluvial deposits of the Nile, in spite of the most
persevering search. At the Prehistoric Congress held
1
Literary Journal of Madras, vol. xiv.
2 " L'Age de Pierre et la Classification Pre'historigue d'apres les Sources
6gyptiennes, " Paris, 1879.
THE STONE AGE. 31
some worked flints were produced that

at Stockholm,
had been found in the Libyan Desert. This once
inhabited district, now without water or vegetation,
can only be reached at the present day with the
greatest difficulty. Is not this yet another proof of
the great changes which have taken place since the
advent of man Boulak Museum contains
? Lastly, the
a whole series of stone weapons and implements, show-
ing in their workmanship a progressive development
similar to that we find in Europe. Many archaeologists
are of opinion that theworked flints found in the plains
of Lower Egypt date from Neolithic times. Those
alone are Palaeolithic which have been found in a
deposit hard enough for the hollowing out of tombs,
which are certainly earlier than the eighteenth dynasty.
We must add, however, that neither with the Palaeo-
lithic nor with the Neolithic relics have been found
any bones of extinct animals. Some savants go yet
further : they think that these worked stones are but
chips split off by the heat of the sun.
1
A phenomenon
of this kind is mentioned by Desor and Escher de la
Linth in the Sahara Desert Fraas quotes a similar ;
observation made by Livingstone in the heart of Africa,

and one by Wetzstein, who, not far from Damascus,
saw hard basalt rocks split under the influence of the
early morning freshness. I have myself noticed similar
phenomena in the Nile valley, but it must be added
that the fragments of rock broken off by the combined
influence of heat and humidity present very notable
differences to those worked by the hand of man, and
cannot really be mistaken for them.
1
Pitt Rivers :
" On the Discovery of Chert Implements in the Nile Valley,"
British Association, York, 1881.
—
In Algeria have been preserved some most interest-

ing relics of prehistoric times. If I am not mistaken,
Worsaae was the first to note the worked stones in the
French possessions in Africa. They have been picked
up in great numbers, especially near the watercourses
at which the ancient inhabitants of the country slaked
their thirst, as do their descendants at the present day.
The exploration of the Sahara daily yields unexpected
discoveries and already fifteen different stations for-
;
merly inhabited by man have been made out. In those

remote days a large river flowed near Wargla, which
was then an important centre, and a number of tools
picked up bear witness to the former presence of an
active and industrious population. At one place the
flint implements, arrow-heads, knives, and scrapers are
all of a very primitive type, and were found sorted
into piles. This was evidently a depot, probably

forming the reserve stock of the tribe. Wargla or
perhaps Golea at one time appears to have been the
extreme limit of the Stone age in Algeria, but quite
recently traces of primitive man have been discovered
amongst the Tuaregs. These relics are hatchets made
of black rock, and arrow-heads not unlike those which
the Arabs attribute to the Djinn but as we approach
;
the south we find the flints picked up more clumsily

—
and unskilfully cut a proof that they were the work
of a more barbarous people with less practical skill.
It is the megalithic monuments of Algeria, of which
we shall speak more in detail presently, that are the
most worthy of attention. As in India, we meet with
them in thousands, and in certain parts of the conti-
nent they extend for considerable distances. They
consist of long, square, circular, or oval enclosures
THE STONE AGE. 33
dolmens similar to those of Western Europe, and —

almost always surrounded by circles of upright stones.
The silence of historians respecting them need not
make us doubt their extreme antiquity, for did it not
take a very long time to induce the scientific men of
our day to turn their attention to Algeria at all ?
The exploration of Tunisia has enabled us to study
the Stone age in that district, and a few years ago it
was announced that nearly three thousand objects of
different types had been found in thirteen different
localities.
1
My
son found near Gabes an immense
number of small worked flints not unlike a human
nail, the origin and use of which no one has been able
to determine. The association of weapons and imple-

ments roughly finished off, with chips and stones still
in the natural state, bears witness to the existence at
one time of workshops of some importance. The
recent discoveries of Collignon correspond with those
in Algeria, and complete our knowledge of the basin
of the Mediterranean.
In the Cave of Hercules, in Morocco, which Pompo-
nius Mela spoke of as of great antiquity in his day,
have been found a great many worked flints, such as
knives and arrow-heads. We shall refer later to the
important monument of Mzora and the menhirs sur-
rounding it, the builders of which certainly belonged
to a race that lived much nearer our own day than did
the inhabitants of the Cave of Hercules.
The south of Africa is not so well known as the
north, and the difficulty of making explorations is a
great obstacle to progress. For some centuries, how-
1
Belluci : " L'Eta della Pietra in Tunisia," Roma, 1876, Bol. della Sac.
Geog. Italiana, 1876.
ever, polished stone hatchets from the extreme south

of the continent have been preserved in the museums
of Leyden and Copenhagen, under the name of thunder-
stones, or stones of God. A great many
found in are
British South Africa, especially at Graham's Town and
Table Bay. 1 Gooch, after describing the physical con-
figuration of the Cape, says that stone implements are
found in all the terraces at whatever level of the Qua-
ternary deposits. With these stone objects were found
a good many fragments of coarse hand-made pottery,
that had been merely baked in the sun, and was
strengthened with good-sized pieces of quartz. Similar
peculiarities are noticed in ancient European pottery.
We shall have to refer again to these singular analo-
gies, one of the chief aims of this book being to bring
them into notice.

In the torrid regions between the Vaal and the
Zambezi rivers, we find traces of a race of a civilization
different from that of the savages conquered by the
English. At Natal the gradual progress of these un-
known people can be traced step by step. To the
earliest period of all belong nothing but roughly hewn
flints,and no traces of pottery have been found then ;
follow flint arrow-heads of more distinct form, and here
and there fragments of sun-dried pottery. Of more

recent date still are polished stone weapons and more
finely moulded pottery whilst to the latest date of all
;
belong weapons of considerable variety of form, better

adapted to the needs of man, and with these weapons
were found huge stone mortars which had been used
for crushing grain, and bear witness to the use of
vegetable diet.
1
" The Stone Age of South Africa," Joum. A nth. Institute, 1881.
THE STONE AGE. 35
We also meet with important ruins in the Transvaal.

Some walls are still standing which are thirty feet
high and ten thick, forming imperishable memorials of
the past. They are built of huge blocks of granite
piled up without cement. We know nothing of those
who erected them their name and history are alike
;
effaced from the memory of man, and we know nothing

either of their ancestors or of their descendants.
In the Antipodes certain curious discoveries point
to the existence of man in those remote and mysterious
times, to which, for want of a better, we give in Europe
the name of the Age of the Mammoth and the Rein-
deer; and everything points to the conclusion that
man appeared in the different divisions of the earth
about the same time. Probably the first appearance
of our race in Australia was prior to the last convul-
sions of nature which gave to that continent its present
configuration. " Scientific studies," says M. Blanchard,
1
" lead us to believe that at one period a vast continent
rose from the Pacific Ocean, which continent was broken

up, and to a great extent submerged, in convulsions of
nature. New Zealand and the neighboring islands are
relics of this great land."
In the Corrio Mountains in New Zealand, at a
height of nearly 4,921 feet above the sea-level,
have been found flints shaped by the hand of man,
associated with a number of bones of the Dinornis, the
largest known bird. Other facts bear witness to an
extinct civilization, which we believe to have been
extremely ancient, but to which, in the present state of
our knowledge, it is impossible to assign a date. In the
island of Tonga-Taboo, one of the Friendly group, is a
1
Revue des Deux-Mondes, March I, 1878.
remarkable megalith, the base of which rests on up-

rights thirty ^feet high, and supports a colossal stone
bowl which is no less than thirteen feet in diameter by
one in height. In the same island is a trilithon con-
sisting of a transverse bar resting on two pillars pro-
vided with mortises for its reception. The pillars
weigh sixty-five tons, and a local tradition affirms that
the coralline conglomerate out of which they were
hewn was brought from Wallis Island, more than a
thousand miles off. It is difficult to explain * how the
makers of this trilithon managed to transport, to work,
and to place such masses in position. In a neighbor-
ing island a circle of uplifted stones, covering an area
of several hundred yards, reminds us of the cromlechs
of Brittany. The so-called Burial-Mound of Oberea at
Otaheite, if it really was constructed with stone tools, is
yet more curious. Imagine a pyramid of which the
base is a long square, two hundred and sixty feet long
by eighty-seven wide. It is forty-three feet high. The
top is reached by a flight of steps cut in the coralline
rock, all these steps being of the same size and perfectly
3
squared and polished.
On a rock at the entrance to the port of Sydney a
kangaroo is sculptured. In Easter Island (Rapa-Nui)
La Perouse discovered a number of coarsely executed
bust statues (Fig. 4). There are altogether some four
hundred of them, forming groups in different parts of
the island. The excavations conducted by Pinart in
1887 have proved these figures to be sepulchral monu-
ments. He managed to make a considerable collection
of crania and human bones. Round about the crater
1
De Quatrefages : Rev. a"'Ethnographic 1883, p. 97, etc.
,
' Sir J. Lubbock :

" Prehistoric Times," pp. 483, 549.
FIG. 4. —Stone statues on Easter Island.
3?
of the Kana-Raraku volcano, forty of these figures have

been counted, a similar type, all cut in one piece
all of
of solid trachyte rock. In another place are eighty

busts with longer noses and thicker lips, forming a
group by themselves. The largest of them is some
thirty-nine feet high. On the sides of the volcano,
scattered about amongst, the statues, have been picked
up a considerable number of knives, scrapers, and
pointed pieces of obsidian, which were probably tools
thrown away by the sculptors of the figures.
These monuments and sculptures are certainly the
work of a race very different from the present natives,
who are altogether incapable of producing anything of
the kind, and who retain absolutely no traditions re-
specting their predecessors. This complete oblivion,
which may appear rather strange, is by no means rare
amongst savage races, and Sir John Lubbock cites a
great many very curious examples. " Oral traditions,"
says Broca, " are changed and distorted by each suc-

ceeding generation and are at last effaced to give place
;
to others as transitory, and thus the most important

1
events are, sooner or later, relegated to oblivion."
We have dwelt at considerable length in another
volume 2 on the earliest inhabitants of America. Much
still remains unknown in spite of the considerable and
important work done of late years. The very name of

the New World seems to be altogether out of place,
America being as old, if not older, than any continent
of the Eastern Hemisphere. Lund has brought for-
ward weighty reasons for his theory that the central
plateau of Brazil was already a country when the rest
1
Ass. franfaise, le Havre, 1877. Discours d'Ouverture.
a
" Prehistoric America," Paris, New York, and London.
THE STONE AGE. 39
of the continent was still submerged or at least repre-

sented merely by a few small islets. This theory, how-
ever, even if it could be absolutely proved, would not
help us to fix the date of the earliest presence of man

in America, stillless to say by what route he arrived
there.
Certain facts, amongst which I would, in the first
place, quote the discoveries of Dr. Abbott in the alluvial
deposits of the Delaware and those recently announced
Fig. 5.— Fort Hill, Ohio.
in Nevada, 1 prove the contemporaneity of men like our-

selves with the great edentate and pachydermatous
mammals, which were the most characteristic creatures
of the American fauna. The prehistoric inhabitants
of North America were familiar with the mastodon,
those of South America with the glyptodon, the shell
of which on occasion served as a roof to the dwelling
of primeval man, which dwelling was often but a den
1
See my translation of " L'Amerique Prehistorique,' chap, i., " Man and
the Mastodon." —Nancy Bell.
hollowed out of the ground. As in Europe, the early

inhabitants of America had to contend with powerful
mammals and fierce carnivora; and in the West as in the
East man made up in intelligence for his lack of brute
and however formidable an animal might be, it
force,
was condemned to submit to, or disappear before, its
master. In course of time Sedentary replaced Nomad
races ; shell heaps, some of marine, some of riverine
and lacustrine species, but all alike mixed with a great
Fig. 6. —Group of sepulchral mounds.

variety of rubbish, were gradually piled up extending
for many miles and covering many acres of ground,
bearing witness to the existence of a population already
considerable.
In other parts of America prehistoric races have left
behind them huge earthworks, lofty masses which were

probably fortifications (Fig. 5), temples, and sepulchral
monuments (Pig. 6). These earthworks extend through-
out North America from the Alleghany Mountains to
the Atlantic, from the great lakes of Canada to the
THE STONE AGE. 41
Gulf of Mexico. The name of the people who erected

them is and we must be content with that of
lost,
Mound Builders, which commemorate their vast under-

takings.
At a period probably nearer our own, Arizona and
New Mexico were occupied by other races, who built
the so-called pueblos, which were regular phalansteries,
Fig. 7. — Ground plan of a pueblo of the Mac-Elmo Valley.

or communal dwellings, each member of the tribe
having to be content with one wretched little cell
(Fig. 7). At some distance from the men of the
pueblos lived the Cliff Dwellers, about whom we know
next to nothing ; a few stone weapons and countless
fragments of pottery being all they have left behind
them. These men established themselves in situations
which are now inaccessible, hewing out a dwelling in
the rocks on the mountains

(Figs. 8 and 9) with won-
derful perseverance, and
IjJ
closing up the approaches
with adobes or sun-dried
bricks, making incredible
efforts to obtain for their
families what must have
been at but a
the best
1
precarious These
shelter.
prehistoric races were suc-
ceeded in America by the
Toltecs, Aztecs, Chibcas,
and Peruvians, all known
in history, though their
origin is as much involved
in obscurity as that of their
predecessors. Temples, pal-
aces, and magnificent monu-
ments tell of the wealth
which gold gives, a wealth,
alas, which also enervated
the vital forces, so that the

Spanish and Portuguese
met with but little serious
resistance in their rapid

conquests.
Such are the facts with
which we have to deal. In
1
Many interesting details respecting
the Cliff Dwellers are given in De Na-
Fig. 8.— Cliff-house on the Rio daillac's " L'Amerique Prehistorique,''
Mancos. chap. v. —Nancy Bell.
THE STONE AGE. 43
the following chapterswe shall consider more at length

the problems they present, but already we are led to
one important conclusion : in every part of the globe,
Fig. g. — House in a rock of the Montezuma Canon.
in every latitude, in every climate, worked flints,
whether but roughly chipped or elaborately polished,

present analogies which must strike the most superfi-
cial observer. "We find them," remarks an American
;
tombs of Egypt,
author, "in the tumuli of Siberia, in the
in the soil of Greece, beneath the rude monuments of
Scandinavia but whether they come from Europe or
;
Asia, from Africa or America, they are so much alike

in form, in material, aud in workmanship, that they
might easily be taken for the work of the same men."
At a meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1871, Sir John Lubbock
showed worked flints from Chili and New Zealand
with others found in England, Germany, Spain, Aus-
tralia, the Guianas, and on the banks of the Amazon
which one and all belonged to the same type. More
recently the Anthropological Society of Vienna com-
pared the stone hatchets found near the Canadian
lakes and in the deserts of Uruguay, with others from
Catania in Italy, Angermunde in Brandenburg, and a
tomb in Scandinavia, deciding that they were all ex-
actly alike. Lastly, those who studied at the French
Exhibition of 1878 the hatchets, hammers, and scrapers,
the bone implements, pottery, and weapons brought
from different places, the inhabitants of which had no
communication with each other, could not fail to notice
in their turn how impossible it was to distinguish be-
tween them. "So evident is this resemblance," says
Vogt, " that we may easily confound together imple-
1
ments brought from such very different sources."

The same observation applies to megalithic monu-
ments. Everywhere we find these primitive structures
assuming similar forms. It is difficult enough to believe
that the wants of man alone, such as the craving for
food, the need of clothing, and the necessity of defend-
ing himself, have led in every case to the same ideas
and the same amount of progress. Even if this be
1
Congrh des Naturalistes Allemands; Innsbruck, Sept., 1869,
THE STONE AGE. 45
proved by the worked flints, we cannot accept a similar

conclusion with regard to the megalithic monuments,
which imply reflection and a thought of the future far
beyond the material needs of daily life. Is it not more
reasonable to regard a similitude so striking as a proof
of the unity of our race ?
The human bones discovered more convincing

are yet
testimony. Excavations have yielded some which may
date from the veiy earliest period of the existence of
man upon the earth. They have been found in caves
and in the river drift, beneath the mounds of America
and the megalithic monuments of Europe, in the ice-
clad districts of Scandinavia and of Iceland, and in the
burning deserts of Africa, but not one of them owes its
existence to men of a type different from those of his-
toric times or of our own day. 1 MM. Quatrefages
and Hamy in their magnificent work " Crania Ethnica,"
have been able to distinguish prehistoric races and

indicate the area they occupied. These races are still
represented, and their descendants of to-day retain the
characteristics of their ancestors.
One final conclusion is no less interesting. These
absolutely countless flints, these monuments of im-
posing size, these stones of immense weight often
brought from afar, these marvellous mounds and
tumuli, bear witness to the presence of a population
which was already considerable at the time of which
1 '
' Quaternary man is always man in every acceptation of trie word. In every
case in which the bones collected have enabled us to judge, he has ever been
found to have the hand and foot proper to our species, and that double curva-
ture of the spinal column has been made out, so characteristic that Serres made
it the distinctive attribute of his human kingdom. In every case with him, as
with us, the skull is more fully developed than the face. In the Neanderthal
skull so often quoted as bestial, the cranial capacity is more than double that
ever found in the largest gorilla." De Quatrefages: " Hommes Fossiles et
Hommes Sauvages," p. 60.
we are endeavoring to make out the traces. A long

series of centuries must have been needed for a people
to increase to such an extent as to have spread over
entire continents. And time was not wanting. What-
ever antiquity may be attributed to the' human race,
whatever the initial date to which its first appearance
may be relegated, this antiquity is but slight, this date
is but modern, if we compare it with the truly incalcula-
ble ages of which geology reveals the existence. At

every turn we are arrested by the immensity of time,
the immensity of space, and yet our knowledge is still
confined to the mere outer rind of the earth, and science
cannot as yet even guess at the secrets hidden beneath
that rind.
In concluding these introductory remarks, we must
add that very great difficulties await those who devote
themselves to prehistoric studies — difficulties such as
none but those who have attempted to conquer them
can realize. The rare traces of prehistoric man must
be sought amongst the effects of the cataclysms that
have devastated the earth, and the ruins piled up in
the course of ages. We must show man wrestling
with the ever-recurrent difficulties of his hard life, and
gradually developing in accordance with a law which
appears to be immutable. Such is the aim of this
work, and it is with gratitude that we assert at the
beginning that the piartta uomo, the human plant, as
Alfieri calls our race, was endowed by the Creator
from the first with a very vigorous vitality, to enable
it to contend with the dangers besetting its steps in
the early days of its existence, and with a truly marvel-

lous spirit, to be able to make so humble a beginning
the starting-point for a destiny so glorious.
CHAPTER II.
POOD, CANNIBALISM,. MAMMALS, FISH, HUNTING, AND

FISHING.
The first care of man on his arrival upon the earth

was necessarily to make sure of food. Wild berries,
acorns, and ephemeral grasses only last for a time,
whilst land mollusca and insects, forming but a misera-
ble diet at the best, disappear during the winter. Meat
must certainly have been the chief food of prehistoric
man ; the accumulations of bones of all sorts in the
caves and other places inhabitedby him leave no doubt
on that point. The horse, which in Europe was hunted,
killed, and eaten for many centuries before it was
domesticated, was an important article of diet, and was
supplemented by the aurochs, the stag, the chamois,
the wild goat, the boar, the hare, and failing them, the
wolf, the fox, and above all the reindeer, which multi-
plied rapidly in districts suitable to it. The elephant
bones picked up on Mount Dol and elsewhere are
nearly all those of young animals and it is probable ;
that they had been killed for food by man. In the

Sureau Cave in Belgium, in that of Aurignac in
1
1
In this cave were found the bones of 45 bears. In the Goyet Cave (which
bears the number 3), were found complete sets of the bones of 12 mammoths, 8
rhinoceroses, 57 bears, 57 horses, 24 hyaenas, 35 reindeer, 6 uruses, 2 lions, with
the bones of a great number of goats, chamois, and boars. Dupont :
'
' L'Homme
pendant 1'Age de la Pierre," p. 86.
47
France, and Brixhain in England, have been found

complete skeletons of the Ursus spelceus, which had
evidently been dragged in with the flesh still on them,
for all the bones are in their natural position. In
other caves, the thorax and the vertebrae of the skele-
tons were missing ; the cave-man, having despatched
his victim,had evidently taken only the more succu-
Beasts of prey merely gnaw
lent parts into his retreat.
the comparatively tender and spongy tops of the bones,
leaving the hard, compact parts untouched. In the
caves that were inhabited by man, however, we find
the apophyses neglected, whilst the diaphyses are split
open. We cannot, therefore, make any mistake on this
point, or attribute to the beast of prey what is certainly
the work of man.
Whilst he evidently preferred to hunt and eat the
larger mammals, man when pressed by hunger did not
despise the small rodents, which were, of course, more
easily captured. Amongst piles of the bones of horses
and stags have been found the remains of martens,
hedgehogs, and mice and from the Thayngen Cave
;
have been taken the bones of more than five hundred

hares. In Belgium the water-rat seems to have been
considered a dainty, and in the Chaleux Cave alone
were found more than twenty pounds' weight of the
bones of this creature, nearly all bearing traces of
having been subjected to the action of fire.
The remains of birds are rarer, and Broca has re-
marked that the most ancient hunting implements
which have come down to us those from the Moustier
;
Cave, for instance, were adapted rather to attack ani-

mals that would show fight than those that would
simply fly or run away. The Grourdan Cave, however,
has yielded the bones of the moor-fowl, the partridge,
the wild duck, and even the domesticated cock and
hen ; the Frontal Cave, the thrush, the duck, the par-
tridge,and the pigeon and in other caves were found
;
the bones of the goose, the swan, and the grouse.

Milne-Edwards enumerates fifty-one species belonging
to different orders found in the caves of France, and
M. Riviere picked up the remains of thousands of birds
in those of Baousse-Rousse on the frontier of Italy. 1
The skulls of the mammals had been opened, and
the bones split. Brains and marrow probably figured
at feasts as the greatest delicacies. Travellers, whose
tales are a help to us in building up a picture of the
remote past of our race, relate that the Laplanders, as
soon as an animal is killed, break open its skull and
devour the brain whilst it is still warm and bleeding.
This was probably also the custom amongst prehistoric
cave-men.
The flesh of animals was not, alas, the only meat
eaten, and excavations in different parts of the globe
have led to the discovery of traces of the practice of
cannibalism which it is difficult not to accept. 2
Dr. Spring noticed at Chauvaux a great many bones
which were nearly all those of women and children,
side by side with which lay others of ruminants belong-
ing to species still extant. All these bones had alike
been subjected to great heat, and none but those which
had contained no marrow were left unbroken. This
appears an incontrovertible proof of cannibalism, and
1
These birds belonged to the rapaces, passeres, gallinaceous, wading, and
web-footed groups. Every order is represented, and nearly all the bones were
those of edible species, which had certainly served as food to man.
2
Richard Andree :
" Die Anthropophagie eine Ethnographische Studie,"
Leipzig, 1887.
§0 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
Dr. Spring concludes that it was certainly practised by

the earliest inhabitants of Belgium. must add, We
however, that other excavations in the same cave at
Chauvaux prove that it was used as a burial-place,
some skeletons being ranged in regular order with
weapons and stone implements placed beside them. 1
M. Dupont mentions having found in the caves

of the Lesse, which date from the Reindeer period,
human bones mixed with other remains of a meal.
He notes a similar fact in another cave that he con-
siders belongs to Neolithic times. he adds, " But,"
" none of these bones bear any trace of having been
struck with a flint or other tool with a view to their
fracture. If any of them are broken it is transversely,
and the cause of the fracture has been merely the
weight of the earth above them moreover, they show ;
no trace of the action of fire." 2 M. Dupont, therefore,

still retains some doubt of the cannibalism of the cave-
men of the valley of the Lesse, and attributes the

presence of the bones of the dead amongst the rubbish
of all kinds accumulated by the living, to their idleness
and indifference. One example at the present day
tends to confirm this opinion, for travellers tell us of
the same revolting carelessness amongst the Esqui-

maux, who cannot certainly be classed amongst
cannibals.
The Abbe Chierici, speaking at the Brussels Con-
s
gress of the excavations in one of the Reggio caves,
remarked that human bones were mixed with those of
1 " Les Homines cle Chavaux et d'Engis " Bui. Acad. Roy. de Belgique, vol.
xx., 1853 ; vol. xviii. (new series), 1863 ; vol. xxii., 1866 ; MaUriaux, 1872,
p. 517.
2
"L'Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre," p. 225.
3 " Compte Rendu,'' p. 363.
1
FOOD, CANNIBALISM, MAMMALS, HUNTING. 5
animals, and that both

showed traces of 'having been
burnt. These bones date from the Neolithic period,
and with them were picked up various objects of re-
markable workmanship, including fragments of pottery,
half a grindstone for crushing grain, and some admira-
bly polished serpentine hatchets.
Other facts leave no doubt of the cannibalism of the
earliest inhabitants of Italy. Moreover, hesitation on
this point is impossible for other reasons, as Eoman
historians allude to the practice. how
Pliny, 1 in saying
little removed was a human sacrifice from a meal, adds,
that ought not to surprise us to meet with this mon-
it
strous custom amongst barbarian races, as it prevailed

in ancient times in Italy and Sicily.
It is generally admitted that we can tell whether the
fracture of long bones was intentional by the way in
which they were broken. This fact, which is true
alike with the bones of men and of animals, is the most
important proof we have of the cannibalism of the men
of the Stone age. To the examples already given, we
can easily add others culled from France. In the
Pyrenees and in the caves of Lourdes and Gourdan,
for instance, human bones have been found mixed
with the cinders and ashes of the hearth, and still
bearing the marks of the implements with which they
were broken.
At Bruniquel a human skull was found which had
been opened in the same way as the heads of ruminants
amongst which it was picked up, and on its external
surface were deep notches, which appear to have been
made with a flint hatchet. Similar traces of revolting
feasts on human flesh are not at all rare near Paris, at ;
1 " Hist. Nat.," book vii., sec. 2.

—
Villeneuve-Saint-Georges, and at Varenne-Saint-Maur,

for instance. 1
The excavations in the Montesquieu-Avantes Cave,

about miles from Saint-Girons, have brought to
six
light a hearth covered over with a layer of stalagmite;
numerous fragments of human bones, crania, femora,
tibiae, humeri, and radii were found in this layer, and

in that of the subjacent clay. In many cases the
medullary orifice had been enlarged tomake it easier
to get out the marrow. It is impossible to attribute
this to a rodent, for thebones gnawed by animals of
that kind present a regular series of marks. The con-
clusion is inevitable these bones, alike of men and of
:
2
animals, were the remains of a meal.
In Kent's Hole, the celebrated cave in Devonshire,
amongst many objects dating from the Stone age, were
found some human bones bearing traces of having been
gnawed by man. The eminent anthropologist, Owen,
came to a similar conclusion that cannibalism had —
—
been practised after examining the jaw-bone of a
child found in Scotland and so did the Rev. F. Porter,
;
after the excavations near Scarborough, where several

skeletons were found under a tumulus, which had
appaiently been thrown where they were discovered
by accident.
The Cesareda caves in Portugal have yielded some
bones split lengthwise ; and beneath the dolmen near
the village of Denmark, human bones and
Hammer, in
those of stags have been found half gnawed, and show-
ing only too clearly the origin of the marks upon them.
Worsaae quotes similar facts at Borreby, Chantres re-
1
Belgrand :
" Le Bassin Parisien," vol. i., p. 232.
5
Bull. Sec. An/A., 1869, p. 476. Ac. des Sciences, 1870, first week, p. 167.
fers to thesame thing in the caves of the Caucasus,

Captain Burton at Beitsahur, near Jerusalem, Wiener
in the sambaquis of Brazil, even in deposits which he
1
considers of recent origin.
Brazil is not the only part of the American continent
in which we find traces of the use of this revolting food.
In the kitchen-middings of Florida Wyman found
human bones, which had been intentionally broken,
mixed with those of deer and beavers. The marrow
had been taken from all of them and eaten by man.
Yet more recent discoveries of a similar kind have
been made in New England. 3
We must, however, add that many of these facts are
contested. Every people considers it a point of honor
to repudiate the idea that its ancestors fed on human
flesh,and yet everywhere history tells us of the prac-
tice of cannibalism. Herodotus speaks of it amongst
the Androphagse and the Issedones, people of Scythian
origin; Aristotle amongst the races living on the borders
of the Pontus Euxinus Diodorus Siculus amongst the
;
Galatians and Strabo, in his turn, says

;
" The Irish, :
more savage than the Bretons, are cannibals and poly-

phagous they consider it an honor to eat their parents
;
8
soon after life is extinct."
From the ancient tombs of Georgia have been taken

human bones that have been boiled or charred, which
were doubtless those of the victims eaten by the assist-
ants in the fetes which have ever accompanied funeral

rites.
In the fourth century of our era Jerome speaks of
1
Archives du Musde National de Rio de yaneiro, vol. i., 1876.
2
See my translation of De Nadaillac's "Prehistoric America," pp. 53, 58,
and 59." — N. D'Anvers. s " Geography," book iv.
;
having met in Gaul with the Attacotes, descended

from a savage Scotch tribe, who fed on human flesh,
and that though they possessed great herds of cattle
and flocks of sheep, with numbers of pigs, for whom
their vast forests afforded excellent grazing grounds '
and though the Scandinavian kitchen-middings have

not so far yielded any traces of the practice of canni-
balism, Adam of Bremen, who preached Christianity
at the court of King Sweyn Ulfson, represents the
Danes of day as barbarians clad in the skins of
his
beasts, chasing the aurochs and the eland, unable to do
more than imitate the cries of animals and devouring
the flesh of their fellow-men. 2
Nothing could exceed the barbarity of the Mexican
the numbers of the victims, and the refine-
sacrifices,
ments of torture to which they were subjected. Pris-

oners, who had often been fattened for months pre-
viously, perished by thousands on the altars. The
palpitating flesh was distributed amongst the assistants,
and a horrible custom compelled the priests to clothe
themselves in the still bleeding skins of the unfortu-
nate wretches, and to wear them until they rotted to
pieces.
Without going back an antiquity so remote, in
to
how many different regions of Africa and America,
and in how many islands of Polynesia have not our
sailors and missionaries reported the practice of canni-
balism in our owu day ? It is difficult, therefore, not
to believe, although the fact cannot perhaps be very
distinctly proved, that the first inhabitants of Europe
1 " Opera," vol. ii., Migne edition, p. 335. Richard, of Cirencester, says that
the Attacotes lived on the shores of the Clyde, beyond the great wall of
Hadrian.
Schweden's " Urgeschichte,''
'
;
p. 341.
degraded as were the conditions of their existence,

did eat human flesh and acquire a depraved taste for
it impelled thereto not only by the pangs of hunger,
;
but also by a revolting superstition.

Animals, however, were very plentiful all around.
Stags, elks, aurochs, horses,
and the large pachyderms
multiplied very rapidly in the wide solitudes, the
pasture lands of which afforded them a constantly
renewed supply of food, and the beasts of prey in
their turn found an easy prey in the ruminants. The 1
ways of animals do not change, and the travellers

who are exploring the interior of Africa tell us that
now, as in the day we are trying to recall, hundreds
of elephants and rhinoceroses congregate in a limited
area, whilst innumerable herds of giraffes, zebras,
and gazelles graze peacefully in the presence of man,
whose destructive powers they have not yet learnt to
dread.
Delegorgue speaks of one lake peopled by more
than one hundred hippopotami, and of. a region less
than three miles in diameter containing six hundred
elephants. Livingstone tells us that he saw troops of
more than four thousand antelopes pass at a time, and
that these animals showed absolutely no fear. We
may give a yet more curious instance. Captain Gordon
1
The felidae were very numerous in Europe in Quaternary times. We may
mention two species of lions, Leo nobiJis and Leo spelceus, the latter often con-
founded with the Felis spelceus of such frequent occurrence in French caves,
two species of tigers, Tigris Edwarsiana and Tigris Europcea, the largest of the
Quaternary felidaa, which was some twelve feet long. We also know of seven
species of leopards, six species of cats, from the Serval to a little felis smaller
than our domestic cat ; two species of lynx, and lastly the machairodus, a
beast of prey of considerable size, characterized by having exceptionally long
upper canines serrated like a saw. Probably these beasts of prey were not all
contemporaries, but succeeded each other.
: '
(Bourguignat Histoire des Felidse
'
Fossiles en France dans les Depots de la Periode Quaternaire," Paris, 1879.)

Cumming, crossing the plains stretching away on the

north of the Cape, saw troops of gazelles and ante-
lopes, compelled by a long drought to migrate in
search of the water indispensable to them, and he
describes with enthusiasm one of these migrations,
telling us that the plain was literally covered with
animals, the hurrying herds defiling before him in an
endless stream. On
the evening of the same day, a
yet more numerous herd passed by in the same direc-
tion, thenumbers of which were absolutely incalcu-
lable,but which, according to Cumming, must have
exceeded several hundred thousand.
Such must have been animal life in Europe in
Quaternary times. " Grand indeed," cries Hugh
Miller, " was the fauna of the British Isles in those
days. Tigers, as large again as the biggest Asiatic
species, lurked in the ancient thickets ; elephants, of
nearly twice the bulk of the largest individuals that
now exist in Africa or Ceylon, roamed in herds at ;
least two way through

species of rhinoceros forced their
the primeval forest, and the lakes and rivers were
tenanted by hippopotami as bulky and with as great
'
tusks as those of Africa."

Material proofs of the presence of animals are not
wanting. The accumulation of coprolites in the cave
of Sentenheim (Alsace) bears witness to the number
of bears which once haunted it. Nordmann took from
a cave near Odessa 4,500 bones of ursidse, associated
with no less numerous relics of the large cave-lion and
cave-hyena. 2 The Kiilock Cave, now some six hundred
1
"Testimony of the Rocks,'' p. 127, Edinburgh and Boston, 1857.
8
Ossements Fossiks Trouvfc A Odessa. The cave-hyena resembles that now
living at the Cape.
and fifty feet above the river, contained the remains of

no less than 2,500 bears, and similar relics occur by-
thousands in the osseous breccia of Santenay and in
the cave of Lherm, where they form a regular ossuary.
Itwould be easy to quote similar facts from Belgian,
German, and Hungarian caves. In almost every case
the position of the skeletons seems to show that the
bears sought a last refuge in the caves, and that death
had surprised them during their winter sleep. Pachy-
derms were no less numerous than bears. The remains
of mammoths are found from the north of Europe to
Greece and Spain, and we meet with them in Algeria,
in Asia from the Altai Mountains to the Arctic Ocean,
and in America in Mexico and Kentucky. They
seem to have entrenched themselves especially in
Siberia, whence tusks are still exported as an article
of commerce. In the extreme North, those parts of
Wrangel's Land which have been explored are strewn
with the bones of mastodons, and in some parts of
Sonora and Columbia these remains form almost
inexhaustible deposits.
Animals and equine groups were, if
of the cervine
possible, yet more numerous. M. Piette estimates the
number of reindeer whose bones he has picked up in
the Gourdan Cave as over 3,000, and the number of
cervidse found at Hohlefels is positively incalculable.
In 1826, Marcel de Serres called attention to the great
number of the bones of animals of the equine family
found in the neighborhood of Lunel-Viel at Solutre,
;
the remains of horses cover a great portion of the slope

which stretches from the eastern side of the mountain
to the bottom of the valley. Here are found those
vast accumulations to which the inhabitants of the
—
valley give the characteristic name of horse-walls. The

number of horses, the bones of which have gone to
form these walls, may be estimated without exaggera-
tion at 40,000. The bones are mixed together in the
greatest confusion, many of them show traces of having
been burnt, and the flesh of the horse was evidently
1
the favorite diet of the people of Solutre.
At first man obtained by force, often aided by strat-
egy, the animals he coveted. He had not yet learnt to

tame them and reduce them to servitude. Neither the
reindeer nor the horse was as yet domesticated, and
neither in the caves nor in the various deposits else-
where has a complete skeleton been found, but only

—
a very significant fact the bones on which had been
the greater amount of flesh. The absence of any
remains of the dog, so indispensable an animal in the
keeping of flocks, is yet another proof that domesti-
cation was still unpractised.
was with most miserable weapons, such
It as a few
stones, scarcely even rough-hewn, and a few flint ar-
rows, that the cave-man did not hesitate to attack the

most formidable animals, and with such apparently
inadequate means he succeeded in wounding and even
killing them. The French Museum possesses mammoth
and rhinoceros bones bearing fine scratches produced
by the weapons which had been used to despatch the
animals. The metacarpus of a large beast of prey,
found at Eyzies, retains marks no less clear, and the
skull of a bear from Nabrigas has. in it a large wound
which must have been made by a missile of some kind.
In Ireland a stone hammer was found wedged into
1
Ducrost and Arcelin: " Stratigraphie de
1' Eboulis
de Solutre," Mat., 1876,
p. 403. Archives du Musc'um d'llist. Nat. de Lyon, vol. 1.
FISH AND FISHING. 59
the head of a Cervus megaceros ; in Cambridgeshire,

the skull of an Ursus spelceus still containing the frag-
ment of a celt which had given the animal his death-
blow at Richmond (Yorkshire) the bones of a large
;
deer which had been sawn with a flint implement.

The fine collection in the University of Lund, contains
a vertebra of a urus pierced by an arrow, and the
Copenhagen Museum, the jaw of a stag pierced by a
fragment of flint. Steenstrup mentions two bones of a
large stag into which stone chips had penetrated deeply,
and in which the fracture had been gradually covered
over by the bony tissue. A
bone of some bovine
animal with an arrow deeply imbedded in it has been
taken from a bed of peat in the island of Moen, cele-
brated for its tumuli and the number of objects found
in them. At Eyzies, a flint flake has been found
lumbar vertebrae of a young
firmly fixed in one of the
reindeer,and M. de Baye mentions an arrow with a
tranverse edge stuck in the bone of a badger. The 1
Abbe Ducrost found a flint arrow-head sticking in a

vertebra of a horse.
Nor were those already mentioned the only animals
on which man made war. We shall speak presently
of the contests with each other, which began amongst
men in the very earliest days of humanity. Human
bones, perforated by arrows and broken by stone hatch-
ets, bear ineffaceable traces to this day of homicidal
struggles.
In many places fresh-water and marine fish were
utilized as food by man. In the numerous caves of the
Vezere, in those of Madeleine, Eyzies, and Bruniquel,
excavations have brought to light the vertebrae and
1
M. de Baye found a great many similar arrow-heads in the Petit-Morin caves.
6o PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
other bones of fishes, amongst which predominate

chiefly those of the jack, the carp, the bream, the
chub, the trout, and the tench — in a word, all the fish
which people our rivers and lakes. In the Lake
still
Stations of Switzerland, fish of all kinds are no less

abundant. At Gardeole, amongst the bones of mammals
have been found the shells of mollusca, and remains of
the turtle and of goldfish. Fish was not, however,
caught by all these primitive people, not even by all
those who lived by the sea. In researches carefully

carried on for years in the Maritime- Alps, M. Riviere
found neither fishing-tackle nor fish-lines.
Whilst the cave-men of the south of France seem not
to have utilized any but fresh-water fish, the Scandi-
navians, at a date probably less remote however, did
not hesitate to brave the ocean. The kitchen-middings
contain numerous remains of fish, amongst which those
of the mackerel, the dab, and the herring are the most
numerous. There, too, we meet with relics of the cod,
which never approaches the coast, and must always be

sought by the fisherman in the open sea.
Although we are in a position to assert that men were
able to catch fish during every prehistoric period, if
not in every locality, we can speak less positively of

their mode of doing so. The earliest fishing-tackle was
doubtless of the most primitive description : the bone
of some animal, a fragment of hard wood, or even a
fish-bone pointed at each end and pierced with a hole,
served their purpose (Fig. 10). The Exhibition of
Fishing-Tackle held at Berlin in 1880 contained several
such implements, some of wood, others of bone. Others
have also been found in the Madeleine Cave, and in
different stations of the ancient inhabitants of Switzer-
land. It is interesting to note their resemblance to

those still in use amongst the Esquimaux.
Fig. io.— I. Fragments of arrows made of reindeer horn from the Martinet
—
Cave (Lot-et-Garonne). 2. Point of spear or harpoon in stag-horn (one third
—
natural size). 3. and 4. Bone weapons from Denmark. — 5. Harpoon of stag-
—
horn from St. Aubin. 6. Bone fish-hooks pointed at each end, from Wangeru
Prehistoric man also turned to account the teeth of

animals. We may quote in this connection the molars
of a bear from which the enamel and the crown have

been removed, and the thickness of which has been
lessened by rubbing (Fig. 11). The small flints picked
up in great numbers in the department of the Gironde
also date from a remote antiquity; they are sixteen
millimetres long by four wide, and though we cannot
assert it as a fact, they are supposed to have been used
for catching fish.
The Museum Lund
two flint fish-hooks
of possesses
of a curved shape, one of them, which is four centi-
metres long by nearly three wide, was found by the
seashore; the other and smaller one came from the
Fig. ii. — Bears' teeth converted into Fig. 12. —Fish-hook made out of a
fish-hooks. boar's tusk.
shores of Lake Kranke. Fish-hooks made of bone,

1
which is more easily worked than flint, very soon re-

placed those in that material. They are numerous in
the Lake Stations of Wangen, Mooseedorf, and St.
Aubin. Some are cut out of the horns of oxen, others
of stags' antlers while others again are made of boars'
;
tusks (Fig. 12), but all alike greatly resemble modern

forms. The peat-bogs of Scania have yielded a bone
fish-hook seven centimetres long, which is considered
very ancient, and the Museum of Stettin possesses one,
also very old, found in a marly deposit of Pomerania.
We must not forget to mention, although it probably
1
Nilsson :
" The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,"
belongs to a much more recent period, a fish-hook in

reindeer horn,now in the Christiania Museum. It was
found in a tomb in the island of Kjelnoe, not far from
the Russian frontier. Numerous skeletons, wrapped
up in swathings of birch-bark, repose in this tomb.
All around lay fragments of pottery, lance- and arrow-
1
heads, and combs of reindeer horn, the date of which
it is impossible to fix exactly.
In America, stone fish-hooks are rare. The most

ancient are of bone, and resemble those now in use.
They have been picked up in Dakota, and in the cinder-
heaps of Madisonville (Ohio), in Indiana, in Arkansas,
on the shores of Lake Erie, and in a kitchen-midding of
Long Island. The greater number of them are pol-
ished, and some of them have near the top a hole by
which they could be fastened to a line or cord. The
fish-hooks of California are remarkable for their rounded
forms and sharply curved points the top was covered ;
with a thick layer of asphalt to which the line was

probably fastened. They are numerous in all the
islands of the Pacific coast. In that of Santa Cruz
Schumacker excavated a tomb which must have been
that of a fish-hook manufacturer, for care had been
taken to place near the deceased, not only the imple-
ments of but also a number of fish-hooks in
his craft,
various stages of advancement. The Californians used
the shells of the Mytilus Californicus and Haliotis to
make fish-hooks, and these were even more curved than
those made of bone. The shape seems but little suited
1
Captain Edward Johnson, who travelled about in New England from 1628
to 1632, relates that the children there spent their days in shooting at the fish
that appeared on the surface of the water, succeeding in catching them with
marvellous skill. " A History of New England," London, 1654.
for fishing, but even in our own day the natives of the
Samoa Islands use similar tackle with great success.
The Indians of the northwest coast make fish-hooks of
epicea wood, and those of Arizona utilize for the same
purpose the long spikes of the cactus. It is very prob-
able that European as well as American races knew
how to use wood in the same manner. During the
lapse of centuries, however, these fragile objects have
been reduced to dust, and we are unable to make any
further conjectures on the subject.
The use of bronze, the first metal to be generally
employed, does not seem to have introduced any great
modifications in fishing-tackle. Bronze fish-hooks are,
however, thinner and lighter than those in other
materials, and resemble those in use amongst fishermen
at the present day. A certain number have been found
in the Lake Stations of Switzerland, in lakes Peschiera
and Bourget, as well as in Scotland, Ireland, and the
island of Fiinen off the coast of Denmark. We must
not omit to mention the important foundry of Larnaud,
or the cache of Saint-Pierre-en-Chatre, both so rich in
bronze objects. In America, where the copper mines
of Lake Superior were worked at a remote antiquity,
a few rare copper fish-hooks have been found, the
greater number in the Ancon necropolis. Gold fish- 1
hooks are comparatively more numerous, and have been

discovered in New Granada and the Cauca State. One 3
of these was found some forty-nine feet below the sur-

face of the ground, and as there is no trace of disturb-
ance, we cannot assign to it a recent origin. The gold
1
Reiss and Steubel : "The Necropolis of Ancon in Peru," London and
Berlin.
8
MaUriaux, 1870, p. 348.
—
fist-hooks are about four inches

long, and look like big pins
with the lower end bent back
upon the upper.
Other fishing implements
were also used by our prehis-
toric ancestors. At Laugerie-
Basse a rough drawing shows
us a man striking with a har-
poon a fish that is trying to
escape. These harpoons were
generally made of reindeer horn
(Figs. 10 and 13). Some had
but one barb, others several.
One of the largest was found
in the Madeleine Cave it is ;
eight inches long, and has

three barbs on one side and
five on the other. Most of
these weapons have a notch in
the handle, with the help of
which they could be firmly
fastened to a spear or lance.
Different fashions prevailed in
different localities, and sinews,
leather thongs, roughly plaited
cords, creepers, and resinous
substances were often pressed
into the service.
Many harpoons have been Fig. 13. A, a large barbed
found in the caves of the arrow from one side of the Plan-
tade shelter (Tarn-et-Garonne).
south of France ; others come
B, lower part of a barbed har-
from Belgium, from Keyserloch poon from the Plantade deposit.
5
in Germany, Kent's Hole in England, from Conches,

Wauwyl, and Concise in Switzerland. Excavations in
Victoria Cave, near Settle (Yorkshire), yielded amongst
other interesting objects a bone harpoon cut to a
point and with two barbs on either side. On the
banks of the Uswiata, a little Polish river flowing into
the Dnieper, two harpoons made out of the horns of
some bovine animal were found, both in perfect preser-
vation, and with several barbs. Count Ouvaroff, in
1
an excellent work published a little before his death,

mentions a bone spear from the shores of the Oka, and
Madsen and Montelius speak of Scandinavian harpoons.
These weapons must have been especially useful in
the North during the severe frosts of winter. The
fisherman made a hole in the ice and struck the fish
with his harpoon when the poor creatures came up to
the surface to breathe.

From the most remote times the Americans knew
how to make and use harpoons. As many as twenty-
2
eight different kinds are known. In some the barbs
are bilateral, but most of them have them on one side
only. Some, however, are made of stag or elk horn,
and one harpoon from Maine is made of whalebone.
A harpoon-point found near Detroit (Michigan) is
nearly a foot long by one inch thick. Excavations in
Alaska yielded a harpoon which lay
a rock shelter in
side by side with some of the most ancient Quater-
nary mammals of America. A good many copper
harpoon-heads are also mentioned one of the largest ;
from Wisconsin is ten inches long. Others have

been found in the island of Santa Barbara (Cali-
1
Wiadomosei Archdologizne, No. iv., Warsaw, 1882.
2
Ch. Rau: " Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and America."
FISH AND FISHING. 6"J
fornia)and in Tierra del Fuego, where the natives of

the present daystill use similar ones. These harpoons
with barbs are by no means simple weapons, the idea
of which would naturally occur to the human mind,
so that it is really extremely strange to find weapons
so entirely similar in regions so different and so widely
separated from one another. This constant similitude
in the working of the genius of man is, as we shall
never tire of repeating, one of the most striking facts
revealed by prehistoric researches.
Herodotus tells that the Pceni (Carthaginians)
plunged baskets into the water aud drew them up full
of fish. It is probable that the Lake Dwellers of Hel-
vetia employed a similar process, but these ancient
Swiss were already more advanced than that. They
knew how hemp, to spin it, and to make
to cultivate
nets of it the remains of some of these nets have often
;
of late years been taken from the beds of the lakes.

It is almost impossible to class with any certainty
the numerous Lake Stations of Switzerland. Some few
certainly date from the Stone age, others from the
transition period, between it and that of the early use
of metals, or even from the Bronze age. As therefore
they have been occupied at different times by different
people, some of them having even been still in use in
the time of the Romans, it is most difficult to fix with
any precision the date to which belong the various ob-
jects mixed together beneath the deep waters of the
lakes. We can only say that the nets differ very much
in the size of the meshes, and the thickness of the
rope used. Those found at Robenhausen are very
like those in use in France at the present day. There
has, in fact, been no advance in the art of making
fishing-tackle since the remote days of the Lake

Dwellers.
We are .ignorant of the mode of manufacture of
prehistoric nets. Did the Lake Dwellers, as some
archaeologists are disposed to think, use a loom % Did
they use shuttles and rollers such as are employed by
the Esquimaux and Californians of the present day?
It is impossible to say, but it is supposed that the
bears' teeth sharpened to a point, found in some sta-
tions,were used to tighten the meshes. These meshes
were generally square, and each one was finished off
with a knot of the same size at each intersection.
The lead weights so indispensable to fishermen of
the present day for sinking the nets, were represented
in prehistoric times by stones. These stones, which
are drilled or notched, are found in all the Lake Sta-
tions. The fragments of pottery pierced with a hole,
found at Schussenried, a Lake Station of the Stone age
on the Feder-See (Wurtemburg), were probably used
for the same purpose. In some of the Swiss Lake
Stations have also been found pieces of wood and cork,
pierced with one or more holes, which had certainly
served as floats.
Numerous stone implements of the most primitive

forms, often of rock not native to the country, have
been found in some of the islands of Greece, as well
as in Corsica, Sardinia, Elba, and Sicily. These dis-
coveries bear witness to the presence of man in these
islands at a veiy remote antiquity, though no other
traces of the existence human beings
of prehistoric
have as yet been found there. These men can only
have reached the islands by way of the sea. Boats
were the only means of communication between the
EFFOR TS AT NA VIGA TION, 69
Lake Dwellers and the mainland, and,

of Switzerland
as we have seen, the ancient Scandinavians
hunted fish
on the deep ocean. We must therefore admit that
attempts at navigation were made in the very earliest
days of humanity. Man, impelled by necessity, or
perhaps only by curiosity, was not afraid to launch his
bark, first upon the rivers, and later upon the more
formidable waves of the sea :
Illi robur et Ees triplex

Circa pectus erat, qui fragilem truci
Commisit pelago ratem
Primus. 1
The Latin poet is right, and we cannot but admire

those who were the first to brave the terrors of the
deep and the horrors of the tempest; for they were
gifted alike with the intelligence which conceives, the
courage that dares, and the strength that achieves.
Trees torn, up by the roots by the force of the
waters, and floating on the surface of those waters,
naturally attracted the attention of primeval man, and
the first boats were doubtless the trunks of such trees
roughly squared and then hollowed out with the help
of fire. Later experience led to the addition of a
prow which would more easily cleave the water, and
a stern which would serve as a pivot. These canoes,
if such a name may be already given to them, were at
first guided by branches stripped of their leaves, or
with long poles. Then oars or paddles were intro-

duced, which are better for beating the water, and in
later barks traceshave been made out of what is sup-
posed to have been a mast, indicating the use of a sail.
The art of navigation may now be said to have been
1
Horace: "Odes," book i., ode iii.
:
inaugurated. In different parts of Europe have been

found boats which certainly belong to very remote
times, though their exact date cannot be fixed. Their
construction greatly resembles that of the pirogues of
the Polynesians, or the kayaks of the Greenlanders.
One of the most ancient, now in the Berlin Provincial
1
Museum, was taken from a peat-bog of Brandenburg. It
is 27 feet long and scarcely 16 inches wide.

Sir W. Wilde describes several boats from the
marshes and peat-bogs of Ireland, 2 many of which
have handles cut in the wood at the ends, by the help
of which they could easily be dragged along overland.
Sir W. Wilde adds that the Irish also used curraghs,
or coracles, which were mere wicker frames covered
with the skins of oxen. These frail barks introduce
us to a new mode of navigation they are met with ;
not only in the different countries of Europe, but also

in America, and were in use there in pre-Columbian
times. Even more interesting examples have been
3
found in Scotland. Towards the close of last century
a pirogue was taken from the ancient bed of the
Clyde at Glasgow. Since then have been discovered,
at depths varying from six to twelve feet, more than
twenty similar boats. The deposits in which they lay
had formerly been beneath the sea, but are now some
twenty feet above the level of the ocean. Great
changes have therefore taken place since these barks
were launched upon the waves.* Their mode of con-
1
Friedel :
" Filhrer durch die Fischerei Abtheilung."
2 " A Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Academy."
8 Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Scotland, vol. iii. Dr. R. Munro :
" Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings or Crannoges," Edinburgh, 1882.

4 Geikie, Edinburgh Neiu Philosophical Journal, vol. xv. De Lapparent
" Traite de Geologie," first edition, p. 518.
EFFOR TS AT NA VIGA T10N. JI
struction is an excellent indication of the date to which

they belong. Some which are hollowed out of the
trunks of oaks by the help of fire, or with a blunt
tool, are supposed by Lyell to date from the Stone age.
Others have clean-cut notches, evidently made with

metal implements. Some are made of planks joined
together with wooden pegs, and one canoe found in
County Galway even contained copper nails. Most of
the boats from the bed of the Clyde seem to have
foundered in Some, however, were dis-
still waters.
covered in a vertical position, others had the keel
uppermost, and these latter had evidently sunk in a
storm. In one of these boats was a diorite hatchet of
the kind characteristic of Neolithic times another, ;
the wood of which was perfectly black, had become as

hard as marble, and in it was a cork plug. Then, as
now, the oak which yields cork was foreign to the cold
climate of Scotland.
We will quote but one of the discoveries made in
England. In 1881 a canoe, hollowed out of the trunk
of a tree, was found at Bovey-Tracey in Devonshire.
more than twenty-
It lay in a deposit of brick-earth
nine feet below the highest level reached by the
It was more than thirty-five
1
waters of the Bovey.
inches wide, and its length could not be exactly
determined, the workmen having broken it in getting
it out. An eminent archaeologist is of opinion that
this boat dates from the Glacial epoch, perhaps even
from a more remote time. If this hypothesis, the
responsibility of which we leave to him, be correct,
this is the most ancient witness in existence of pre-
1 " Discoveries in the more Recent Deposits of the Bovey Basin," Trans.
Devonshire Ass., 1883.
historic navigation. We must also mention a boat

found near Brigg (Lincolnshire), a few feet from a little
river that flows into the Humber. It is about forty-
five feet long by three and a half feet wide, and is some
three feet high. The prow is fluted. There are no

traces of a mast, though the size of the boat must have
made it difficult to manage with oars alone.
One of the pirogues preserved at the Copenhagen
Museum is made of one half of the trunk of a tree,
some six feet long, hollowed into the shape of a
1
trough, and cut straight at both ends. It is curious
to compare this clumsy structure with a boat recently

discovered beneath a tumulus at Gogstadten in Nor-
way (Fig. 14), of which, though it dates from historic
times, we give a drawing, as it is a good illustration
of the progress made. The dead Viking had been
laid in his boat, as the most glorious of tombs ; with
its prow pointing seawards, for would not the first
thoughts of the chief when he awoke in another life

be of the sea which had witnessed his triumphs % The
sides of the boat, which was more than sixty-six feet
long and fifteen across the widest part, were painted,
and around it was ranged a series of shields lapping
over one another like the scales of a fish, and not
unlike the designs seen in the celebrated Bayeux
tapestry. A block of oak intended to receive the
mast was placed in the centre of the boat, and near
the skeleton were oars some fifteen feet long and
similar in form to those now in use.
In laying the foundations of the bridge of Les Inva-
lides, Paris, a boat was taken out of the mud which had
lain there for many centuries. Like most of those

1 " Nordische Oldsager i der kongelige Museum i Kjobenhawn."
already mentioned, it had been made out of a singL

trunk roughly squared. Everywhere, we must repea
once again, man's original ideas were the same every ;
where the tree floating on the top of the water excitec

his curiosity, and became the starting-point for on<
of his most important discoveries. Traces of sirnilai
attempts at navigation are met with in other parts oi
France ; a canoe was found in the Loire near Sainl
Mars, and the Dijon Museum possesses another fron

the same river, the latter some sixteen feet long, and
have been made out of what are supposed to have
traces
been seats, but may have been mere contrivances foi
strengthening the boat. A canoe taken last year fron
the bed of the Cher is of the shape of a trough closed
at the end by pieces of wood fixed by means of vertical
grooves. The prow had been shaped in the firsl
instance in the trunk itself, and it was probably owing
to an accident, a collision perhaps, that it had had to be
mended in this way (Fig. 15).
The Lake Dwellers of Switzerland owned boats from
the time of their first settlement in their water homes
One of them found at Robenhausen is more than ten
feet long, and is very shallow, varying from six tc
eight inches. Like most of those already mentioned, il
was hollowed out of the trunk of a tree, bulgingjioul

towards the centre, and rounded at the ends. So fai
none but stone tools have been found at the station oi
Robenhausen, so that we must presume that it was
with such tools that the boat was made. The lakes ol
Bienne and) Geneva, and the stations of Morges anc
Estavayer have also yielded boats which are doubtlesi
less ancient than those of which I have just spoken
In nearly all of them the prow is curiously pointed
76 Prehistoric peoples.
One of them from the Lake of Neuchatel, large enough

to hold twelve people, has a beak at the stern and a
rounded prow ; but there is no sign of any contrivance
for keeping the oars in place.
Lastly, a boat has been found in Switzerland some
3,900 feet above the valley of the Rhine, but no one
can say how it came to be at such a height.
These canoes, whatever their shape or size, can only
have been worked by means of oars, yet oars have sel-
dom been found. The Geneva Museum, however, has
8.METRE5. *|
FIG. 16. —A lake pirogue found in the Lake of Neuchatel. I. As seen from the
outside. 2 and 3. Longitudinal and transverse sections.
one which came from the muddy bed of an Italian lake,

and others are preserved in the Royal Museum of Dub-
lin, which have every sign of great antiquity. In de-
fault of the actual oars, we have other proofs of their
use. Gross mentions a boat (Fig. 16) in which holes
'
had been made in the upper parts of the sides to hold

the oars. In 1882 a pirogue was taken out of the bed
of the Rhone at Cordon (Ain), which had been half
buried in the mud of the river. The wood was black
and the upper portions were charred, but the middle part
1 " Les Proto-Helvetes," Nature, 1880, 1st week, p. 151.
EFFORTS AT NA VIGA TION. J7
was still intact and very hard. The holes, pierced in

the sides at regular intervals, may have served to keep
the oars iu place. The position of the rowers at the
bottom of the boat was very unsatisfactory. It was
not, however, until later that we find seats so placed as
to enable the rowers to put out all their strength. At
a recent meeting of the Anthropological Society (July
21, 1887) M. Letourneau observed that the rudder
came into use very slowly. It was not known to the
Egyptians or to the Phoenicians, nor, which is still
more strange, to the Greeks and Romans. Their
vessels, whatever their size, were guided by two large
oars ( gubernaculum ) placed in the stern.
'
The Chi-
nese appear to have been the only people who were
acquainted with the use of the rudder from time im-
memorial. It is probable that from them it passed to
the Arabs and even perhaps to the people of Europe.
A discovery made near Abbeville is the most ancient
example we have of the use of the mast. Some works
being executed at the fortifications of the town,
brought to light a boat which must have been some
twenty-one feet long. Two projections form part of
the planking, leaving between them a rectangular
space in which the mast was probably fixed. 1
Professor Gastaldi speaks of a wooden anchor taken

from a peat-bog near Arona, beneath which was a pile
dwelling. He dates it from the time when the use of
bronze was already beginning to spread in the north of
Italy. A stone of peculiar shape found at Niddau is,
they say, an Ankerstein (anchor stone). This name is
also given by Friedel to a good-sized round lump of
sandstone with a deep groove near the middle. Lastly,
1 " Mem. Soc. d'Emulation d'Abbeville," 1867.
Kerviler, in crossing a basin of the Bay of Penhouet,

near Saint-Nazaire, found several stones which had
evidently been used to keep boats at anchor, and with
the aid of which we can get an idea of the methods
employed by ancient navigators (Fig. 17).
Such are the only details we have on the important
subject of prehistoric anchors, but we may add that
ancient fishermen probably ventured but a short dis-
FlG. 17. — Stones used as anchors, found in the Bay of Penhouet. I, 2, 3,
stones weighing about 160 pounds each. 4 and 5, lighter stones, probably
used for canoes.
tance from the land, and would not need anchors, as

they could easily carry their light boats on shore.
We have now passed in review the conditions of the
life of our remote ancestors, noting the animals that
were their contemporaries, and the fish that peopled

the watercourses near which they lived. We have
studied the earliest efforts at navigation, made in the
pursuit of fish, and we must now go back to examine
the weapons, tools, and ornaments of these ancient
peoples, and trace in those objects the dawn of art.
This will be the aim of our next chapter.
—
CHAPTER III.
"WEAPONS, TOOLS, POTTERY ; ORIGIN OF THE USE OF FIRE,

CLOTHING, ORNAMENTS; EARLY ARTISTIC EFFORTS.
The Vedas show us Indra, armed with a wooden

club, seizing a stone with which to pierce Vritra, the
1
genius of Does not this call up a picture of
evil.
the earliest days of man upon the earth ? His first

weapon was doubtless a knotty branch torn from a
tree as he hurried past, or a stone picked up from
amongst those lying at his feet. These were, how-
ever, but feeble means with which to contend with
formidable feline and pachydermatous enemies. Man
had not their great physical strength he was not so fleet ;
a runner as many of them his nails and teeth were ;
useless to him, either for attack or defence his smooth ;
skin was not enough protection even from the rigor

of the climate. Such inequality must very quickly
have led to the defeat of man, had not God given to
him two marvellous instruments the brain which :
:
whom it is given to pierce the cloud, personified by
Indra, the all-seer, to
Vritra, and " open the receptacles of the waters with his far-reaching thun-
to
der-bolts," is of course the sun, the worship of which was one of the earliest
and most natural instincts of humanity whilst Vritra was in the first instance
;
merely the symbol of the cloud, intervening between heaven and earth,
shutting out from men the light of the sun, and keeping back the refreshing
rain. The gradual conversion of these natural phenomena into a good and a
malignant power, ever struggling for the mastery, is a forcible illustration of the
way in which myths are evolved. Trans.
79
conceives,and the hand which executes. To brute

force man opposed intelligence, a glorious struggle in
which he was sure to come off victorious, for in the
words of Victor Hugo, " Ceci devait tuer cela." The
huge animals of Quaternary times have disappeared
for ever, whilst man has survived, victor over Nature
herself. Even before his birth, an immutable decree
had ordained that nothing on the earth should check
his development.
Man alone amongst the countless creatures around
him knew anything of the past, and he alone was
able to predict the future. Even apes, however great
the intelligence that may be attributed to them, have
remained very much what they were from the first.
In vain has one generation succeeded another; they
still obey the dictates of their brutal instincts, as their
ancestoi's did before them

and if apes continue to
;
propagate their species thousands of years hence they

will remain what we see them to be now. Dogs, too,
will remain dogs, elephants will continue to be ele-
phants ;
beavers will make their dams exactly like
those of the present day, wasps will never learn to
make honey as bees do, and bees will never be able,
like ants, to bring up plant-lice to be their servants,
or to enslave other families. Their instincts are incapa-
ble of progress, and in their earliest efforts they reach

the limit assigned to them by the Eternal Wisdom.
To man alone has it been given to understand what
has been done by his predecessors, to walk more firmly
in the path along which they groped, to pronounce
clearly thewords they stammered. Without a doubt
we descend from the men who lived in the midst of
primeval forests, or amongst stagnant marshes, dwell-
1
WEAPONS, TOOLS. 8
ing in caves, for the possession of which they often

had to fight with the wild beasts around them. These
men, however, knew that one result achieved would
lead to another, if similar means were used they saw ;
that a pointed stone would inflict a deeper wound than

a blunt one on the animal they hunted, and therefore
they learnt to sharpen stones artificially the skins of ;
beasts, flung over their shoulders, protectedthem from

cold,and they learned to make garments seeds sprouted ;
around them, and they learned to plant them they ;
noticed the effect of heat upon metals, and tried to mix

them wild animals wandered around them, and they
;
learned to reduce them to slavery. Every bit of knowl-

edge won, and every progress made, became the starting-
point for fresh acquisitions, fresh advances, which
thenceforth remained forever the common heritage of
the human race.
It was thus that experience early taught our remote
ancestors that rock chips more easily under the blows
of a hammer when fresh from the quarry and every- ;
where men learnt to choose the stone best suited to

their purpose. For hatchets, wedges, and hammers,
they used jade and kindred substances, such as fibro-
lite, diorite, and basalt, which were at the same time
extremely durable, and very impervious to blows. For

spear- and arrow-heads, knives, saws, and all instru-
ments requiring sharp points and cutting edges, they
employed quartz, jaspar, agate, and obsidian, according
to the situation of the worker all these materials,
;
though extremely hard, being easily split into thin

sharp flakes. The blocks of stone were very methodi-
cally cut up ;
they were, in fact, to use a very appro-
priate expression of M. Dupont's, scaled (ecailles). We
give drawings of a few of these implements (Figs.

18, 19, which illustrate the earliest efforts of
and 20),
man, efforts which may be looked upon as the starting-
point of all those industries which in the course of
centuries have developed results which it is impossible
to contemplate without astonishment.
The most ancient tools which have come down to us
were clumsy and heavy, cut on both sides and pointed
Fig. i8. — Scraper from the Dela- Fig. 19. — Implement from
ware Valley. the Delaware Valley.
(Fig. 20). They may vary in material, in size, and in

1
finish, but they ean always be easily recognized.
Were they man's only weapons X We hesitate to be-

lieve it, and the careful researches of M. d'Acy add
to our incredulity.
2
He tells us that at Saint-Acheul,
1
De Mortillet :
" Le Prehistorique," Paris, 1883, p. 133.
8 " I.imon du Plateau du Nord de la France," Paris, 1878. Acheuleenet
Mousterien : Revue di-s Questions Scientiftques October, 1880. Bui. Soc,
,
Anth., 1884, 1887.

WEAPONS, TOOLS. 83
which was the very cradle of these strange discoveries,

the almond shape is found mixed with the pointed
amongst the Moustier flints, so that what is true in one
place not in another, and any general conclusion
is
would certainly be premature.

It would take us a long time to enumerate the coun-
tries where tools of the Chelleen type have been found.
x
They are met with in the valleys of the rivers of
Fig. 20. —Worked flints from the Lafaye and Plantade shelters (Tarn-et-
Garonne).
France, now imbedded in the flinty alluvium, now

strewn upon the surface of the soil. Though rare in
Germany, they are found in abundance in the southeast
of England, and it is to this period that must be
assigned the discoveries at Hoxne, and in the basins
of the Thames, the Ouse, and the Avon. Similar dis-
coveries have been frequent in Italy, Spain, Algeria,
" ChelUen, so called from their having been found at Chelles (Seine-et-Marne),
where the remains of the Elephas antiqutis, the most ancient of the pachyderms
now known in Europe, was associated with these tools.
and Hindostan. Dr. Abbott speaks of the finding of

such implements in the glacial alluvium of the Dela-
ware (Figs. 18 and 19), Miss Babitt in the alluvial
deposits of the Mississippi, Mr. Haynes in New Hamp-
shire, Mr. Holmes in Colombia, and other explorers in
the basin of the Bridget and at Guanajuato in Mexico.
Everywhere these implements are identical in shape
and in mode of construction, and very often they are
associated with the bones of animals of extinct species.
Sometimes these Chelleen tools (the French call
them coups de poing) have retained at the base a pro-
jection to enable the user to grasp them better; these
certainly never had handles, but it will not do to draw
any general conclusions from that fact and an exami-
;
nation of the collection of M. d'Acy, the most complete

we have of relics of the Chelleen period, proves on the
contrary that certain tools could not have been used
unless they had been fixed into handles.
In the following epoch, to which has been given the
name of Mousterien, from the Moustier Cave (Dor-
dogne), we already meet with more varied forms, in-
cluding scrapers, saws, knife-blades, and spear- or
arrow-heads, with the special characteristic of being

cut on one side only. These implements are found not
only in the alluvium as are the Chelleen coups de poing,
but also in the cave or rock-shelter deposits. Amongst
the mammalian remains with which they are associated
are those of the mammoth, the Rhinoceros tichorhinus,
the elk, the horse, the aurochs, the cave-lion, the cave-
hyena, and the cave-bear, remarkable for the constancy
of their characteristics. The Elephas antiquus and the
Rhinoceros Merckii that belonged to the preceding
period have now completely passed away, and the
WEAPONS, TOOLS. 85
reindeer, now appearing for the first time, are still far
from numerous.
In the Solutreen period, so named after the cele-
brated Lake Station of Solutr6, we find stalked arrow-
heads with lateral notches, 1 flint-heads of the form of
laurel leaves,which are remarkable for their regularity
of shape and delicacy of finish as compared with those;
of previous periods, the forms are much more delicate

and elegant. Many of the caves of the south of France
belong to this period. It is difficult to mention them
all, and even more difficult to make out a complete list
of contemporary mammalia the deposits generally

;
actually touch those of another period, and the separa-

tion of the objects in them has not always been made
with all the care that could be wished. At Solutre,
remains of the horse predominate whilst in other ;
places those of the reindeer are met with in consider-

able quantities, and with them are found the bones of
the cave-bear, the wild cat (a creature considerably
larger than the tigers of the present day), and of the
mammoth, which Europe many centuries.
lived on in
Lastly to the Madeleine period, so named after the
Madeleine Cave (Dordogne), and considered one of the
most important of the cave epochs, belong tools and
weapons of all manner of shapes and materials, inclu-
ding bone, horn, and reindeer antlers from this time ;
also date barbed arrows and harpoons, batons of office,

telling of social organization the engravings and carv-
;
ings on which bear witness to the development of

artistic feeling. On the other hand, the flint arrow-
heads and knife-blades are not so finely cut we see ;
that man had learned to use other materials than stone.

1
De Mortillet :
" Musee Prehistorique," pi. xvi. to xix.
The reindeer is the most characteristic animal form of

the Madeleine period.
To the times we have just passed in review succeeded
others of a very different kind, to which has been given
the general name of Neolithic. The fauna, probably
under the influence of climatic and orographic changes,
underwent a complete transformation the mammoth, ;
the cave-bear, the megaceros, and the large felidse died

out, the hippopotamus was no longer seen, except in
the heart of Africa the reindeer and other mammals
;
that love to frequent the regions of perpetual snow,

retired to the extreme north; and in their place ap-
peared our earliest domestic animals, the ox, the sheep,
the goat, and the dog. Man, who witnessed these
changes, continued to progress he abandoned his
;
nomad he ceased to be a hunter,

for a sedentary life ;
and became an agriculturist and a shepherd. Every-

where we meet with traces of new customs, new ideas,
and a new mode of life. This progress is especially
seen in the industrial arts. Metals it is true are still
unknown, but side by side with tools, which are merely

chipped or roughly cut, we find for the first time
hatchets, celts, small knife-blades, and arrow-heads
admirably polished by the long-continued rubbing of
one stone on another. Polishers, so much worn as to
bear witness to long service, are numerous in all collec-
tions, and rocks and erratic blocks retain incisions
which must have been used for the same purpose. 1
enumerate the number of polished

It is impossible to
hatchets which have been found their number is sim- ;
ply incalculable. Of all of them, however, those of

1
M. de Mortillet enumerates 127 polishers found at various points in thirty
departments of France. " Le Pre'historique," first edition, p. 534.
WEAPONS, TOOLS. gy
Scandinavia are the most remarkable for delicacy of

workmanship. With the fine hatchets of Brittany,
may be compared the blades found at Volgu, and pre-
served in the Museum of Copenhagen, and those in
pink, gray, and brown flint, from the Sordes Cave in
the south of France but we cannot fix the date of the
;
production of any of them. One of the great difficul-

ties of prehistoric research, a difficulty
not to be got
over in the present state of our knowledge, is to dis-
tinguish with any certainty the periods into which an
attempt has been made to divide the life-story of man
from his first appearance upon earth.
Was there any abrupt transition from one period to
another ? Must we accept the theory of a long break
caused by geological phenomena, and the temporary
depopulation which was one of the consequences of
these phenomena ? Did the new era of civilization
date from the arrival of foreign races, stronger and
better fitted than those they succeeded for the struggle
for existence ? Or are these changes merely the result
of the natural progress which is one of the laws of our
being? These questions cannot now be solved, and if
the industries which are at the present moment the object

of our researches, bear witness to the employment of a
new process, that of polishing, we are bound to add
that everywhere Palaeolithic forms are still persistent.
Flints, merely chipped, are clumsy tools, but there is
no break in their series till we come to the splendid

specimens from Scandinavia or from Mexico. Of the
seven types of the Solutreen period, six are met with
in the time now under consideration.
1
Five types of
Solutreen javelins have also been found in the Durfort
1
Piette : Ass, Franc, pour V Avancement des Sciences, Nantes, 1875, p. 909.
88 . PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
Cave, and beneath the dolmens of Aveyron and of Lozere.

Neolithic weapons, such as those found in the Moustier
Cave, are not so numerous, but the type adopted there
isnot such a fine one nor so carefully fiuished, which
accounts for its having been more rarely copied. If we
examine the knives, awls, scrapers, and saws, we come
to the same conclusion, although comparison is not so
easy. " A knife is always a knife, an awl is always an
awl," remarks M. Cartailhac " they were made at every

;
period, and their resemblance to each other proves

nothing with any certainty."
Roundedstones of granite or sandstone seem how-
ever to have been weapons peculiar to the Neolithic
period. Dr. Pommerol recently spoke at the Anthro-
pological Society of Paris, of two such rounded stones
picked up in the Puy-de-D6me. Similar stones have
been discovered at Viry-Noureuil, and M. Massenat has
one in his collection from Chez-Pourre. Are not these
rounded stones of a similar character to the holas flung
by the ancient Gauls, and still in use amongst the in-
habitants of the pampas of South America ?
As we have already remarked, man from the earliest
times must often have held in his hands the stones
which served him as weapons or as tools. The marks
of hammering on the smooth surfaces, the rounded
projections and the grooves worked in these stones,
were evidently made to prevent the hand or the thumb
from slipping. Soon, however, reflection led man to
understand the increase of force he would gain by the
addition to the stone of a handle of wood or horn, stag
or reindeer antler. This addition of a handle was sim-
ple enough : the workman merely bound it to the
hatchet with fibrous roots, leather thongs, or ligaments
WEAPONS, TOOLS. 89
taken from the gut of the animals slain in the chase

(Fig. 21). At
we are astonished at the
first sight
results obtained with such wretched materials, but it
isimpossible to dispute them, for we have seen the
same thing done in our own day.
Other hatchets, chiefly those of a small size, were
fixed into sheaths made of stag-horn, and two chief
types of them have actually been made out. 1 The
1. 2.
Fig. 21. — 1. Stone javelin-head with handle. 2. Stone hatchet with handle.
sheaths of the first type are short and end in quad-

rangular heads. They are found most frequently in
Switzerland, in the basins of the Rhone and of the
Saone, and throughout the south of France. Those of
the second type are pierced with a hole large enough
to pass the handle through. These are found in the
northwest of France, in Belgium, and in England.
1
De Mortillet :
" Le Prehistorique," p. 544; " Musee Prehistorique," figs.
431 to 434.
go PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
Flint arrows of triangular or oval form, notched or

stalked, were everywhere used for a considerable length
of time. They are found in the numerous caves of
France, beneath the antas of Portugal, in the tombs of
Mykense, as well as among the Amos of Japan and the
Patagonians of South America. Their use necessarily
involves that of a bow, yet we do not know of a single
weapon such as that, or of one that could take its
place, dating from Palaeolithic times. Probably the
rapid decomposition of the wood of which bows were
made has led to their disappearance. De Mortillet 1
mentions a bow found in a pile-dwelling in a bog near
Robenhausen, which he ascribes to the Neolithic period.
Another is known which was found at Lutz, also in
Switzerland. To all appearance the most ancient
bows of historic times greatly resemble these two pre-
historic examples.
Though was the material par
flint excellence of
Quaternary times for weapons and tools, it could not

long suffice for the ever-growing needs of man. Our
museums contain a complete series of bone or stag-horn
implements such as darts, arrow-heads, barbed arrows,
harpoons, fibulae, and finely cut needles often pierced
with eyes (Fig. 22). The invention of barbs is worthy
of special notice the series of points made the blow
;
much more dangerous, as the projectile remained in
the flesh of a wounded animal which was not able to

get it out. But this was not the only object of the
barbs. Arranged symmetrically on either side of the
arrow they kept it afloat in the air like the wings of a
bird, which may perhaps have suggested their use and
increased the effect and precision of the shot.
1 " Musee Prehistorique," fig. 410.
'
5*
6 s
vO .b/3 „
52 'e "o
rt cs
'53 S
h O
hi
o
U
X a
u o
4J Q.
^
—
C
h f-< ti.
(S ?
u ,fl o
ra-*
ta
The Marsoulas Cave has yielded one bevelled arrow

shaft, made of reindeer antler, with a deep groove on
the surface. A similar arrow-head was found in the
Pacard Cave, and in other places arrows have been
found with one or more grooves on the surface. Were
these grooves or drills intended to hold poison, and
was man already acquainted with this melancholy
mode of destruction ? We know that the use of poison
was known most remote historic antiquity.
at the
1
The Greeks and Scythians used the venom of the

viper, and other peoples employed vegetable poisons.
There is nothing to prevent our believing that similar
methods were in use in prehistoric times.
Fig. 23 —Amulet made of the penien bone of a bear, and found in the
Marsoulas Cave.
There is no doubt that it is the caves of the south

of France which have yielded the most interesting
objects needles with drilled eyes, and barbed arrows
;
have been picked up in considerable numbers at

Eyzies, Laugerie-Basse, at Bruniquel, Massat, and in the
Madeleine Cave. Dr. Garrigou mentions some rein
deer or roebuck antlers found in Ariege caves, which
had been made In the deposits
into regular stilettos.
at Lafaye were found stilettos or bodkins, varying in
length from two to six inches; needles measuring
from nineteen to one hundred and five millimetres
and provided with eyes; at Marsoulas were found
1
I.agneau :
" De 1'Uusage des Fleches empoisonnees chez les Anciens
Peuples l'Europe, " Ac. des Insc, 2d November, 1877.
WEAPONS, TOOLS. 93
an amulet made of the penien bone of a bear (Fig. 23),

some pendants, and some pointed pieces of bone which
astonish lis by the delicacy of their workmanship, and
the drawings with which they were adorned.
At Paviland, Dr. Buckland discovered a wolf bone
cut to a point. Kent's Hole yielded a number of
needles resembling those of the Madeleine Cave; at
Aggtelek (Hungary) were found some bones of the
cave-bear pointed to serve as daggers, cut into scrapers
Fig. 24. —Various stone and bone objects from California.
or pierced to serve as amulets or ornaments. In Bel-

gium, objects veiy similar to these have been found
made of reindeer antler and dating from the most re-
mote times. The antlers moulted by the reindeer in
the spring were in especial request.
Excavations in the sepulchral mounds near San
Francisco (California) have yielded thousands of bone
implements (Fig. 24). Others similar to them have
been found in the layers of cinders at Madisonville
(Ohio) and beneath the numerous kitchen-middings of

the coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific.
The processes employed by the cave-men were very
simple. In one of the excavations superintended by
him, M. Dupont picked up the radius of a horse
*
bear-
ing symmetrically made incisions executed with a view-
to getting off splinters of the bone. These splinters
were rounded by rubbing either with chips of flint,
or on such polishers as are to be seen in any of the
museums then one end was sharpened, and the other,
;
if need were, pierced with a hole. It is astonishing

to find some of them as fine as the steel needles of the
present day, and with perfectly round eyes made with
the help of nothing but a rough flint, and there would
still be some doubt on the subject, if M. Lartet 2 had
not obtained exactly similar results by working on

fragments of bone with the flints he had found in these
excavations. Other experiments of a similar kind

were no less conclusive, for Merk 3 perforated an ivory
plaque with a pointed flint which he used as a gimlet.
Some objects, which are supposed to date from Neo-
lithic times, bear witness to an altogether unexpected
degree of civilization. In the heart of Germany, in
the peat-bogs of Laybach and Worbzig on the banks

of the Saale, have been found earthenware spoons
of the shape of modern spatulae ; at Geraffin on Lake
Bienne, a finely shaped spoon made of the wood of a
yew tree ; and at Lagozza, another in shining black

earthenware. Lartet had already brought to light a
bone implement covered with ornaments in relief which
1
" Les Temps Prehistoriques en Belgique," p. 151.
* " Reliquise Aquitanicae," p. 127.
'Nature, 1876, second week, p. 5.
POTTERY. 95
he ascribed to the Palaeolithic period, and which he

imagined had been used for extracting marrow and ;
another archaeologist tells of objects in reindeer antler

found in the Grourdan
Cave, which he thinks
were used for a similar
purpose. In the Saint-
Germain Museum are
preserved the remains
of spoons from the bed
of the Seine, and in the
collections of England
are fragments of bone
taken from beneath the
West-Kennet dolmen,
which were all prob-
ably employed for extract-
ing marrow. But the most
important discovery of all,
which leaves no doubt on the

subject, is that made by M.
Perrault at the Chassey Camp,
near Chalon-sur-Saone, beneath
a hearth dating from Neolithic
times. He collected fourteen
earthenware spoons ; one of
them of a. round shape and
, , , „ . . Fig. 25. — Dipper found in
remarkable for its Size, Was the excavations at the the Chas-
unfortunately broken (Fig. 25). sey Camp.
It is ofbrown earthenware with a rather rough surface

mixed with bits of flint, and is so much worn that it
had evidently been in use a long time. Lastly two
spoons, also of earthenware, have recently been found
near Dondas (Lot-et-Garonne). The use of spoons,

which certainly marked' considerable progress, must
therefore have spread rapidty.
Long previously, however, pottery of a great variety
of form bore witness to the plastic skill of man. Every-
where \ve find vessels of coarse material mixed with
grains of sand or mica to give more consistency to the
paste which was baked in the fire, and had often no
further ornamentation than the marks of the fingers of
the potter. Does this pottery date from Palaeolithic
times, or were the earthenware vessels later additions
at the time of those disturbances of deposits which are
the despair of archaeologists ? A few examples may
enable us better to answer this question.
Fraas tells us that fragments of pottery have been
found in all the caves of Germany in which excavations
have been made. He quotes that of Hohlefels, where
he himself picked up such fragments amongst the bones
of the mastodon, the mammoth, the rhinoceros, and the
cave-lion, when the remains of these animals were for
the first time found in Germany. In 1872, the making
of the railway from Nuremberg to Ratisbon brought
to light a cave of considerable depth. In its lower
deposits were found nothing but the bones of hyenas,
bears, and which the cave had been the resort'
lions, of
for centuries. Among the most ancient deposits, relics

of a similar kind were found in abundance, but now
mixed with numerous fragments of pottery, worked
flints, and fish bones, including those of the carp and
the pike, with the bones of mammals, amongst which

predominated those of the rhinoceros, most of them
intentionally split open. At Argecilla, twenty leagues
from Madrid, Vilanova discovered a regular workshop,
"
POTTERY. gf
in which were knives and flint arrow-heads, together

with some very primitive pottery made of clay that
had evidently been brought from a distance, as there
is none in the district in which the pottery was found.
In an upper deposit Vilanova collected more than two

hundred implements made of diorite, a rock frequently
used in Spain, some very remarkable celts of serpentine
dating from the Neolithic period, and numerous frag-
ments of very delicate pottery. Not far off he dis-
covered another workshop, containing some very fine
hatchets perfectly polished, and some keramic ware
tastily ornamented. The progress made is as marked
in the weapons and tools as in the pottery.
We have also seen some fragments of earthenware
from the caves of Chiampo and Laglio, near Lake Como,
and from that known as the Cave dei Colombi, in the
island of Palmaria, which was occupied shortly before
the Neolithic period. But it is Belgium which yields
the most decisive proof on this subject, and a visit to
the Brussels Museum is enough to convince the most
incredulous. The excavations made under M. Dupont
in the caves of the Meuse and the Lesse have again
and again brought to light fragments of pottery, asso-
ciated with the bones of Palaeolithic animals. Schmer-
ling, too,had already found similar fragments in the
Engis Cave, mixed with flint weapons of the rudest
description and his discoveries have been strikingly
;
confirmed by those recently made at Spy, near Namur, 1
and by others made by M. Fraipont. 2 In portions of

this same Engis Cave not previously explored the
1
In this cave, in the second ossiferous deposit, were found four fragments of
pottery. De Puydt and Lohest :
" L' Homme Contemporain du Mammouth.
2 " La poterie en Belgique a 1' age du mammouth," Revue d' Anthropologic,
1887.
7
;
learned professor of Liege found, in 1887, fragments of

a vase of ovoid form, some flints of the Mousterien
type, and some bones of extinct mammals. Most of
the pottery in the Brussels Museumblack and of is
primitive make ; some few fragments, however, are of

finished workmanship. We may mention especially an
ovoid vase, remarkable for its size and for its lateral pro-
jections. This vase,
which is hand-mod-
elled,came from the
Frontal Cave ; the
clay is of blackish
K hue mixed with little
^'ijjjinj bits of calcareous spar.

M. Ordinaire, Vice-
Consul for France at
Callao, speaks of the

cayanes or inacahuas,
which are earthen-
ware basins of great
symmetry of form,
Hj§ made by the Combos
pr^ women, without turn-
FlG. 26. — Pottery of a so far unclassified type \\\cr wheels Or mills of
found in the Argent
6 Cave (France). n •
i m, -, ,i
any kind. Though the
elegant shape of the Frontal and other vases at first
surprises us, reflection convinces us that men who could

cut stones with such rare skill would certainly be able
to produce equally good pottery.
Similar instances may easily be quoted from France.
Excavations at Solutre have yielded several fragments
of yellow,hand-made pottery very insufficiently baked
and other pieces have been found in the peat-bogs of
POTTERY. 99
Bastide de B6arn with the bones of reindeer, and worked

flints similar to those found in Quaternary deposits.
We may add that at Lafaye, Bize, and Pondre
(Hainault) discoveries were made of pottery mixed
with human
remains and with those of animals now
extinct and in the Argent Cave (Basses- Alpes) a
;
new type, shown in Fig. 26, has been found which

merits special attention. In the very earliest days of
prehistoric research the Nabrigas Cave (Lozere) was
excavated by M. Joly, who found in it many fragments
of pottery. In a volume published shortly before his
death he relates the circumstances of his discovery, and
earnestly maintains its authenticity. Later excavations,
made under the direction of masters in prehistoric
science, would have thrown some doubts on the as-
sertions made by the professor of Toulouse, if MM.
Martel and Launay had not brought forward a fresh
proof in support of it. " On the 30th August, 1885,"
r
they say, "we picked up at Nabrigas in a deep hole,

untouched by previous excavations and not displaced
by water, some human bones and a piece of pottery
side by side with two skeletons of Ursus spelceus. The
human bones, of indeterminate race, included an upper
left maxillary, still retaining three teeth, an incomplete
mastoid apophysis, and seven pieces of crania, belong-
ing to different individuals. The piece of pottery only
measured one and a half by two and a quarter inches ;
the clay is gray and friable, bound together with big
and a few particles of charcoal."
bits of quartz, mica,
There would appear to be no sufficient reason to ques-
tion the exactness of a discovery so carefully studied.
1
Ac. des Sciences, Nov. 9, 1885. We must add that at a later seance M.
Cartailhac contested, if not the facts, the conclusions deducted from them.
Many
eminent archaeologists, however, maintain that
pottery was completely unknown in Palaeolithic times,
and they do not hesitate to attribute to a later period
any deposit in which it occurs where its presence
cannot be accounted for by later displacements. M.
Cartailhac declares that he has never been able to
establish either in the south of France or in the cen-
which justifies ns in assert-
tral table-land a single fact
ing that the men of the Reindeer period, still less those
of earlier epochs, knew how to make pottery. The
first explorers, he adds, did not always distinguish
with sufficient care the vestiges of different epochs,
the relics of diverse origins. How often have bones
carried along by water, or brought where they are
found by animals, been mixed with those abandoned
by men, or the deposits of the Neolithic period with
those of the earliest Quaternary times How often !
have the contents of a passage giving access to a cave

been confounded with those of the cave itself Hence !
deplorable errors, which it is impossible to rectify

now. Evans and Geikie in their turn assert the
absence in England 1
of Palaeolithic pottery, and Sir
J. Lubbock energetically maintains this opinion.
Doubtless these are great authorities, and yet, in
view of the facts now known, it is difficult to believe
that man was long a stranger to the art of making
pottery. Its invention required no great effort of
intelligence, and its fabrication presented no great

difficulties. Man had but to knead the soft clay
1
But what is the value of categorical assertions of this kind in presence of
the fragments of pottery found at different levels in Kent's Hole? One of
these fragments was so rotten that when placed in water it formed a hlack
liquid mud as it decomposed.
ORIGIN OF THE USE OF FIRE. IOI
which he trod under his foot, and the plasticity of

which he could not fail to notice. This clay hardened
in the sun, and hollows were formed as it shrunk the —
first vessel was discovered Experience soon taught
!
man to replace the heat of the sun by that of the fire,

and to add a few bits of some hard substance to give
the clay greater consistency. These first crude and
clumsy vases have been preserved to our own day as
irrefutable witnesses to the work of our ancestors.
Though, therefore, we cannot be sure that pottery was
made Quaternary times by all the races that peopled
in
Europe/ it is impossible to deny that a great many of
them were in possession of the art. This -difference
in the degree of civilization attained to by men living
but short distances from each other need not surprise
us, for all travellers report similar facts amongst con-
temporary savage races.
The baking of pottery is a proof that the use of
fire was known in the most remote times. The exist-
ence in various places of masses of cinders, fragments
of charred wood, and half-calcined bones, proves it yet
more decidedly. At Louverne (Mayenne),
Solutre, at
at Saint-Florent (Corsica), to give but a few examples,
we find large slabs of half-calcined stone, laid fiat and
covered with heaps of cinders and all sorts of rubbish.
These slabs formed the family hearth, where man pre-
pared his food, with the help of the fire he had learnt
to ignite and to keep burning.
How did man arrive at a discovery so vital to his
1
I have not space to speak here of the curious pottery found in America.
The most ancient specimens, moreover, are of much later date than the Quater-
nary epoch. I can only refer those interested in the subject to my book on
" Prehistoric America," published in French by M. Masson of Paris, and in Eng-
lish in America by Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons.
;
existence ? The Vedas assign the origin of fire to the

rubbing together in a storm of the dry branches of
trees. " The first men," says Vitruvius, " were born, 1
as were other animals, in the forests, caves, and woods.

The thick trees violently agitated by the storm took
fire, through the rubbing together of their branches
the fury of the flames terrified the men who found

themselves near them and made them take to flight.
Soon reassured, however, they gradually approached
again and realized all the advantages they might gain
for their bodies from the gentle warmth of the fire.
They added fuel to the flames, they kept the fire up,
they fetched other men whom they made understand
by signs all the usefulness of this discovery. The
men thus assembled articulated a few sounds, which,
repeated every day, accidentally formed certain words
which served to designate objects, and soon they had
a language which enabled them to speak and to under-
stand one another. It was, then, the discovery of fire
which led men to come together to form a society, to
live together, and to inhabit the same places."
Without pausing to consider the somewhat puerile
theories of Vitruvius, or the myths which testify to
the importance attached to fire by primeval man, we
are at liberty to suppose that a conflagration caused
by lightning or by the spontaneous combustion of
vegetable materials in a state of fermentation, or other

similar phenomena, made known to man the power of
fire,and the use it might be to him. The accidental
striking together of two flints produced a spark ob- ;
servation taught men to obtain a similar result by the

same process ; a great step in advance was made, and
1
" De Architecture," book ii., c. i.
CLOTHING. IO3
the future of humanity was assured. M. Dupont picked

up in theChaleux Cave a kidney-shaped piece of iron
pyrites, hollowed out in a peculiar manner, which had
evidently been used to obtain the precious spark. The
Christy collection contains a granite pebble with a
hole the shape of a cup, which had evidently been used
to obtain by rubbing round in it a stick of very
fire,
dry wood. The two methods employed at the present

day were therefore already in use. Lumholz tells us
that the Australians of Herbert Eiver get fire by rub-
bing two pieces of wood together. The Indians of
the northwest of Colorado, the Yapais of the Caroline
Islands, and the Mincopies of the Andaman Isles, with
many other races, know no other process. We must, how-
ever, still maintain a certain reserve in dealing with the
fire-obtaining implements of so imperfect a nature, and
belonging to times so remote as those called prehistoric.
During bad seasons, or in the bitter cold of winter,
primeval man contented himself with flinging over his
shoulders the skins of the animals he had killed. He
prepared these skins with flint scrapers, and sewed
them together with bone needles. In hot weather man
probably roamed about stark naked. Shame is not a
natural instinct ; education alone develops it. "Writing
in 1617, Fynes Morison speaks of having seen at Cork
young girls quite naked, engaged in crushing corn with
a stone. The Tchoutchi women, says Nordenskiold,
wear no clothes when in their tents, however great the
cold. In tropical countries men, women, and children,
all completely nude, went to meet the travellers who
landed on their shores. Count Ursel, in a recent jour-

ney in Bolivia, in going through a little town, saw
"near the public fountain some young girls already
growing up making their ablutions and playing about

in the garb of the earthly paradise." Travellers who
visited Japan a few years ago reported that the inhabi-
tants, without distinction of age or sex, came out of
the water in a state of complete nudity, presenting a
strange spectacle to European eyes. The sight of what
is actually going on amongst comparatively civilized
people in our own day enables us to understand better

what must have been the state of things when the
whole world was in a state of barbarism.
It was not until much later, in the times to which
the name of Neolithic has been given, that men made
stuffs, and replaced the skins of animals by lighter and
more flexible garments. The inhabitants of the Lake

Stations of Switzerland and of Italy cultivated hemp.
At Wangen and at Robenhausen have been found
shreds of coarsely woven cloth, and at Lagozza frag-
ments of yet more primitive material. On some of
these pieces it is supposed that traces of fringe and
attempts at ornamentation have been made out. Even
in the Perigord caves Lartet noticed some long slim
needles which could not have been used for sewing
skins and he concluded that they were intended for
;
more delicate work, perhaps even for embroidery. A

new art, and one which we certainly should not have
expected to find is now met with for the first time.
It is probable that our savage ancestors tatooed
themselves, or painted their bodies, as did the Britons
in the time of Caesar, and asdo modern savages,
or, not to go so far afield, as do English sailors and
some of the workingmen of France. 1
At Montastruc
1
On the subject of tatooing an excellent work may be consulted by Dr.
Magitot ("Ass. Franc, pour l'Avancement des Sciences," Alger, 1881).

ORNAMENTS. lO%
have been picked up some fragments of red chalk, and

inMayenne of red iron ore, whilst in the cave of Spy-
was found a bone filled with a very fine red powder,
and in that of Saltpetriere some powder of the same
kind was discovered preserved from destruction in a
shell. Lartet and Christy have made similar discov-
eries in the caves of the Dordogne M. Dupont in a ;
shelter at Chaleux, and M. Riviere at Baousse-Rousse.

The Abbe Bourgeois found at Villehonneur not only
a piece of red chalk as big as a nut, but also an oval-
shaped pebble, which had been used for grinding it,
the interstices of the surface
' still retaining traces of
coloring matter.
Red chalk was not the only substance employed.
At Chatelperron, were picked up fragments of manga-
nese ; at Cueva de Rocca, near Valentia, pieces of cin-
nabar ; in the Placard Cave, bits of black lead ; and in
the different stations in the Pyrenees, especially in that
of Aurensan, ochre has been found which was doubt-
lessused for the same purpose. At Solutre, ochre,
manganese, and graphite were found the last named ;
had been scraped with a and the scratches made

flint,
by it are still distinctly visible. From a Westphalian

cave, Schaafhausen took some dark yellow ochre at ;
Castern (Staffordshire), a bit of this same calcareous

substance, worn with long service, was picked up in ;
Cantire (Argyleshire), a piece of red hematite, which

had evidently been brought from Westmoreland or
Lancashire and lastly, in Kent's Hole was found some
;
peroxide of manganese.
All these fragments or ochre or manganese, red
chalk or black lead, were reduced to powder with the
help of pebbles, artificially hollowed out. Everywhere
we meet with these primitive mortars, and side by side

with them other pebbles in their native condition,
which had evidently been used for crushing the color-
ing matter.
A recent discovery tends to confirm the hypothesis
that these colors were used for the decoration of the
human body. A curious engraving on a bone repre-
sents the head and arm of a man, and on the lower
part of the forearm it is easy to make out a four-sided
design which evidently indicated tatooing.
In every country, and in every climate, we find men
as well as women manifesting a taste for ornament.
The progress of civilization has greatly increased this
taste, but it existed as a natural instinct in the very
earliest days of humanity, and the contemporary of the
mammoth and the cave-bear, the cave-man cowering
in his miserable den, sought for ornaments with which
to deck himself. In the caves near the stations occu-
pied by primeval men we find little bits of fossil coral,
beads of hardened clay, the teeth of bears, wolves, and
foxes, boars' tusks, and the jawbones of small mam-
mals, fish-bones, and belemnites pierced with holes, and
intended to be used as amulets or ornaments to be
worn round the neck. At LafajT e, we find the incisors
of small rodents serving the same purpose. The
dweller in the Sordes Cave owned a precious necklace
made and three lions' teeth. The teeth
of forty bears'
found often have on them ornamental lines, which
doubtless indicated the rank or celebrated the deeds
of the chief. The Abbe Bourgeois describes some
found at Villehonneur (Charente), two of
stags' teeth
which bore scratches which may have had some signi-
fication. At Cro-Magnon were picked up some ivory
ORNAMENTS. 107
plaques pierced with three holes; at Kent's hole

were found some oval disks measuring five by three
inches,which in the delicacy of their workmanship
presented a curious contrast to the other objects taken
from the same cave. In the Belgian caves were picked
up some thin slices of jet and some ivory plaques, and
in those of the south of France fragments of steatite,
cut into rectangular and lozenge shapes, whilst in the
Thayngen Cave was found a pendant of lignite (Fig. 27).
Men were not content with natural products ;
fashion
demanded new forms and fresh materials.
Fig. 27. — 1. Lignite pendant. 2. Bone pendant (Thayngen Cave).
But what most attracted the attention of the ancient

inhabitants of France were bright-colored shells.The
caves of Roquemaure have yielded nearly a thousand
disks and beads made of cockle-shells at Cro-Magnon ;
more than three hundred shells were picked up which

formed a collar or necklace, which was not however so
valuable as that of the man of Sordes. M. de Maret
discovered at Placard numerous shells some belong- ;
ing to ocean species still extant, and others fossils of
forms now extinct. Many of them are foreign to the

country in which they were found. From the most
remote times therefore the inhabitants of the present
department of Charente fished in the Gulf of Gascony,
rossed Aquitania, visited the shell marl deposits of

Lnjou and Touraine, and penetrated as far as the
iresent Paris basin. The finding of the Oyprina
r
slandica in one of the French caves proves that the
•rehistoric men of France even went as far away as
he north of England. This by no means an isolated
is
act numerous shells

; from the department of Cham-
>agne had been taken to the shores of the Lesse and
he Meuse. At Sblutre have been found belemnites,
mmonites, and Miocene shells, which were certainly
lever native to that district, with pieces of rock-crystal
rom the Alps, and beads made of a jadeite of unknown
irigin.
In Scotland have been found necklaces of nerites

md limpets at Aurignac, eighteen little plaques of
;
lockle shell pierced with holes in the centre. At

liaugerie-Basse, a man overtaken by a landslip had
jeen crushed by the stones which had fallen upon
lim ; time has destroyed his clothes, but the shells
1
vith which he had decked himself are still preserved.
ie had worn four on his forehead, two on each
ihoulder, four on each knee, and two on each foot.
^.11 idea of these shells having formed a necklace
nust be abandoned they were all notched, and had

;
seen used either to adorn or fasten the clothes.

The most interesting discoveries, however, were those
nade in the caves of Baousse-Rousse, of which we have
jo often spoken.M. Riviere picked up the skeletons
)f two some thousand shells (Nassa neritea)
children,
artificially pierced, which had been used to deck their
garments. Near an adult were other shells forming a

1
Oypraa rufa, Cyprcca lurida (Comples rcndus Acad, des Sciences, vol.
xxjEtm^ p. 1060).
ORNAMENTS. 109
necklace, a bracelet, an amulet, and a garter worn on

the left leg ; whilst on the head was a regular resille
or net, not unlike that of the Spanish national costume,
which net was made of small nerita shells and kept in
place by bone pins.
We must also mention amongst favorite ornaments
beads made of jet and of very fine ochreous clay dried
in the sun, of calcareous crystalline rock, and of gray-
ish schist, and in other places of beads of amber or of
hyaline quartz, the brightness of which attracted the
attention. At the station of Menieux (Charente) with
flints of a type to which it is usual to give the names
of Mousterien or Solutreen, excavations have yielded

numerous carefully polished balls of calx, varying
in diameter from one to two inches. had
If there
been any doubts as to their use, those doubts would
have been removed by the discovery at Laugerie-Basse
of a fragment of the shoulder-blade of a reindeer on
which was engraved the figure of a woman wearing
round her neck a necklace of clumsy round balls.
Other yet stranger ornaments have been found, for
which what we have said about the cannibalism of early
man should have prepared the reader. Our ancestors
of the Stone age adorned themselves with necklaces
of human teeth, and two skeletons have been dug out
wearing round their necks this token of their victories.
M. de Baye possesses in his collection some round
pieces of skull pierced with holes (Fig. 28), and at
the meeting of the American Association in 1886, at
Ann Arbor (Michigan) were presented some orna-
ments made of human bones from a mound in Ohio.
In taking from the gangue in which it was imbedded
a skull from the megalitbic monument of Vaureal,
;
IIO PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
Pruner Bey noticed a fragment of a human shoulder-

blade pierced with an incision in which was fixed a
little rounded piece of bone. This style of ornament
seems to have remained in use for many centuries, for
M. Nicaise has lately discovered at Moulin d'Oyes
(Marne) a necklace made of calx balls, shells, and
pendants cut out of the scales of unio shells. On
this necklace hung a round piece of human cranium,
and in the Gallic cemetery at Varille, the exterior
lamina of a human lumbar vertebra was fastened to
a necklace made of coral beads.
We are also acquainted with facts of another order,
which may be mentioned in this connection. The men
\ JUL
I0.Q f #
Fig. 28. — Round pieces of skull pierced with holes (M. de Baye's collection).
of Marjevols drank out of human crania ; the Greno-

ble Museum owns a drinking-vessel of this kind
have been discovered at Billancourt, at Cha-
othei's
vannes, at the Chassey Camp, and at Sutz, JEfele,
and Locras in Switzerland, as well as at Brookville
in the State of Indiana. Dr. Prunieres possesses half
a human radius, probably that of a female, carefully
polished and converted into a stiletto (Fig. 29). Dr.
Garrigou has an arrow-head made of a human bone,
Pellegrino a fibula converted into a polisher found in
the lower beds of the celebrated Castione terremare
near Parma. At the meeting of the Prehistoric Con-
1
ORNAMENTS. 1 1
gress in Paris in 1869, Pereira da Costa mentioned a

femora converted into a sceptre or staff of office, and
to conclude this melancholy list, Longperier mentions
a human bone pierced with regular openings, which,
by a strange irony of death, served as a flute to delight
the ears of the living.
One of the earliest necessities of human nature must
have been companionship; for help was absolutely
Fig. 29. — Part of a —

rounded piece of a human parietal Stiletto made of the
end of a human radius— Disk made of the burr of a stag's antler.
necessary to enable man to cope with the dangers sur-

rounding him. Tribes, formed at first of members of
the same family, must have existed from the very dawn
of humanity. The reindeer phalanges, pierced to serve
as whistles (Fig.. 30), found at Eyzies, Schussenreid,
Laugerie-Basse, Bruniquel, in the Chaffaud Cave and
the Belgian shelters, in a peat-marsh of Scania, in the
island of Palmaria, and in many other places, were

doubtless used to summon men to war or to the chase.
In the Cottes Cave were found some reindeer and
aurochs' shanks, which may naturally be supposed to
have served the same purpose. The curious objects
preserved in the Christy collections must also have
been used in war or in the chase. They bear, in
mark of their owner, notches of dif-
addition to the
ferent shapes commemorating his exploits in battle
or in hunting. At Solutre, MM. Ducrost and Arcelin
noticed fragments of elephants' tusks, calcareous
plaques, and some sandstone disks from the Trias,
with notches and equidistant lines evidently having a
similar purpose.
Fig. 30. —Whistle from the Massenat Collection.

From whistles to regular musical instruments the
transition is simple. Without describing that men-
tioned by M. de Longperier, which we cannot confi-
dently assert to be of great antiquity, M. Piette, in one
of his numerous excavations, discovered a primitive
flute made of two bird bones which, when put to-
gether and blown into, produced modulations similar
to those of the pipes used by the people of Oceania;
the monotonous music of which is alluded to by Cook.
Some time afterwards M. Piette noticed similar bones
in the Rochebertier collection. So far we know of no
other discovery of a similar kind.
EARL Y ARTISTIC EFFORTS. 1
13
The curious objects known under the name of staves

of office would, if it were needed, afford yet another
proof that the men of the Stone age lived in societies,
possessed an organization, and acknowledged a chief.
The staves of office consist of large pieces of reindeer
or stag antler, artistically worked and presenting a
pretty uniform appearance. Their surface is decorated
with carvings and engravings representing animals,
plants, and hunting scenes. They are thicker than
they are wide, and the care often taken to reduce the
thickness is a proof that an attempt was made to com-
bine elegance and lightness with solidity (Figs. 31, 32,
33, 34, and 35). Nearly all of them are pierced at one
Fig. 31. — Staff of office.
end with large holes, of which the number varies.
Some of these holes were later additions. May we

perhaps see in them which
the signs of a priesthood, in
successive ranks were attained, and in which every
new achievement was rewarded with a new distinc-
tion ? This is difficult to prove, but these staves could
not have been used as weapons or as tools the care ;
taken to cover them with ornaments, with the long

time required for this decoration, shows the value their
owners attached to them. The impossibility of any
other hypothesis is the best proof we have of their use.
H4 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
Amongst the marvellous objects collected by Dr.

Schliemann at Hissarlik, were two fragments of rein-
deer antler pierced with holes presenting a singular
resemblance to those we have been describing. We
may also compare with them the pogomagan, the badge
of office of Indian chiefs on the Mackenzie River, the
Tartar hemous, the sticks on which the Australians
mark by conventional any event of importance
signs
and the similar objects
to themselves or their tribe,
from Persia, Assam, the Celebes, and New Zealand.
But why seek examples so far away ? Is not the
Fig. 32. — Staff of office made of stag-horn pierced with four holes.
memory of these ancient insignia preserved in our own

day, and may they not have been the original forms
of the sceptres of our kings and the croziers of our
bishops ?
These staves, of which hundreds have now been

found, were pickedup in many different places, in-
cluding the Goyet Cave in Belgium, the caves of

Perigord and Charente, and the Veyrier Station in
Savoy. At Thayngen, as many as twenty-three were

found, all pierced with one hole only. 1 We must not
1
On this point an excellent work may be consulted by S. Reinach :
" Le
Musee de Saint Germain," p. 232.

Fig. 33. — Staff of office Fig. 34. — Staff of office in reindeer antler, with a
found at Lafaye. horse engraved on it, found at Thayngen.
"5
) ;
Il6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
omit to mention amongst these relics of ages gone by,

one of the most interesting found in 1887 at Montgau-
dier (Charente) (Fig. 35), which bears on one side a
representation of two seals, and on the other of two
eels, the former of which especially are executed with
a truth to form, boldness of execution, and delicacy of

touch which are positively astonishing when we re-
member that the artist (we cannot refuse him this

title) had no tools at his disposal but a few miserable
flints or roughly pointed bones. The hinder limbs, so
strangely placed in amphibia, are faithfully rendered
each paw has its five toes, the texture of the skin can
be made out, the head is delicately modelled the muz- ;
zle with its whiskers, the eye, the orifice of the ear, all
testify to real skill. The existence of the seal in the
Quaternary epoch in the south of France was not
known until quite recently, when Mr. Hardy found
in a cave near Perigueux the remains of a seal (Phoca
groenlandica associated with quite an arctic fauna.
,
In part at least therefore of the Quaternary period,

1
very great cold must have prevailed in Perigord.
With this staff of office were picked up some pieces
of ivory covered with geometrical designs, engraved
with some sharp implement, stilettos, bone needles,
knives, flint scrapers, and, stranger still, the remains
of the cave-lion, the cave-hyena, and the Rhinoceros
tichorMnus, all contemporaries of the most ancient
Quaternary fauna.
It was not only on the staves of office that the men
of the Stone age exercised their talent. Many and
varied are the subjects which have been found en-
graved on plaques of ivory or on stone, and incised on
1
Vaudry: Acad, des Sciences, August 25, l8yo.
Fig. 35. — Staff of office found at Montgaudier.
"7
Il8 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
bears' teeth or on stag horn. We represent one form-

ing the hilt of a dagger (Fig. 36), and another repre-
senting a bear with the convex forehead, characteristic
of the species, engraved on a piece of schist (Fig. 37),
and a mammoth engraved on an ivory plaque with its
Fig. 36. —Carved dagger-hilt (Laugerie-Basse).
long mane, trunk, and curved tusks (Fig. 38). The

artist who depicted these animals with such faithful
exactitude evidently lived amongst them. The first
discovery of this kind was made by Joly-Leterme in
Fig. 37. — The great cave-bear, drawn on a pebble found in the Massat Cave
(Garrigou collection).
the ChafEaud Cave (Vienna) ; it was a reindeer bone

on which two stags were represented. 1
In the Lortet Cave was found the bone of a stag on
1
A. Bertrand Acad, des Inscriptions, April 2g and
: May 6, 1887.
EARLY ARTISTIC EFFORTS. 119
which could be made out a representation of fish and

reindeer, whilst at Sordes was discovered a bear's tooth
with a seal engraved upon it (Fig. 39), at Marsoulas a
piece of rib pn which is depicted an animal said to be
Fig. 38. — Mammoth, or elephant, from the Lena Cave.

a musk-ox (Fig. 40), and at Feyjat (Dordogne) a bird's
bone bearing on it a drawing of three horses moving
rapidly along. I am obliged to pass over many other
most interesting examples, but I must not omit to men-
FlG. 39. — Seal engraved on a bear's tooth found at Sordes.
tion the magnificent examples which form part of the

Peccadeau collection at Lisle. Cartailhac mentions
some chamois, an ox, and an elephant some engraved ;
on the bones of deer and others on fragments of ivory,

or on reindeer antlers. The art of the cave-men was

now at its zenith.
But for one exception to which I shall refer again,
it is curious to note that we only find these engravings
and carvings, which so justly excite our astonishment
bounded on the north
in a district of limited extent,
by the Charente, on the south by the Pyrenees and
extending on the east no farther than the department
of the Ariege. It is a pleasant thought that in the
Fig. 40. — Fragment of a bone with regular designs. Fragment of rib on which
is engraved a musk-ox, found in the Marsoulas Cave.
midst of their struggle for existence, and when they

had to contend with gigantic pachyderms and for-
midable beasts of prey, our most remote ancestors, the
contemporaries of the mammoth and the lion, already
developed those artistic tendencies which are the glory
of their descendants.
I referred above to an exceptional example of pre-
historic artfound beyond the borders of France. In
excavations in the Thayngen Cave, on the borders of
Switzerland and Wurtemberg, twenty most remarkable

examples were found, in which it is easy to recognize
the horse (Fig. 41), the bear (Fig. 42), and the rein-
deer grazing (Fig. 43). 1
All, especially the last named,
are rendered with such perfection, that it was at first
supposed that they were the work of a forger. A
searching inquiry has proved that they are nothing of
the sort a skilful zoologist would have been needed
;
to represent the Ovibos moschatus (Fig. 44), which re-
Fig. 41. — Head of a horse from the Fig. 42. —

Bear engraved on a bone
Thayngen Cave. from the Thayngen Cave.
tired many centuries ago towards the extreme north.

If we do find a few rare attempts at art in other dis-
tricts, they are absolutely rudimentary. The staff of
office found in the Groyet Cave is of very rude work-

manship. The Brussels Museum contains a few other
specimens, of which the most important is a fragment
of sandstone from the Frontal Cave, on which a few
1
Reinach in his " Catalogue of the Saint-Germain Museum " gives the best
description I know of this now celebrated reindeer.

;
uncertain scratches represent what looks like a stag.

Some indistinct traces of engraving have been made
out on the hones found
in the Altamira Cave,
near Santander, and
recently a bone on
which a kind of horse
was engraved, was
picked up at Cress-
well's Crags, Derby-
shire, in a cave known
in the district as Moth-
er Grundy's Parlor.
This specimen, as were
those of Thayngen,
was associated with
numerous bones of
Quaternary animals,
amongst which those
of the hippopota'mus
were the most curious.
The representation
of the human figure
is extremely rare. I
have already men-

tioned the young man
trying to strike an
aurochs which is run-
ning away from him
Fig. 43. — Reindeer grazing, from the and the woman wear-
Thayngen Cave. ing a necklace. The
former (Fig. 45), found at Laugerie, is engraved on a
piece of reindeer antler about twenty-five centimetres
;
long. The aurochs with head down and quantities

its
of bristling hair, widely open nostrils, arched and
uplifted tail, presents the appearance of a terrified
animal endeavoring to escape the danger threatening

it. The man is naked, and has a round head, his hair
is stiff and seems to stand up on the top of his skull
on the chin a short beard can clearly be made out the ;
face expresses the delight and excitement of the chase.

The neck is long, the arm
short, and the spine of
unusual length. In the other example of the repre-
sentation of the human figure, that of the woman
Fig. 44. — Head of Ovibos moschatus engraved on wood, found in the Thayngen
Cave.
wearing a necklace, drawn on a piece of a shoulder-

blade of a reindeer, she is seen lying by a stag, and
would seem to be in an advanced state of pregnancy.
The piece of bone however is broken, and the head
of the woman is lost, which of course greatly lessens
the value of the relic.
On a fragment of a staff of office from the Madeleine

Cave is engraved a man between two horses' heads
(Fig. 46). On a reindeer antler is represented a woman
with fiat breasts and very high hips, followed by a
124 PkEtllSTORIC PEOPLES.
serpent ; a shell from the

crag near Walton-on-the-Naze
had a human face roughly
engraved on one side. The
Abbe Bourgeois, in the ex-
cavations so fruitful of re-
sults at Rochebertier, found
a rough carving of a human
face (Fig. 47) ; M. Piette at
Mas d'Azil found a little
bust of a woman, carved on

the root of the tooth of a
horse. This statuette had a
low forehead, a prominent
nose, a retreating chin, and
breasts of the negress type
of the present day ; charac-
teristics quite unlike those of
the skeletons taken from this
cave or those near it. We
wonder whether the artist
meant to represent the feat-
ures of a race other than his
1
own. M. du Bouchet men-
tions rough sketch en-
a
graved on a flint discovered
near Dax the workman, ;
doubtless daunted by the

difficulties of his task, had
abandoned it unfinished. It
is, however, easy to tell what
Fig. 45.—Young man chasing the aurochs, ' A - Mil "e Edwards: Acad, des Sciences,
from Laugerie. May 8, 1888.
it was meant for. The skull is low and flat, the nose
but slightly prominent, the eyes are oblique, and neither
Fig. 46. —Fragment of a staff of office, from the Madeleine Cave.
the mouth nor the chin are finished. The magnificent

collection of the Marquis de Vibraye contains a little
figure from Laugerie, representing a nude woman with-
out arms. Thin and stiff, she
is chiefly remarkable for the
exaggerated size of the sexual

organs, and for some peculiar
protuberances on the loins. We
dwell upon the former peculi-
arity, because it is so far ex-
tremely whereas certain
rare,
relics of the Greeks and Rom-
ans, in spite of the compara-
tively advanced civilization of
these two great races, are such
that they can only be exhibited
in private museums. Such de-
pravity as this implies was then
quite an exception among the
cave-men, and but for the one Fig. 47. — Human face carved
on a reindeer antler, found in the
example I have just mentioned,
Rochebertier Cave (Charente).
I have no phallic representa-
tions to refer to except the few from the Massenat col-
lection, which were shown at the Exhibition of 1889.
: '
We must not close this account of the art efforts of

the men of the Stone age without mentioning the re-
markable discovery by M. Siette, of flints covered with
lines and geometrical designs colored with red chalk.
These are the very earliest examples of the art of
painting which have hitherto come to our knowledge.
They bear witness to a remarkable progress made by
our remote ancestors of the valleys of the Pyrenees.
We cannot more appropriately close this chapter
than by quoting the magnificent verse of Lucretius,
which brings before us, better than could a long descrip-
tion, the condition of these men, and the humble start-
ing-point from which humanity has advanced to achieve
its immortal destiny
Necdum res igni scibant tractare neque uti

Pellibus et spoliis corpus vestire ferarum,
Sed nemora atque caveos monteis sylvasque colebant
Et frutices inter condebant squalida membra
Verbera ventorum vitare imbreisque coactei.
1
" De Natura Rerum," book v., v. 951, etc.
CHAPTER IV.
CAVES, KITCHEN-MIDDINGS, LAKE STATIONS, " TEEEEMARES,"

CRANNOGES, BUEGHS, "NURHAGS," " TALAYOTI,"
AND " TRUDDHI."
The earliest races of men lived in a climate less

rigorous than ours, on the shores of wide rivers, in the
midst of fertile districts, where fishing and the chase
easily supplied all their needs. These races were nu-
merous and prolific, and we find traces of them all over
Western Europe, from Norfolk to the middle of Spain.
What were the homes of these men and their families ?
Did they crouch in dens, as Tacitus says the German
tribes did in his day ? In his "
Ancient Wiltshire,"
Sir R. Coalt Hoare says that the earliest human habi-
tations were holes dug in the earth and covered over
with the branches of trees. Near Joigny there still re-
main some circular holes in the ground, about fifty feet
in diameter by sixteen to twenty deep, known in the
country under the name of buvards. The trunk of a
tree was fixed at the bottom and rose above the ground,
and the branches plastered with clay formed the roof.
The fl©or of these iuvards consists of a greasy black
earth mixed with bones, cinders, charcoal, and worked
flints. Amongst the last named, polished hatchets
predominate, which proves that these refuges were
inhabited in Neolithic times, but there is nothing to
127
prevent our supposing that they were also occupied in

the Palaeolithic period. Aineghino gives a still more
striking example of an earth-dwelling. Near Mercedes,
about twenty leagues from Buenos Ayres, he picked
up numerous human bones, together with arrow-heads,
chisels, flint knives, bone stilettos and polishers, and
bones of animals scratched and cut by man. Later,
Ameghino discovered the actual dwelling of this prime-
val man, and his strange home was beneath the carapace
of a gigantic armadillo, the now extinct glyptodon seen
in Fig. 48.
Fig. 48. — The glyptodon.
" All around the carapace," says Ameghino, " in the
reddish agglomerate of the original soil lay charcoal

cinders, burnt and and flints. Digging
split bones,
beneath this, was found, with some
a flint implement
long split llama and stag bones, which had evidently
been handled by man, with some toxodon and mylo-
don teeth." Fig. 49 represents the now extinct mylo-
don. Some time afterwards, the discovery of another
carapace under similar conditions added weight to
Ameghino's supposition. 1
In the midst of the pampas,
1 " El liombre seguramente habitaba las corazas de los Glyptodon pero no
siempre las colocaba en la posicion que acabo de indicar." — " La Antiguedad
del Hombre en el Plata," vol. ii., p. 532.
;
CAVES. 129
those vast treeless plains, where

110 rock or accident of
conformation affords shelter from heat or cold or a

hiding-place from wild beasts, man was not at a loss
he hollowed out for himself a hole in the earth, roofing
it over with the shell of a glyptodon, and securing a
retreat where he could be safe at least for a time.

It was not until later, driven to do so by the cold,
that man learnt to use the natural caves hollowed out
Fig. 49. — Mylodon robustus.

in limestone rocks, either in geological convulsions or
by the quieter action of water. The absence in the
caves which have been excavated in America of imple-
ments of the Chelleen type, the most ancient known as
yet, would point to this conclusion, though it is impos-
sible to fix the earliest date of their occupation. This
date, moreover, varies very much in different localities.
The earth was but gradually peopled, and our ances-
tors penetrated into different countries in successive

migrations. Some caves have recently been discovered
in Wales, in the midst of Glacial deposits.
1
The
Boulder Clay and marine drift on neighboring heights
are incontrovertible proofs of the submergence of this
region, when Great Britain was almost completely
covered with ice. Excavations made in 1886 have
brought to light a series of deposits, one above the
other, the gravel and red earth containing Quaternary
bones and worked flints, whilst the stalagmite and
ooze are evidently of more recent origin. This is the
usual state of things in all the English caves but in ;
those of the Clyde, the bone beds had been disturbed

and mixed with striated pebbles and Glacial drift.
From this Hicks, who superintended the excavations,

concluded that man and the Quaternary animals had
lived in those caves before the Glacial epoch, and
before the great submergence, which in some places
was no than some 1,300 feet below the present
less
level of the sea. If this were so, it would be one of
the most ancient proofs not only of the presence of
man, but also of the kind of habitation he first dwelt
in. These conclusions have, however, been hotly dis-
puted. M. Arcelin 2 remarks that there are in England
two exceptional geological landmarks, the Forest Bed
representing the last Pliocene formations, and the
River Gravels, which are the most ancient Quater-
nary deposits. Between the two, we find the Boulder
Clay of Glacial origin. Now the fauna of the caves
of the Clyde, far from resembling that of the Forest
1 " On Some Recent Researches in Cone-Caves in Wales," Proc. Geol., Asso.,
vol. ix. "On the Flynnon, Benno, and Gwyu Caves," Geol. Mag., Dec, 1886.
8
Revue des Questions Scientifiques , April, 1887.
1
CA VES. 1 3
Bed, appears to be more recent than that of the ancient

deposits of the River Gravels. Amongst this fauna
we find neither the El&phas antiquus nor the Rhi-
noceros Merchil ; the worked flints are not like those
known as belonging to the River-Gravel type, but the
relics more nearly resemble those of the Reindeer
period of France. It is therefore impossible, in the
present state of our knowledge, to assert that man
lived in the southwest of England in the Glacial
epoch, to the phenomena of which, if he witnessed
them, he must eventually have fallen a victim.
Our ancestors must constantly have disputed the
possession of their caves of refuge with animals, but
there is certain distinction between those
often a
chiefly occupied by man and the mere dens of wild
beasts. The latter are generally more difficult of access,
and are only to be entered by long, low, narrow, dark
passages. Those permanently inhabited by man are
wide, not very deep, and they are well lighted. That
at Montgaudier, for instance, has an arched entrance
some forty -five feet wide by eighteen high. The cave-
men had already learnt to appreciate the advantages of
air and light.
The caves are often of considerable height ; that of
Massat is some 560 feet high, that of Lherm is 655,
that of Bouicheta nearly 755, that of Loubens 820, and
that of Santhenay is, as much as 1,344 feet high.
Those of Eyzies, Moustier, and Aurignac are also very
lofty. As the valleys were hollowed out by the rush-
ing torrents of the Quaternary floods, men sought a
home near the waters which were indispensable to
their existence, and came to dwell on the shores of
rivers. The most ancient of the inhabited caves, there-
fore, are those on the highest levels, but the difference

in the nature of the country and the varying force of
geological action have led to so many exceptions, that
all we can say with any certainty is that the caves
were inhabited at different epochs. Mont- That of
gaudier, for instance, was filled with an accumulation
of ooze about forty feet thick. Weapons and tools
lay one above the other from the bottom to the top,
and it is easy to distinguish the succession of hearths
by the blackened earth, cinders, charcoal, and crushed
bones lying about them.
In the Placard Cave eight different deposits bear
witness to the presence of man and these are separated
;
by others bare of traces of human occupation. The

lowest deposit, which some twenty-five feet below
is
the present level of the contains worked flints of

soil,
the Mousterien type, above which, but separated by

an accumulation of debris which has fallen from the
roof, comes a layer in which was found a number of
arrow-heads of the shape of laurel leaves. The fauna
of both these levels includes the reindeer, the horse,
and the aurochs. As we go up we find, above another
layer of debris, the Solutreen type of tools and weap-
ons represented by bone implements and numerous
arrow-heads, this time stalked and notched. The four
following levels correspond with those belonging to
what is known as the Madeleine type, and the arrow-
heads are decorated with geometrical designs. The
traces of human occupation at different times, doubtless
separated by long intervals, are therefore very clearly
defined. The Fontabert Cave, in Dauphine, contained,
at adepth of about six feet, traces of fire and roughly
worked flints, and about three feet below the surface
CAVES. I33
lay the skeleton of a man, who had perhaps been over-

taken by a fall of earth, still holding in his hand a
polished dipper of fine workmanship. Yet a third and
evidently more recent period is characterized by a jade
crescent. We might easily multiply instances of a simi-
lar kind, but that we wish to avoid so much repetition.
We soon begin to find evidence of the progress made
by man, and though in Neolithic times he still con-
tinued to occupy caves he learned to adapt them better
to his needs. The rock shelters of the Petit-Morin
valley, so well explored by M. de Baye, are the best
examples we can give.
These caves are hollowed out of a very thick belt of
cretaceous limestone. They date from different epochs,
and each presents special characteristics which can
easily be recognized. Some were used as burial-places,
others as habitations. In the former the entrance is of
irregular shape, the walls are roughly cut, and the
work is of the most elementary description. The
sepulchral caves were simply closed by a large stone
rolled into place and covered with rubbish, the better
to hide the entrance. The shelters used to live in
show much more careful work, and are divided into
two unequal parts by a wall cut in the living rock.
To get into the second partition one has to go down
steps, cut in the limestone, and these steps are worn
with long usage. The entrance was cut out of a mas-
sive piece of rock, left thick on purpose, and on either
side of the opening the edges still show the rabbet
which was to receive the door. Two small holes on
% the right and left were probably used to fix a bar
across the front to strengthen the entrance. A good
many of these caves are provided with an opening for
ventilation, and some skilful contrivances were re-
sorted to for keeping out water. Inside we find differ-

ent floors, shelves, and crockets cut in the chalk, and
on the M. de Baye picked up shells, ornaments,
floors
and which were lying just where their owners had
flints,
left them. Very different is all this from the Vezere

caves, and everything proves an undeniable improve-
ment in the conditions of life.
The most interesting of all the objects found in these
caves are, however, the carvings; but few date from
Neolithic times, and some archaeologists have argued
from their absence in favor of the displacement every-
where of old races by the incursion of new-comers.
Some of these carvings represent hafted hatchets, the
flint .being painted black to make the raised design
stand out better. Others represent human figures. In
the Coizard Cave, for instance, was found a roughly
outlined representation of a woman
with a prominent
nose, eyes indicated by black dots, highly developed
breasts, but no lower limbs. A
necklace adorns her
throat, and a pendant hanging from this necklace is
colored yellow. On the passage leading to the door is
engraved another figure which was originally more

accurately drawn than the others, but is not in such
good preservation. In the Courjonnet Cave we see a
woman with a bird's head she was probably one of
;
the lares penates, the protectors of the domestic hearth.

We meet with this same goddess at Santorin, and at
Troy, and on the shores of the Vistula, which is a very
interesting ethnological fact.
The objects found in the sepulchral caves are im-
portant, and included a number of arrow-heads with
transverse cutting edges. There is no doubt about
CAVES. 135
their use ; they have been picked up in black earth, in

contact with human bones, the decomposition of the
soft parts of which caused them to fall out of the
mortal wound they had inflicted. With these arrow-
heads were found flint knives, large sloped scrapers,
polishers, and bone stilettos, the femora of a ruminant
with a pig's tooth fixed on to each end, hoes made of
stag horn, beads and pendants made of bone, shell,
schist, quartz, and aragonite, with the teeth of bears,
boars, wolves, and foxes,, all pierced with holes. Some
of the shell and schist beads were spread upon the
surface of the skull, and perhaps formed a net or
resille, such as that already referred to as found at
Baousse-Rousse.
For centuries this occupation of caves continued,
offering as they did a shelter that was dry and warm
in winter, and cool in summer. Homer tells us that
the Cyclops lived on the heights of the mountains and
1
in the depths of the caves, and Prometheus says that,
like the feeble ant, men dwelt in deep subterranean
2
caves, where the sun never penetrated.
Whilst the men of the Petit-Morin valley hollowed
out caves, or enlarged those made by nature, others
took refuge in huts made of dried clay and interlaced
branches, or in tents of the skins of the animals they
had slain, and, though these fragile dwellings have
disappeared, leaving no trace, there yet remain indeli-
ble evidences of the presence of many successive gen-
erations. Everywhere throughout the world we find
heaps of rubbish, consisting chiefly of the shells of
mollusca and Crustacea, broken bones, flakes of flint,
1 " Odyssey," book ix., v. 105-124.
5
Êschylus " Prometheus Bound."
:
and fragments of stone and bone implements, covering

vast areas and often rising to a considerable height.
Not until our own day did these rubbish heaps
attract attention, and it was reserved to our own gen-
eration, so interested in all that relates to the past, to
recognize their true significance. Steenstrup noticed,
in the north of Europe, that these mounds consisted
nearly entirely of the shells of edible species, such as
the oyster, mussel, and littorina littorea / that they
were all those of adult specimens, but not all subject
to similar conditions of existence or native to the same
waters. The kitchen-middings, or heaps of kitchen
—such was the name given to these
refuse shell-
mounds— could not have been the natural deposits
leftby the waves after storms, for in that case they
would have been mixed with quantities of sand and
pebbles. The conclusion is inevitable, that man alone
could have piled up these accumulations, which were
the refuse flung away day by day after his meals. The
excavation of the kitchen-middings confirmed in a re-
markable manner the opinion of Steenstrup, and every-

where a number of important objects were discovered.
In several places the old hearths were brought to light.
They consisted of flat stones, on which were piles of
cinders, with fragments of wood and charcoal. It was
now finally proved that these mounds occupied the site
of ancient settlements, the inhabitants of which rarely
leftthe coast, and fed chiefly on the mollusca which
abounded in the waters of the North Sea.
These primeval races, however savage they may
have been, were not wanting in intelligence. The
earliest inhabitants of Russia placed their dwellings
near rivers above the highest flood-level known to
KI TCHEN-MIDDINGS. 1 37
or foreseen by them. The Scandinavians were most

precise in the orientation of their homes, and M. de
Quatrefages points out that the kitchen-midding of
Soelager is set against a hill in the best position for
protecting those who from the north
lived near it
winds, which are so districts on

trying in these
account of their violence. At Havelse, says Sir John
Lubbock, the settlement was on rather higher ground,
and, though close to the shore, was quite beyond the
reach of the waves. The English visitors had an
excavation made whilst they were present, and in two
or three hours they obtained about a hundred frag-
ments of bone, many rude flakes, sling stones, and
fragments of flint, together with some rough axes of
the ordinary shell-mound type. The excavations at
Meilgaard a little later by the same explorers were
even more fruitful in results.
Scandinavia does not appear to have been occupied
and the most ancient facts
in the Palaeolithic period,
concerning it only date from the expeditions of the
Romans against the Teutons, and our knowledge even
ofthem is very incomplete. We are still ignorant of
1
much which may have been known to the Carthaginians

and the Phoenicians. It is possible that in the remote
days under notice the Scandinavians were ignorant of
the art of tilling the ground, for so far no cereal or
agricultural product of any kind has been discovered,
nor the bones of any domestic animal, except indeed
those of the dog, which may, however, have been still
in awild state. Amongst the bones collected from the
kitchen-mid dings, those of the stag, the kid, and the
1
A. Maury : "La Vieille Civilisation Scandinave," Revue des Deux Mondes,
September, 1880.
;
;
boar are much the most numerous. The bear, the

and
urus, the wild cat, the otter, the porpoise, the seal,
the small mammals, the marten, the water-rat and
the mouse, have also been found. At Havelse were
collected more than 3,500 mammal bones, amongst
which do not occur those of the musk-ox, the reindeer,
the elk, or the marmot ; their absence bearing witness
to amore temperate climate than that of the present
day in the regions under notice. The stag antlers
found belong to every season of the year, from which
we may conclude that the people of these districts, like
the cave-men of the Pyrenees, had given up a nomad
life and remained at home all the year round, living in
the dwellings they had built upon the shores of
the sea.
Amongst the birds found, we may mention the large
penguin,now extinct, the moor-fowl, which fed entirely
on pine buds, and several species of ducks and geese
whilst amongst the fish were the herring, the cod, the
dab, and the eel. The numerous relics of chelonia
prove the existence of numbers of the turtle tribe in
the North Sea.
A great variety of objects, most of them of a coarse
type, have been found beneath the kitchen-middings
metals are however completely absent, and it is proba-
ble that they were quite unknown to the Scandinavians
for several centuries after their arrival in the country.
It is easy to quote similar facts in other countries.
In 1877, Count Ouvarof mentioned, at the Archaeologi-
cal Congress atKazan, some kitchen-middings near the
Oka, a little river flowing into the Volga near Nijni-
Novgorod. In excavating some bougrys, or little
mounds of sand overlooking the valley, he discovered
KITCHEN-MIDDINGS. 1 39
amongst the layers of alluvium, successive deposits of

cinders and fragments of charcoal, which appear to have
been the remains of a fire. A little lower down in
another deposit were fragments of pottery, stone
weapons and implements, and an immense number of
shells. Judging from these relics of their daily life,
this numerous population must have fed exclusively on
fish and mollusca, for excavations brought to light but
few mammal bones. The mollusca were all of species

that only live in salt water. From this we know that
the waves washed the shores near this bougry, and that
a milder climate probably prevailed in these regions,
making life more supportable.
Virchow has recognized on the shores of Lake Burt-
neek in Germany, a kitchen-midding belonging to the
earliest Neolithic times, perhaps even to the close of
the Palaeolithic period. He there picked up some stone
and bone implements, and notices on the one hand the
absence of the reindeer, and on the other, as in Scandi-
navia, that of domestic animals. But in this case, the
home of the living became the tomb of the dead, and
numerous skeletons lay beside the abandoned hearths.
Similar discoveries have been made in Portugal shell- ;
heaps having been found thirty -five to forty miles from

the coast, and from sixty-five to eighty feet above the
sea-level. Here also excavations have brought to light
several different hearths; and in many of the most
ancient kitchen-middings in the valley of the Tigris
were found crouching skeletons, proving that here too
1
the home had become the tomb.
Similar deposits are by no means rare in France. M.
du Chatellier mentions one in Brittany, which he
1
F. de Olivera :
" As Rajas dos Kjoekkenmoeddings de Mugem," Lisbon, 1881.
I40 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
estimates as 325 cubic feet in size. From it he has

taken spear- and and scrapers,
arrow-heads, knives
some highly but roughly cut and often
finished, others
with scarcely any shape at all. The population was
evidently ichthyophagous, to judge by the vast accu-
mulations of shells of scallops, oysters, limpets, pectens,
and other niolhisca. The few animal bones are those
of the stag, the bear, and certain wading birds.
At Canche, near Etaples, has been made out a series
of mounds forming a semicircle some eight hundred
and fifty feet in extent. These mounds are made up of
successive layers of shells and charcoal, the relics of
successive occupations. Lastly we must mention a
kitchen-midding situated at the mouth of the Somme,
which is eight hundred and twenty feet long by about
one hundred wide. It consists principally of shells of
adult species, with which are mixed fragments of coarse
black pottery and numerous goat and sheep bones, the
latter bearing witness to amore recent date than that
of the kitchen-middings of Scandinavia or of Germany.
Throughout Europe similar facts are coining to
light. Evans mentions heaps of shells on the coasts of
England. Chantre speaks of others near Lake Gotchai
in the Caucasus, and Nordenskiold of others at Cape
North, to which he wishes to restore its true name of
Jokaipi. He says these mounds are exactly like those
of Denmark.
It is, however, chiefly in America that these heaps
attract attention, for there huge shell-mounds stretch
along the coast in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Massa-
chusetts, Louisiana, California, and Nicaragua. We
meet with them again near the Orinoco and the Missis-
sippi, in the Aleutian Islands, and in the Guianas, in
KlTCJfEN-MIDDWGS. I4I
Brazil and in Patagonia, on the coasts of the Pacific as

on those of the Atlantic. Owing to the darker color
of the vegetation growing on them, the shell-heaps of
Tierra del Fuego are seen from afar by the navigator.
For a long time the true character of these mounds
was not known, and they were attributed to natural
causes, such as the emergence of the ancient coast-line
from the sea, and it was not until lately that it was
discovered that they were the work of men.
Some of these kitchen-middings are of great size.
Sir Charles Lyell describes one on St. Simon's Island,
at the mouth of the Altamaha (Georgia), which covers
ten acres of ground and varies in height from five to
ten feet. It consisted almost entirely of oyster shells.
In America, as in Europe, excavations brought to light

hatchets, flints,and fragments of pottery.
arrows,
Another of these mounds, near the St. John River,
consists, as does that visited by Lyell, of oyster shells,
and is hundred
of extraordinary dimensions, being three
feet long, and though the exact width cannot be made
out, is certainly several hundred feet across. Putnam 1
gives an account of the excavation of one of these mounds

formed of shells of the Mya, Venus, Pecten, JBuccinurn,
and Natica genera. It stretched along the sea-coast
for a distance of several was from four
hundred feet, it
to five feet thick, and penetrated some distance below

the surface of the ground. The valves had been opened
with the aid of heat, and the animal bones found with
the shells had been broken with heavy hammers which
were found in the kitchen-midding. The bones in-
cluded those of the stag, the wolf, and the fox. Fishes
were also represented by remains of the cod, the plaice,
1
Report Peabody Museum, 1882.
and chelonia by turtle shells. Some bird bones were

also found, and the knives, arrow- and spear-heads,
scrapers, etc., were all of the rudest workmanship.
Mr. Phelps has superintended yet more important
1
excavations at Damariscotta and all along the coast to
the mouth of the Penobscot. In the lowest layers he
made out ancient hearths, and found numerous frag-
ments of pottery which are the most ancient examples
of keramic ware found in New England, and were
covered with incised ornamentation of considerable
refinement.
The kitchen-middings of Florida and Alabama are
even more remarkable. There is one on Amelia Island
which is a quarter of a mile long with a medium depth
of three feet and a breadth of nearly five. That of
Bear's Point covers sixty acres of ground, that of
Anercerty Point one hundred, and that of Santa Rosa
fivehundred. Others taper to a great height. Turtle
Mound, near Smyrna, is formed of a mass of oyster
shells attaining a height of nearly thirty feet, and the
height of several others more than forty feet. 2 In
is
all of them bushels of shells have already been found,
although a great part of the sites they occupy are still

unexplored huge trees, roots, and tropical creepers
;
having, in the course of many centuries, covered them

with an almost impenetrable thicket.
Whether man did or did not live in the basin of the
Delaware at the most remote times of which we have
any knowledge, we meet with traces of his occupation
in the same latitude at more recent periods. At Long-
Nick-Branch is a shell-mound that extends for half a
^Report Peabody Museum, 1882 and 1885.

5
Brinton :
" Notes on the Floridian Peninsula," Philadelphia, 1849.
KITCHEN-MIDDINGS. 1 43
mile, and in California there is a yet larger kitchen-

midding. It measures a mile in length by half a mile
in width, and, as in similar accumulations, excavations
have yielded thousands of stone hammers and bone
implements (Fig. 24).
The shell-mounds of which we have so far been
speaking are all near the sea, but there is yet another
consisting entirely of marine shells fifty miles beyond
Mobile. This fact seems to point to a considerable
change in the level of the ground since the time of
man's first occupancy, for he is not likely to have taken
all the trouble involved in carrying the mollusca
necessary for his daily food so far, when he might so

easily have settled down near the shore.
I cannot close this account of the kitchen-middings,
without calling attention to two very interesting facts.
The importance of these mounds bears witness alike to
the number of the inhabitants who dwelt near them,
and the long duration of their sojourn. Worsaae sets
back the initial date of the most ancient of the shell-
mounds of the New World more than three thousand
years. This is however a delicate question, on which
in the present state of our knowledge it is difficult to
hazard a serious opinion. It is easier to come to a con-
clusion on other points: the close resemblance, for
instance, between the kitchen-middings of America and
those of Europe. In both continents we find the early
inhabitants fed almost entirely on fish their weapons, ;
tools, and pottery were almost identical in character;

and in both cases the characteristic animals of Qua-
ternary times had disappeared, and the use of metals
still remained unknown. Are these remarkable coin-
cidences the result of chance, or must we not rather
suppose that people of the same origin occupied at the

same epoch both sides of the Atlantic ?
The man of the kitchen-middings evidently had a
fixed abode. Long since, the tent, the temporary-
shelter of the nomad, had given place to the hut. We
have already said what this hut may have been like,
but the most certain data we have as to human habita-
tions at this still but little known epoch, are those sup-
plied by the Lake Stations of Switzerland, and it is to
our own generation that we are indebted for the first
discoveries relating to them.

The memory of these Lake Stations had completely
passed away, and it was only the long drought which
desolated Switzerland in 1853 and 1854, and the extra-
ordinary sinking of Lake Zurich, revealing the piles
still standing, that attracted the attention of ar-
chaeologists. In the space still enclosed by these piles

lay scattered pell-mell stones, bones, burnt cinders of
ancient hearths, pestles, hammers, pottery, hatchets of
various shapes, implements of many kinds, with innu-
merable objects of daily use. These relics prove that
some of the ancient inhabitants of Switzerland had
dwelt on the lake where they were found, in a refuge
to which they had probably retired to escape from the
attacks of their fellow-men or wild beasts. Though
they had succeeded in getting away from these enemies,
they were to fall victims to a yet more formidable
adversary, and the half -burnt piles have preserved to
our own day the traces of a conflagration that destroyed
the Lake dwelling so laboriously constructed.
The discovery of these piles excited general interest,
an interest that was redoubled when similar discoveries
revealed that all the lakes of Switzerland were dotted
LAKE STATIONS. 14$
with stations that had been built long centuries before

in the midst of the waters. Twenty such stations were
made out on Lake Bienue, twenty-four on the Lake of
Geneva, thirty on Lake Constance, forty-nine on that of
Neuchatel, and others, though not so many, on Lakes
Sempach, Morat, Mooseedorf, and Pfemkon. In fact
more than two hundred Lake Stations are now known
in Switzerland and how many more may have com-
;
pletely disappeared ?
There is really nothing to surprise us in the fact of

buildings rising from the midst of waters. They are
known in historic times ;Herodotus relates that the
inhabitants of pile dwellings on Lake Prasias success-
fully repelled the attacks of the Persians commanded
by Megabasus. Alonzo de Ojeda, the companion of
Amerigo Vespucci, speaks of a village consisting of
twenty large houses built on piles in the midst of a
lake, to which he gave the name of Venezuela in honor
of Venice, his native town. We meet with pile dwell-
ings in our own day in the Celebes, in New Guinea,
in Java, at Mindanao, and in the Caroline Islands.
Sir Richard Burton saw pile dwellings at Dahomey,
Captain Cameron on the lakes of Central Africa, and
the Bishop of Labuan tells us that the houses of the
Dayaks are built on lofty platforms on the shores of
rivers. The accounts of historians and travellers help
us to understand alike the mode of construction of the
Lake Stations and the kind of life led by their in-
habitants.
The Lake dwellings of Switzerland may be assigned
to three different periods. That of Chavannes, on Lake
Bienne, belongs to the earliest type. The hatchets
found are small, scarcely polished, and always of native
l/\6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
rock, such as serpentine, diorite, or saussurite ; the pot-

tery is coarse, mixed with grains of sand or bits of
quartz ; the bottoms of the vases are thick, and no
traces of ornamentation can be made out. The pile-
dwellings of the second period, such as those of
Locras and Latringen, show considerable progress ; the
hatchets, some of which are very large, are well made.
Several of them are of nephrite, chloromelanite, and
jade ; and their number, as compared with those in
minerals native to Switzerland, varies from five to eight
per cent. Here and there in rare instances we find a
few copper or bronze lamellae amongst the piles. The
pottery is now of finer clay, better kneaded.; and or-
namentation, including chevrons, wolves' teeth, and
mammillated designs, is more common. The handle,
however, is still a mere projection. The third period,
which we may date from the transition from stone to
bronze, is largely represented copper weapons and
;
tools are already numerous, and bronze is beginning to

occur. The stone hatchets and hammers are skilfully
pierced, and wooden or horn implements are often
found. The vases are of various shapes, all provided
with handles, and are covered with ornaments, some
made with the fingers of the potter, others with the
help of a twig or some fine string. On the other
hand, there are. no hatchets of foreign rock commerce ;
and intercourse with people at a distance had ceased,

or at least become rarer. The tools are fixed into
handles of stag horn, which are found in every stage
of manufacture. The personal property of the Lake
Dwellers included bead necklaces, pendants, buttons,
needles, and horn combs. The teeth of animals served
as amulets, and the bones that were of denser material
LAKE STATIONS. 1 47
than horn were used as javelin- or arrow-heads. The ar-

rows were generally of triangular shape and not barbed. 1
The distance from the shore of the most ancient

of the Lake dwellings varies from 131 to 298 feet.
Gradually men began to take greater and greater
precautions against danger, and the most recent sta-
tions are 656 to 984 feet from the banks of the lake.
The piles of the Stone age are from eleven to twelve
inches in diameter ; those of the later epochs are
smaller. They
are pointed at the ends, and hard-
ened by fire. When the piles had been driven into
the bottom of the lake, a platform was laid on
them solid enough to bear the weight of the huts.
This platform was made of beams laid down horizon-
tally, and bound together by interlaced branches. Two
modes of construction can easily be distinguished. In
one the platforms were upheld by numerous piles, ten
yards long, firmly driven into the mud. This is how
the Pfahlbauten, Palafittes, or pile dwellings situated
in shallow waters were generally put together. In other
cases it seemed round the piles,
easier to raise the soil
than to drive them into the hard rock which formed
the bed of the lake. Care was then taken to consolidate
them, and keep them in position with blocks of stone,
clay, and tiers of piles. Keller gives to these latter
the name of Packwerbauten, and other German archae-
ologists callthem Steinbergen.
The mean depth of the waters in those parts of the
lakes formerly occupied by the pile dwellings is from
thirteen to sixteen feet, and we can still make out the
piles when the water is calm and clear. Worn though
1
We take many of these details from Dr. Gross' excellent work on the
" Pile Dwellings of Switzerland."
;
they may emerge at a height varying

be, their tops still
from one to three feet above the mud at the bottom
of the lake. Their number was originally consider-
able, and it is estimated that there were forty thousand
at Wangen, and a hundred thousand at Robenhausen.
The area occupied by the stations varies considerably
Wangen was seven hun-
according to Troyon, that at
dred paces long by one hundred and twenty broad.
Baron von Mayenfisch explored seventeen sites in
the Lake of Constance, the area of which varies from
three to four acres. At Inkwyl is a little artificial
island about forty-eight feet in diameter. The Lake
dwelling of Morges, which was still inhabited in
the Bronze age, covers an area of twelve hundred
feet long by a mean width of one hundred and fifty.
It is, however, useless to enumerate the various calcu-
lations that have been made, as they are founded on
nothing but more or less probable guesswork.
Excavations show that the huts that rose from the
platforms were made of wattle and hurdle-work. In
different places calcined and agglutinated fragments
have been picked up, and pieces of clay which had
served as facing. The house to, which they had be-
longed had been destroyed by fire, and the clay, hard-
ened in the flames, had resisted the disintegrating
action of the water. On one side this clay is smooth,
and on the other it still retains the marks of the inter-
laced branches, which had helped to form the inner
walls. Some of these marks are so clear and regular
that Troyon, noticing the way they curve, was able to
assert that the huts were circular, and that they varied
in diameter from ten to fifteen feet.
A recent discovery at Schussenreid (Wurtemberg)
gives completeness to our knowledge of the Swiss
LAKE STATIONS. 1 49
Lake dwellings. In the midst of a peat-bog rises a

hut known as a Knuppelhau, which is supposed to
date from the Stone age. It is of rectangular form,
and is divided into two compartments communicating
with each other by a foot-bridge consisting of three
beams laid side by side. The floors of this hut are
made of rounded wood, and the walls of piles split in
half. Excavations have brought to light several floors,
one above the other, and divided by thick layers of
clay. The rising of the level of the peat doubtless
compelled the Lake Dweller to add by degrees to the
height of his house.
The Proto-Helvetian race were well-developed men,
and the bones that have been collected show that they
were not at all wanting in symmetry of form or in
cranial capacity. The crania found are distinctly doli-
chocephalous, and their owners had evidently attained
to no small degree of culture and of technical skill.
Judging from the length of the femora found, though
it must be added that they are mostly those of women,
the ancient Lake Dwellers were not so tall as the

present inhabitants of Europe. The smallness of the
handles of their weapons and tools points to the same
1
conclusion.
Though the importance and number of the dis-
coveries made in Switzerland render it the classic land
of Lake Stations, it is not the only country in which
they have been found. They have been made out in
the Lago Maggiore and in the lakes of Varese,
Peschiera, and Garda in Lombardy in Lake Salpi in ;
the Capitanata, and in other parts of Italy. Judging

from the objects recovered from these stations, they be-
longed partly to the Stone and partly to the Bronze age.
1
Virchow :
" Drei Schadel aus der Schweiz."
The pile dwelling of Lagozza is one of the most

interesting known to us. It forms a long square,
facing due east, and covers an area of two thousand
six hundred yards, now completely overgrown with peat
six and a half feet thick. Amongst the posts still
standing can be made out a number of half-burnt planks,
which are probably the remains of the platform. One
of the posts was still covered with bark, and it was
easy to recognize the silver birch (Betula alba).
Other posts consisted of the trunks of resinous trees,
such as the Pinus picea, the Pinus sylvestris, and the
larch, which now only grow in the lofty Alpine valleys.
Amongst the industrial objects found in the Lagozza
pile dwelling were polished stone hatchets, hammers,
polishers of hard stone, knife-blades, flint scrapers, and
seven or eight arrows with transverse cutting edges, a
form rare in Italy.
Castelfranco, from whom we borrow these details,
1
has also, in the excavations he superintended, picked up

a number of earthenware spindle- whorls with a hole in
the middle, amulets, and numerous pieces of pottery,
some fine and some coarse, according to the purpose
for which they were intended. The first mould had
in most cases been covered over with a layer of very
fine clay spread upon it with the aid of a kind of
boasting-chisel. We may also mention a bone comb.
The combs found in Swiss Lake dwellings are of horn,
with the exception of one from Locras of yew wood.
What chiefly distinguishes the Lagozza pile dwelling,
however, is the absence of the bones, teeth, or horns of
animals, and also of fish-hooks, haipoons, or nets, so
that we must conclude that the inhabitants did not
1
Revue <T'Anthropologic; 1887, p. 607.
) ;
LAKE STATIONS. I$I
hunt or fish, that they did not breed domestic animals,

and were probably vegetarians. The researches of
Professor Sordelli confirm this hypothesis; from
amongst the objects taken from the peat he recognized
two kinds of corn (Triticum, vulgare antiquorum and
Triticum vulgare Jiibernum six-rowed barley (Hor-
,
deum hexastichum) mosses, ferns, flax, the Indian

,
poppy (Papa/ver somniferum), acorns, and an immense

number of nuts and apples.
The acorns are those of the common oak, and their
cups and outer rind had been removed, so that they
had evidently been prepared to serve as food for man
the apples were small and coriaceous, resembling the
modern crab-apple; the Indian poppy cannot have
grown without cultivation but this was perhaps but
;
an example of the same species already recognized in

the Lake dwellings of Switzerland. It is difficult to
say whether it was used for food or whether oil was
extracted from it.
We have already spoken of the discoveries made in

Austria and Hungary. Count Wurmbrand has de-
scribed the difficulties with which explorers had to
contend. The lakes have in many cases become inac-
cessible swamps, and in others, the waters having been
artificially dammed to regulate their overflow, the sites
of the pile dwellings are so far below the level of the
lakes that any excavations are impossible. Long and
arduous researches have, however, been rewarded with
some success, and the numerous objects recovered bear
witness, as in Switzerland, to the gradual progress
made by the successive generations who occupied these
pile dwellings.
A lake near Laybach had been converted in drying
up immense peat-bog, nearly thirty-eight miles

into an
in circumference, bounded on the right and left by
lofty mountains. When this bog was under water
1
it had been the site of several Lake Stations. One,

for instance, has been made out over three hundred
and twenty yards from the bank. The piles, which
Fig. 50. — Objects discovered in the peat-bogs of Laybach. A. Earthenware

vase. B. Fragment ornamented pottery.
of C. Bone needle. D. Earthen-
ware weight for fishing-net. E. Fragment of jawbone.
consisted of the trunks of oaks, beeches, and poplars,

varying from eight to ten inches in diameter, were
placed at regular intervals. The objects taken from
the peat-bog are simply innumerable (Fig. 50), and in-
1
G. Cotteau: Nature, 1877, first week, p. 161.
LAKE STATIONS. 153
elude hundreds of needles of different sizes, stilettos,

dagger-blades, arrows, and hatchets, with stag-horn
handles. Coarse black earthenware vases are equally
numerous and are of a great variety of form, but their
ornamentation most primitive description, and
is of the
was done sometimes with the nail of the potter, and
sometimes with a pointed bone. Little earthenware
figures (Figs. 51 and 52) were also found, some of
which were sent from the Laybach Museum to the
Fig. 51. — Small terra-cotta figures, found in the Laybach pile dwellings.
French Exhibition of 1878. One of them is said to

represent a woman, probably an idol. This is one of
the first known examples of the representation of the
human figure from a Lake dwelling. At Nimlau, near
Olniutz, the drying up of a little lake brought to light
a Lake Station surrounded by the trunks of oak trees
of a large size. They were piled up, one above the
other, and strongly bound together with osiers. These
trunks were evidently intended to fortify the station.
The mode of construction of Lake Stations
the
of the marshes of Pomerania is very different from that
employed in Switzerland or in Austria. The founda-
tions rest on horizontal beams, kept iu place either by
great blocks of rock or by piles driven in vertically.
In many cases notches had evidently been made, the
better to place the cross-beams ; whilst in others
forked branches had been selected, so that a second

branch could be fitted into the fork. Primeval man
soon learnt to appreciate the solidity of such a combi-
nation. Do these stations, however, really date from
prehistoric times? Virchow, returning to his first
opinion, now thinks that the pile dwellings of Ger-

many belong to the same epoch as the intrenchments
known as Burgwallen, when metals and even iron
were already in general use. They were inhabited
until the thirteenth century, and it is easy to trace in
them, as in those of Switzerland, the signs of the suc-
cessive occupations, the dwellings having evidently
been abandoned and restored later by fresh comers.
Fig. 52. — Small terra-cotta figures, from the Laybach pile dwellings.
At the meeting of the British Association at New-

castle in 1863, Lord Lovaine described a Lake Station
in the south of Scotland, and Sir J. Lubbock mentions
one in the north of England. Others are known at
Holderness (Yorkshire), at Thetford, on Barton Mere,
LAKE STATIONS. 1 55
near Bury St. Edmunds ; but judging from the de-

scription of them they are not of earlier date than the
Bronze age.
Other stations are more ancient. A few years ago a
number of piles were found a little above Kew, be-
neath a layer of alluvium, and embedded in the gravel
which formed the ancient bed of the Thames. All
around these piles were scattered the bones of animals,
of which those of the Bos longifrons were the most
remarkable. The long bones had been split to get out
the marrow, an evident proof of the intelligent action
of man. In London two similar examples were found
on the site of the present Mansion House, and beneath
the ancient walls of the city. They are supposed to
date from times earlier, not only than the cutting out
of the present course of the Thames, but before that
invasion of the sea which preceded the formation of
the Thames valley, now the home of more than four
million men and women.
The Lake Stations of France are less important
than those of the neighboring countries. It is sup-
posed that Vatan, a little town of Berry, was built on
the site of a Lake city. It is situated in the midst of
a dried-up marsh, and at different points piles have
been removed which were driven deep into the mud.
We also hear of pile dwellings in the Jura Mountains,
in the Pyrenean valleys of Haute-Garonne, Ariege,
and Aude, as well as in those of the Eastern Pyrenees.
•In the department of Landes, which on one side joins
the plateau of Lannemezan, and on the other the lofty

plains of Beam, are many marshy depressions, where
have been found numbers of piles, with charred wood
and fragments of pottery.
Discoveries no less curious have been made in the

arget Lake, but the dwellings rising from its sur-
e date from a comparatively recent epoch. The
nerous fragments of pottery found prove that terra-
ta ware had attained to a beauty of form and color
known to primitive times. Indeed some of the
>es actually bear the name of the Roman potter who
de them. We must also assign to an epoch later
m the Stone age the buildings, remains of which
?e been found in the peat-bogs of Saint-Dos near
lies (Basses-Pyrenees). At a depth of about thirty-
inches has been found a regular floor formed of
:nks of trees restingon piles and bound together in
>rimitive fashion with the filaments of roots. These
es bear a number of deep clean-cut notches, such as
lid ouly have been made with an iron implement.
other parts of France there are Lake Stations,
lich were occupied until the time of the Carlovin-
ins. To this time belong the pile dwellings of Lake
ladru (Isere), which were abandoned, so far as we
1 tell, by their owners when they were swamped by
; rising of the water.

When the Lake Stations of Europe were inhabited,
} characteristic animals of the Quaternary epoch,
jh as the elephant, the rhinoceros, the lion, and the
>popotamus had disappeared from that continent,
1 their place was taken by the earliest domestic
.rnals. The Lake fauna of Switzerland includes

Dut seventy species, thirty mammals, twenty-six
ds, ten kinds of fish, and four reptiles. 1
The mam-
,1s were the stag, the dog, the pig, the goat, the
>ep, and two kinds of oxen. These animals were
1
Rutimeyer • " Fauna der Pfahlbauten in der Schweiz."
LAKE STATIONS. 1 57
already domesticated ; there can be absolutely no

doubt on this point, for in many Pfahlbauten their
very clung has been found, a conclusive proof that
they lived side by side with man.
The remains and of the ox are more
of the stag
numerous than those of any other animal, and it is easy
to see that every day the importance of a pastoral life
became more clearly recognized. Iu the most ancient
Lake Stations, those of Mooseedorf, Wangen, and
Meilen, for instance, the stag predominates ; in those of
the western lakes, which are comparatively more recent,
relics of the ox are more numerous. In the Lake village
of Nidau, which dates from the Bronze age, a greatly
increased number of bones of domestic animals have
been found, whilst those of wild creatures become
rarer and rarer. The progress of domestication is evi-
dent, and it is no less certain that the lapse of centuries
must have been required for the formation of the herds
which evidently existed in certain localities. It is
possible that these animals may have first entered
Europe in the wake of foreign invaders, and before
being reduced to servitude, they may have roamed
about in a wild state, and even have been contempora-
ries with species now extinct. However that may be,
there can be no doubt on one point, they could not
domesticate themselves one race of creatures after
;
another must have fallen under the subjection of man,

who gradually became the master of all the animals
that are still about us.
We do not meet in the pile dwellings with the com-
mon mouse, the rat, or the cat, and the horse is very
rare. It is the same with the kitchen-middings and the
caves occupied in Neolithic times. The disappearance
of the horse, so numerous in earlier epochs, is general,

and would be inexplicable if history did not solve
this
the mystery. The Bible, which gives us such complete
details of the pastoral life of the Hebrews, speaks for
the first time of the horse after the exodus from Egypt
of the children of Israel, and in Egypt itself the horse
is not represented in any monument of earlier date than
the Seventeenth Dynasty. It is the same in America,

animals of the equine race, that were so numerous in
early geological times, had long since disappeared on
the arrival of the Spaniards, and the horses they brought
with them inspired the Mexicans and Peruvians with
unutterable terror.
Domestic animals require regular^ food through the
long winter months; so that their presence alone is
enough to prove that their owners were tillers of the
soil. The discovery in many of the Helvetian Lake
Stations of calcined cereals confirms this hypothesis.
Amongst the cereals found, corn is the most abundant,
and several bushels of it have been collected. In the
department of the Gironde, regular silos or subterra-
nean storing-places for grain have been found in which
the calcined corn was stowed away. In the Lake Sta-
tions have also been found millet, peas, poppy-heads,
nuts, plums, raspberries, and even dried apples and
pears, doubtless set aside as a provision for the winter.
From the water at Cortaillod, have been taken, with a
few ears of barley, cherry-stones, acorns, and beech-
nuts and at Laybach, some water-chestnuts (trapa
1
;
natans) of a kind that has long since disappeared from

Carniola. Sometimes the cereals were roughly roasted,
crushed, and put away in large earthenware vessels;
1
Anzeiger fiir Schweizerische Alterthums Kilnde, April, 1884.
TERREMARES. 1 59
but in some places, regular flat round loaves of bread

have been found about one or two inches thick, which
were baked without leaven. We may well assert
that great changes had taken place since the first arrival
of man upon the earth.
The so-called terremares of Italy date from the
same period as the Danish kitchen-middings and the
Swiss pile dwellings. They are met with chiefly in
Lombardy and in the ancient duchies of Parma and
Piacenza, and consist of low mounds rising from thirteen
to sixteen feet above the surface of the soil. In some
cases a number of terremares, close -to one another, form
regular villages covering an area of from five to six miles
square. Excavations of the terremare have brought
to light I'ows of piles from seven to ten feet long,
connected by transverse beams, forming a regular floor,
from which rose huts built in a similar way to those

of the Swiss pile dwellings, of interlaced branches or
of clay and straw, for no trace has been made out of
the use of bricks or of stones. The refuse of the
kitchen and rubbish of all kinds rapidly accumulated
round about these huts, and formed the first nucleus of

the mound, which soon grew to a considerable height
as one occupant of the house succeeded another. When
the refuse became too much of a nuisance, the owner of
the hut set up fresh piles at a greater height on the
same site, laid down another platform, and built a new
hut. In some places three such platforms have been
found one above another.
As in the Lake Stations, excavations of the terremares
have brought to light numerous bones of domestic
animals; but those of wild creatures, such as bears,
stags, roedeer, and boars, are even rarer than in Switz-
erland. The inhabitants evidently had other resources
l6o PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
than hunting at their command, and though the pro-

cesses they employed were but elementary, they culti-
vated corn, beans, vines, and various fruits. Though
iron was still unknown, some bronze objects have
been found in certain terremares, but these were only
roughly melted pieces of metal, showing no traces of
having been either hammered or soldered. Amongst
the pottery found in the terremares, we must mention
a number of small objects not unlike acorns in form,
pierced lengthwise, and decorated with incised lines,
some straight, others curved. Italian archaeologists

call them fusaioles, and Swiss savants, who have found
a greatmany in the lakes of their native country, give

them the name of pesons defuseau. Both these names
connect them with the process of spinning but their ;
number renders this hypothesis inadmissible, and when

we give an account of the excavations carried on at
Hissarlik, under Dr. Schliemaun, we shall be able to
determine their character (see Chapter VII.).
At Castione, near the town of Parma, and in sev-
eral other parts of the provinces of Parma and Reggio,
terremares have been discovered rising from the midst
of vast rectangular basins artificially hollowed out.
Some have concluded from this that the terremare-
colli, as the inhabitants of the terremares have been
called, were descended from the people who built the

pile dwellings of Switzerland, and that, faithful to the
traditions of their race, they hollowed out ponds in
default of natural lakes. If this were so, Italy must
have been peopled with a race that came over the
Alps. 1 Who or what this race was can only be matter
1
Comte Conestabile " Surles Anciennes Immigrations en Italie."
: Heilbig:
" Beitrage zur Altitalischen Kultur vmd Kund Geschichte," i. Band. G. Bois-
sier : Rivue des Deux-Mondes October, 1879.
,
TERREMARES. l6l
of conjecture. It cannot, however, have been the

Ligures, a branch of the great Iberian family, who
were totally ignorant of culture, and to whom the
builders of the most ancient of the terremares were
certainly superior nor can it have been the Etruscans,
;
for all relics of that race, which are moreover easily

recognizable, were found quite apart from the deep de-
posits containing the terremares. Many indications
point to the conclusion that when the Celts came down
into Italy their knowledge of metallurgy was already
more advanced than that of the builders of the terre-
mares. We are therefore disposed to think with Heil-
big, that the terremarecolli were the Itali, of Arian
race, who were the ancestors of the Sabini, Umbri,
Osci, and Latins. In the great migrations of races, the
Itali had separated themselves from their brethren the
Pelasgi, who had remained in Epirus, and, continuing
their march, they peopled Switzerland and crossed the
Alps, settling down in the fertile plains watered by
the Po, where it is easy even now to prove their
presence.
In superintending the excavation of a terremare at
Toszig, in Hungary, Pigorini, was greatly struck by
1
the resemblance between and similar erections in

it
Italy, especially that of Casarolo. This is very much

in favor of the Itali having been the builders. But
the objects collected in some of the terremares, those
of Varano and Chierici for instance, prove that they
were inhabited from Neolithic times, so that the Itali
of Italy, if Itali they were, did but follow the tradi-
tions of their predecessors. In spite, however, of
zealous study, all that relates to the origin of tribes
1
Bui. di Palethnologia Jtal., 1879. The terpens of Holland, though of much
more modern date, greatly resemble the terremares.
1 62 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
and races remains involved in the greatest obscurity,

and we can but look to the future to supply what the
present altogether fails to give.
We
have yet other tokens of the presence of the
ancient races who peopled Italy. Dr. Concezio Rosa 1
^noticed in the Abruzzi extensive black patches on the

ground, which bore witness to the former residence of
men. The excavation of these Fondi di Oabane, as
they are called, led to the finding of a great many stone
knives and scrapers with numerous bone stilettos and
the bones of various animals, them of species
all of
still living. Later, similar fondi were found between

the Eastern Alps and Mount Grargano. In Reggio, at
Rivaltella, at Castelnuovo de Sotto, and at Calerno, they
formed regular groups, and from one of these stations
more than one thousand worked flints were collected.
We mention them especially because they were of loz-
enge (selci romboidali) and half-lozenge (semi-rombi)
shapes, which are forms unknown in other districts.
With these flints were hand-made vases with handles,
the clay unmixed with sand or quartz and ornamented
with lines, grooves, and raised knobs. These vases
differ greatly from those found in the terremares / are
they then, as has been said, of earlier date ? It is im-
possible to come to any decision on the point.
Before closing our account of prehistoric buildings
surrounded by water, we must say a few words on
crannoges though there is the greatest difference of
opinion as to their date.
Crannoges are artificial islets raised above the level
of certain lakes in Ireland and Scotland 2 by means of a
1 " Ricerce di Archeologia Preistorica nella Valle della Vibrata.''

' Wylie, Arch. Brit., vol. xxxviii. Wylde, Proc. Royal Irish Acad., vol.
i.,p. 420.
CRANNOGES. 163
series of layers of earth and stone, and strengthened by

piles, some upright, others laid down lengthwise.
Wylde counted forty-six in Ireland in his time, some
of them of considerable extent. That of Ardkellin
Lough (Roscommon) is surrounded by a wall of dry
stones resting on piles. In other places have been
found the remains of stockades very intelligently set
up in such a manner as to break the force of the shock
of the water.
To add to the difficulties of dealing with the subject
of crannoges, they were successively occupied for many
centuries. They are mentioned in the most ancient
Irish legends, and even in the sixteenth century they
served as refuges for the kings of the country in the
constant rebellions that took place. The objects taken
from the lakes belong to very different epochs, and it
is impossible to say anything positive as to the time

of their construction.
A
hut found in Donegal may, however, date from an
extremely remote age. 1 It rested on a thick layer of sand
brought from the neighboring shore, and was covered
over by a bed of peat not less than sixteen feet thick.
Since the hut was deserted by man the peat had gradu-
allyaccumulated till it had at last invaded the dwelling
itself. The hut included a ground-floor, and one story
about twelve feet long by nine wide and four high.
The walls consisted of beams scarcely squared, joined to-
gether with wooden mortices and pegs. The roof, which
was probably flat, consisted of oak planks, the spaces
between which had been filled in with mortar made of
sand and grease. On the ground-floor lay several flint
1
Arch. Brit., vol. xxvi., p. 361. Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. vii.,
P- 155-
implements, showing no signs of having been polished,

a quartz wedge, and a stone chisel, which had evidently
seen long service. This chisel, the discoverers say,
corresponded exactly with the notches around the
mortices. A
regular paved way, formed of sea-beach
pebbles placed on a foundation of interlaced branches,
led up to a hearth made of flat stones measuring some
three feet every way. All about lay fragments of
charcoal and broken nuts, the latter partly burnt.
Another hut, with an oak floor resting on four posts,
has recently been discovered in County Fermanagh,
beneath a deposit of' peat about twenty feet thick. No
trace of metal has been found in either of these Irish
huts, and the thickness of the peat beneath which they
lay is another proof of their great antiquity. One serious
objection, however, is this : Were the Irish sufficiently
advanced in prehistoric times to be able to erect dwell-
ings implying so considerable an amount of civiliza-
tion ?
Crannoges are met with in Scotland as well as in

Ireland;, and excavations in Loch Lee have enabled
explorers to make out their mode of construction. The

Lake Dwellers began by piling up a number of trunks
of trees in the shallower waters of a lake. They then
strengthened these trunks with branches or beams
about which the mud collected till the whole formed
an islet. All about this islet, beneath the waters of
the lake, were found various objects in stone, wood,
and horn, as well as some canoes several feet long.
Similar crannoges are to be seen on the lakes of Kin-
cardine and Forfar, which Troyon thinks date from the
If he be right, and we should not like to
1
Stone age.
1 1
' Habitations Lacustres des Temps Anciens et Modernes, '
p. 170.
BURGHS, " NURHAGS" " TALAYOTI." l6$
make any assertion one way or the other, the bronze

objects and the enamelled glass bowls found near these
dwellings prove that they were occupied by several
successive generations.
It is probable that Lake dwellings were also used in
Asia and in Africa from prehistoric times. History
tells us that the inhabitants of Phasis, the Mingreli-
ans of the present day, lived in reed huts on the water,
and that they went from one islet to another in
canoes hollowed out of the trunks of oak-trees. A
bas-relief from the palace of Sennacherib, preserved in
the British Museum, represents warriors fighting on
artificial islands made of large reeds. But here we
enter the domain of history, and we must return to
Neolithic times, and speak of the habitations built of
more durable materials and the ruins of which are still
standing.
It is impossible to say with any certainty to what
period the most ancient of these structures belong. It
isprobable that man early learned to pile up stones,
binding them together at first with clay, and then with
some stronger cements. The burghs of Scotland, the
nurhags of the island of Sardinia, the talayoti of the
Balearic Isles, the castellieri of Istria, are all ancient
witnesses of the modes of building employed in the
most remote ages.
1
Burghs, brocks, or broughs are numerous in Scotland,
and also in the islands of the Atlantic. For a long
time they were supposed to be of Scandinavian origin,
but Sir J. Lubbock 2 remarks with reason that no
1
R. Munro :
" Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings or Crannoges, with a Supple-
mentary Chapter on Remains of Lake Dwellings in England," Edinburgh, 1882.
2 "
Prehistoric Times." Wilson: " Prehistoric Scotland."
building at all like them exists in Norway or in

Denmark, and it is difficult admit the idea that the
to
Scandinavians set up in the islands tributary to them
buildings which were unknown to their own mainland.
We are therefore disposed to think that these curious
structures, which were inhabited until the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries of the Christian era, are of much
earlier date than the first invasion by the Northmen,
and that the burgh still standing on the little island
of Moussa, one of the Shetlands, is one of the best

examples that we can quote. A
tower, forty-one feet
high, rises on the borders of the sea. The walls are of
unhewn stones, piled up without cement, and they
form two circles, separated by a passage four feet wide.
In each story are a series of very small openings,
intended to admit air and light to the cell-like rooms
inside, and to a staircase that leads, to the top of the
tower. The only way into this burgh is through a door
only seven feet high, and so narrow that it is impossible
for two people to go in abreast.
The regularity of the building of this burgh, and
the architectural knowledge it implies, prevent our
ascribing it either to the Stone or even to the Bronze
age; but we find in Scotland itself more ancient

examples, if we may so express ourselves, of domestic
architecture. These examples are subterranean dwel-
lings, made of rough-hewn stones of considerable size,
laid down in regular courses, to which the names of
1
earth-home* Picts houses, and weems have been given.
,
The walls converge towards the centre, leaving an

opening at the top, which was covered in with large
flat stones. These dwellings are certainly of earlier
1
date than the burghs, and the discovery of a Picts

StJRGffS, "NURHAGS," " TALAYOTI." 167
house actually beneath the ruins of a burgh enables us

to speak with certainty on this point.
In Ireland similar proofs have been found of the
great antiquity of man. More than one hundred
towers have been found in that country, all built of
and varying in height from seventy to
large stones,
one hundred and thirty feet, with a diameter of from
eight to fifteen feet. The most diverse origins have
been attributed to these towers, from prehistoric times
to the centuries immediately preceding the Christian
era from the time of the Druids to that of the Friars.
;
According to the point of view of different archae-

ologists, they have been called temples of the sun,
hermitages, phallic monuments, or signal towers.
We meet with a similar problem in considering the
nurhags, as in considering the burghs. They have been
justly called a page of history, written all over the sur-
face of Sardinia by an unknown people. Count Albert
de la Marmora counted three thousand of them a few
years ago, and more recent explorers tell us that this
number is greatly exceeded. Like the burghs, which
they strangely resemble, the nurhags are conical towers
with very thick walls made of huge stones, some hewn,
others in their natural state, arranged in regular courses
without mortar. On entering one of them we find
ourselves in a vaulted room, which looks exactly like
one half of an egg in shape. In the upper stories are
two, and sometimes three rooms, one above the other,
to which access is gained by steps cut in the walls.
The whole structure is crowned by a terrace (Fig. 53).
We must add that the entrance to the nurhag is through
an opening on a level with the ground, and so low that
one can only go in by crawling on the stomach.
Many conjectures have been made as to the use of

these towers. Were they temples in which to worship,
or trophies of victory ? Their number is against either
of these hypotheses. Were they then habitations or
towers of observation ? Not the former certainly, for
no one could between walls sixteen or twenty-two
live
from air and light. Some travellers
feet thick, shut out
think they were tombs, but excavations have brought
to light no bones or sepulchral relics. We can com-
Fig. 53. — Nurhag at Santa Barbara (Sardinia).
pare them to nothing but the Towers of Silence, on

which the Parsees expose their dead to the birds of
heaven, which are ever ready rapidly to acquit them-
selves of their melancholy functions.
The origin of the nwrhags is as uncertain as their
use. Diodorus Siculus considered them very ancient,
and one fact has come to light in our day which
enables us to arrive at a somewhat more exact de-
cision. The island of Sardinia was taken by the
Romans from the Carthaginians in 238 b.c, and an
BURGHS, " NURHAGS," " TALAYOTI." 169
aqueduct, the ruins of which can still be seen, was

built by the conquerors on the foundations of an
ancient nurhag, so that the latter must belong to an
earlier date than the third century before our era.
Fergusson, who speaks with authority on everything
relating to the monuments of the Stone age," assigns
the nurhags to the mystic times of the Trojan War.
In all probability they were built by an invading
people. La Marmora
thinks these invaders were the
Libyans; M. de Rougemont, in his history of the
Bronze age, says that the curved vault is the char-
acteristic feature of Pelasgian architecture, which is
often confounded with that of the Phcenicians. Al-

though any final conclusion would be premature, we
ourselves think that the builders of the nvrhags
belonged to the great stream of emigration from the
East, the course of which is marked by megalithic
monuments in so many parts of the world. In some
nurhag s were surrounded by cromlechs, of
instances,
which most of the stones have now been thrown down.
Some of these stones bore prominences resembling the
breasts of a woman.
The accumulations of earth and rubbish about the
nurhags are, some of them, from six to ten feet high.
In the lower deposits have been found coarse pottery,
with no attempt at ornamentation, fragments of flint,
and obsidian hatchets of black basalt, or porphyry of the
Palaeolithic type, arrow-heads, flint knives, stones used
in slings,and numerous shells whilst in the upper
;
deposits were picked up black pottery and fragments

of bronze belonging to the transition period between
'
the Stone and Metal ages.
All over the island of Sardinia, side by side with
the nurhags, rise tombs to which have been given the

name of They are from thirty-two
S&polture dei Griganti.
by a nearly equal width, and are
to thirty-nine feet long
built, some of huge slabs of stone, some of stones of
smaller size. They are in every case surmounted by a
pediment, formed of a single block, and often covered
with sculptures dating from different epochs. These
sepulchres are certainly of later date than the nurhags,
and in them have been found numerous implements of
bronze, but none of stone.
Fig. 54.—" Talayoti" at Trepuco (Minorca).
The talayoti, of which one hundred and fifty are still
standing in the island of Minorca, are circular or ellip-
tical truncated cones, built of huge unhewn stones, laid

one on the other without cement (Fig. 54). The most
remarkable of all of them, that at Torello, near Mahon,
is thirty-three feet high. In many cases there are two
stones, one placed upright, the other across it, in front
of the talayoti The meaning of these biliths is un-
known.
Yet another series of cyclopean monuments are
known under the name of nanetas, and are not unlike
"
BURGHS, " NURIIAGS," " TALA YOTI." iyi
overturned boats. Seven such nanetas are still to be

seen in the Balearic Isles. The one which is best pre-
served consists of large unhewn stones of rectangular
shape, enclosing an inner chamber about six feet in
width. The roof having fallen in, its height cannot
be exactly determined we only know that the lateral
;
walls are some forty-five feet high.

In Algeria also have been preserved some towers
built of stones without cement. Some of them are
square (hasina), and surmounted by a small dolmen,
others are round (choucket) and closed at the top by a
large slab of stone, as in the nurhags we have just
described.
It is difficult to bring this account to a close without
mentioning the truddhi and the speccliie of Otrahto. 1
A truddhu is a massive conical tower consisting of a

heap of scarcely hewn stones piled up without cement
and with an exterior facing. Inside is a round room,
the roof of which is formed by a series of circular
courses of stone projecting one beyond the other.
Sometimes a second chamber rises above the first,
which is reached by steps cut in the facing, which
steps also lead to the platform on the top of the tower.
Thousands of truddhi are to be seen in Italy they date ;
from every epoch, and the people of Lecce and Bari

continue to erect them as did their fathers before them.
Side by side with the truddhi rise the specchie, which
are conical masses of stone, of greater height and prob-
ably of more ancient date than the towers. Lenormant
thinks they were used to live in ; but his opinion has
1
Nicolucci :
" Scelse Lavorate, Bronzi e Monument! di Terra d'Otranto."
Lenormant, Revue d' Ethnographic, February, 1882 {Bui. Soc. Anih., 1882 and
1884). S. Reinach " Esquises Archeologiques.
:
1^2 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
been much questioned, and it is necessary to speak on

this point with great reserve.
The castellieri of Istria, which the Slavonian peas-
ants call starigrad, are as yet but little known. Doubt-
less an examination of them will bring out their
resemblance to the nurhags and talayoti. They are,
however, more than mere towers, forming regular en-
ceintes between walls formed of two facings of dry

stones, the space between which is filled in with smaller
stones. There are fifteen of these castellieri in the dis-
trict of Albona, a little town on the southeast of Trieste.
They were at first attributed to the Roman epoch, but

later researches relegate them rather to prehistoric
times, and the discovery near them of numerous stone
implements rather tends to support this latter opinion,
but it must not be considered conclusive.
Perhaps we ought also to connect with the earliest
ages of humanity the stations recently discovered in
Spain by MM. Siret. 1
These were evidently centres
of population, surrounded by walls of a very primitive
description. We shall have to refer again to these dis-
coveries we will only add now that in the black earth
;
forming the soil were found worked flints, polished

diorite hatchets, pierced shells, with various pieces of
pottery, and mills for grinding corn. So far, however
though many of the stations have been explored, no
trace has been found of the use of metals.
A vast period of time, countless centuries, indeed,
have passed away since the close of the Palaeolithic
epoch. The burghs, nurhags, and castellieri show the
progress of civilization, and at the same time prove that
this progress extended throughout Europe, and that at
1 " Les Premiers Ages du Metal dans le Sud-Est de l'Espagne," Brussels, 1887.
CASTELLIERI. 173
a time not so very far removed from our own. The

close resemblance between buildings of different dates
enables us to speak with, certainty of the connection
between the races which succeeded each other in
Europe. The importance of these conclusions is very
great, and will be brought out still more in our study of
megalithic monuments.
CHAPTER V.
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS.
Megalithic monuments are perhaps the most inter-

esting of all the witnesses of the remote past, into the
history of which we are now inquiring, and of which
so little is known. From the shores of the Atlantic to
the Ural Mountains, from the frontiers of Russia to the
Pacific Ocean, from the steppes of Siberia to the plains
of Hindustan, we see rising before us monuments of
the same characteristic form, built in the same manner.
This is a very important fact in the history of hu-
manity, and of which it is difficult to exaggerate the
importance.
What is the age of all these monuments ? Were
they all erected by one race, which has thus carried on
its traditions from one generation to another ? Were
they the temples of the gods of this race, or the tombs
of their ancestors ? Did the people who set them up
come from the East, or did they come from the North,
on their way to the warmer regions of the South ?
These and many other questions are eagerly discussed,
but in the present state of our knowledge not one of
them can be answered in a perfectly satisfactory man-
ner. Scire ignorare magna scientia, said an ancient
philosopher, and this is a truth which we must often
repeat when we are dealing with prehistoric times.
174
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 175
Under the name of niegalithic monuments we include

tumuli, dolmens, cromlechs, menhirs, and covered a/venues.
It may at first sight appear strange to include tumuli
amongst stone monuments, but they almost always en-
close a dolmen, a cist, or a crypt communicating with
the outside by a covered passage. The excavation of
more than four hundred tumuli England has brought in
to light now a stone coffer made of a number of stones
set edgeways and called a Mstvaen ; now of a tomb
Fig. 55. —Dolmen of Castle Wellan (Ireland).
hollowed out beneath the surface of the ground, and

enclosed by huge blocks of stone. Mounds are as 1
numerous in Portugal as tumuli in England, and the

fact that they are of low height has led to their being
called mamoas or maminhas, which signifies little
mounds. In Poland, tumuli consist of piles of massive
stones ;
beneath each is a cist made of four large slabs,
and containing as many as eight or ten urns full of
:
Bateman :
" Ten Years' Diggings," Preface, p. II.
calcined bones. The excavation of a tumulus in the

plain of Tarbes brought to light an enormous block of
granite resting on blocks of quartz. The spaces between
these blocks were filled in with rubble made of small
stones cemented into one mass with clay. Edwin-
Harness Mound, near Liberty (Ohio), is 160 feet
long by eighty or ninety wide, and thirteen to eighteen
Fig. 56. — The large dolmen of Coreoro, near Plouharnel.
high in the middle. It contained a dozen sepulchral

chambers.
More
rarely tumuli are merely artificial mounds of
earth, sometimes rising to a great height. Those of
North America are the most remarkable known. That
of Cahokia is now ninety-one feet high, 1 and was for-
1
W. MacAdams :
" The Great Mound of Cahokia." Am. Ass., Minnea-
polis, 1883.
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 1 77
merly surmounted by a low pyramid, now destroyed.

Its base measures 560 feet by 720, the platform at the
top is 146 feet by 310 feet wide, and it has been esti-
mated that twenty -five million cubic feet of earth were
used in its construction. Major Pearse mentions a
tumulus near Nagpore, which is 3,900 feet in circumfer-
ence,and 174 feet high. Another between Tyre and
Sarepta,is 130 feet high by 650 in diameter. It has
never been excavated. 1
Fig. 57. — Dolmen of Arrayolos (Portugal).
The dolmen type of monument is a rectangle of un-

hewn upright stones covered over with a slab laid across
them this slab being the largest block of stone that,
;
could be found in the neighborhood or obtained by the

builders.
Dolmens are generally found either on the top of a
natural or an artificial mound,
middle of a plain,
in the
or on the banks of a watercourse. must mention,We
amongst others, those in Persia, which are some 7,000
1
Pelagaud :
" Prehistoire en Syrie."
1
feet high and from twenty-one to twenty-six feet long

by six wide that near Mykense, that of Aumede-Bas,
;
excavated by Dr. Prunieres ; that of New Grange, in

Ireland, surmounted by a cromlech of stones of consid-
erable size, many of them brought from a distance that ;
of Hellstone, near Dorchester, consisting of nine upright

stones supporting a table more than twenty-seven and
a half feet in circumference, seven feet wide and two
and a half thick. The dolmens near Saturnia, one of the
most ancient Etruscan towns, include a quadrangular
room, sunk some feet into the earth, and having walls
Fig. 58. — Megalithic sepulchre at Acora (Peru).
made and a roof of a couple of large

of blocks of stone
slabs, sloped slightly to let the rain run off. We give
illustrations of the dolmens of Castle Wellan in Ireland
(Fig. 55), of Coreoro near Plouharnel (Morbihan) (Fig.
56), of Arrayolos in Portugal (Fig. 57), and Acora in
Peru (Fig. 58), which will enable the reader to judge
of the different modes of construction employed in
building these megalithic monuments.
In some cases the dolmen, which alone is visible from
without, is placed upon a mound, covering a hidden
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 1 79
sepulchral chamber, whilst in others the crypt is replaced

by a simple stone cist, generally of rectangular shape.
We may mention in this connection the dolmen of
Bekour-Noz which is remarkable
at St. Pierre Quiberon,
for its great and
from the midst of a ceme-
size, rises
tery in which a great many coffins have been found.
The bones they contained were unfortunately dispersed
at the time of their discovery.
Dolmens are scattered about in great numbers in
the Kouban basin and all along the coasts of the Black
Sea occupied by the Tcherkesses. These curious ves-
tiges of an unknown an unsolved
civilization are still
enigma to us, as are those of Western Europe they ;
are generally formed of four upright slabs surmounted

by a fifth laid horizontally, and one of the supporting
slabs is nearly always pierced with a small round or oval
opening. Excavations have brought to light arrow-
heads, rings, and bronze spirals, but Chantre, an
authority of considerable weight, and who has more-
over had the advantage of actually seeing these mega-
lithic monuments of the south of Russia, attributes
the objects found beneath them to secondary inter-
ments, and does not hesitate in assigning the more
ancient monuments themselves to the Stone age. We
must not omit to mention the dolmens found in the
southern portion of the island of Yezo (Japan), nor 1
that described by Darwin at Puerto Deseado (Pata-

gonia). They are both very similar to those of Europe.
To resume, dolmens, called Hunengraber in Ger-
many, stazzona in Corsica, antas in Portugal, and stendos
in Sweden, have all alike one large flat horizontal slab
1
Moore, Popular Science Monthly, New York, March, 1880 ; Zeitschrift filr
Ethnologie : Berlin, 1887.
placed on two or more upright unhewn stones. This

is the one fixed rule ; local circumstances, perhaps even
the caprice of the builders, decided the position and
the mode of erection. Often, as I have already re-
marked, dolmens are buried beneath tumuli, but ex-
ceptions to this are numerous. General Faidherbe,
after having examined more than six thousand dol-
mens number have
in Algeria, affirms that the greater
1
never been covered with earth. In the Orkney
Islands there are more than one hundred dolmens
without tumuli, and Martinet failed to find any trace
of mounds in Berry. In Scotland and Brittany we
find dolmens buried, not beneath mounds of earth, but
under accumulations of pebbles, called cairns in Scot-
land and galgals in Brittany. However minor details
may vary, and they do vary infinitely, one main idea
everywhere dominated the builders, and that was the
desire to protect from all profanation the resting-
place of what had once been a human being.
Cromlechs are circles of upright stones often sur-
rounding dolmens or tumuli. Sometimes they form
single circles, and at others two, three, or even seven
separate enclosures. They are common in Algeria, Swe-
den, and Denmark, and in the last-named country two
kinds are distinguished : the langdyssers, which form
an ellipse, and the rundyssers which form a perfect
circle. In other countries cromlechs are not so numer-
ous ;
there are but few in France, of which we may
name those of Kergoman (Morbihan), Lestridion in
Plomeur, and Landaondec in Crozon (Finistere). The

last-named, known as le temple des faux dieux, is closed
by a double row of small menhirs. In Italy, the only
1
" Monuments de Roknia," p. 18.
cromlechs known are those of Sesto-Calende and

those of the plateau of Mallevalle near Ticino. One
of the latter still retains in their original position
fifty-ninehuge granite blocks, forming a circular en-
and an entrance avenue. A few-
ceinte, a semicircle,
leagues from the ancient Tyre can still be seen a circle
of upright stones. Ouseley describes another at Darab,
in Persia ; a missionary speaks of three large circles at
Khabb, which circles he compares with
in Arabia,
those at Stonehenge and Dr. Barth tells us of a crom-
;
lech between Mourzouk and Ghat.

A
kurgan, or tumulus, having been opened in the
Kherson district, three or four concentric circles were
discovered beneath it, surrounding a structure of con-
siderable size. The cromlech of Anajapoura in Cey-
1
lon, probably, however, erected comparatively recently,

consists of fifty-two granite pillars, about thirteen feet
high, encircling a Buddhist temple. At Peshawur is
another circle, fourteen of the stones of which are still
upright, whilst traces can be made out of an outer

enceinte of smaller stones; in Peru there are several
cromlechs, whilst others have been found at the foot
of Elephant Mount, in the desert plains of Australia.
The last-named vary from ten to one thousand feet in
diameter, but excavations beneath them have brought
to light only a few human bones.
At Mzora, in Morocco, the traveller will notice
a mound of elliptical shape, some 21 or 22^ feet high,
flanked on the west by a group of menhirs, and sur-
rounded by an enceinte of upright stones which now
;
Haxtausen :
" Mem. sur la Russie," vol. ii., p. 204 ; A. Bogdanow : "Mat.
pour Servir a l'Histoire des Kourganes," Moscow,
1879 Margaret Stokes ; :
" La Disposition des Principaux Dolmens de l'Irlande," Rev. Arch., July, 1882.
number about forty. In 1831, there were still ninety,

and on the south side were noticed two rouud pillars
parallel with each other, which probably formed an
1
entrance. This group evidently originally formed the
centre of a series of megalithic monuments, for on the
north and southwest some fifty monoliths can still be
made out, some still erect, others fallen. 2
It was in Great Britain, however, that cromlechs
appear to have reached their highest development.
That of Salkeld in Cumberland includes sixty-seven
menhirs that near Loch Stemster in Caithness, thirty-
;
three, whilst in Westmoreland, Long Meg and Tier

daughters are still the objects of superstitious rever-
ence. The remains at Avebury are among the most
remarkable prehistoric monuments still extant, and
evidently originally formed part of a most important
group. This group had an outer rampart of earth,
with a ditch on the inner side, within which was a
circle of upright stones, probably numbering as many

as one hundred. Within this circle were two others
of smaller size, each in its turn enclosing yet another
circle of upright stones. In the middle of one of these
inner circles, that on the north, was a dolmen, whilst
that on the south enclosed in the centre but a single
upright menhir. The stones used in constructing these
various groups were all such as are still to be found on
the Wiltshire downs. From the southeastern portion
of the extensive earthen rampart, a stone avenue
extended for a considerable distance in a perfectly
straight line, and is still known as Kennet's Avenue,
'
Sir A. de Capell Brooke " Sketches in Spain and Morocco."
:
2
Tissot : " Recherches sur la Geographie Coraparee de la Mauritanie
Tingitane."
83
on account of its leading to the village of Kennet.

The remains on Hakpen Hill and on Silbuiy Hill are
all supposed to have been originally connected with
those at Avebury. The remains at Hakpen consist of

relics of two one about 140 feet in diameter,
circles,
the other not more than forty. About eighty yards

from the inner circle was found a double row of
skeletons, all with the feet pointing towards the
centre. Silbury Hill is itself an mound,
artificial conical
the largest in England, 170 feet high, on which were
originally no less than 650 upright stones, of which
only twenty are still standing, surrounded by a trench.
In the centre of the circle of stones a single menhir
of great height still remains with three others sloped
so as to form a kind of crypt.
The megalithic monuments of Stonehenge, which are
probably better known than any others in the world,
are perhaps also the most curious. The group is sup-
posed to have originally consisted of an outer stone
concentric circle some one hundred feet in diameter,
formed by thirty piers of solid masonry, of which about
twenty can still be made out, some few standing, others
lying broken upon the ground. This outer circle
enclosed a second of similar shape but lesser diameter,
within which again were two elliptic circles, the outer
consisting of ten or twelve sandstone blocks some
twenty-two feet high, standing in pairs, each pair
united by a slab laid horizontally across, so as to form
a trilithon. The inner ellipse was formed by nineteen
upright masses of granite, within which was the famous
slab of blue marble, by many supposed to have been
an altar. The pillars and lintels of the outer portico,
and those of the trilithons, are fitted together with the
greatest skill, with tenons and mortices, a remarkable

exception to the general rule with megalithic monu-
ments. Everywhere in the neighborhood of Stone-
henge, as far as the eye can reach, are tumuli, all nearly
equidistant from the principal group of monuments, a
factwhich has led many archaeologists, including Henry
Martin, to look upon Stonehenge as a temple sur-
rounded by a necropolis. Excavations at Stonehenge
have yielded a few human bones which have escaped
the flames, with some stone and bronze weapons.
The megalithic monuments of Ireland are not less
important, and a recent survey has reported no less than
276 still standing. 1 The cromlechs of Moytura 2 are
supposed to commemorate the fearful combats which
took place between the Firbolgs, or Belgse as they
are called by Irish antiquaries, and the Tuatha de
Dananns, when the plains of Sligo and Meath were
dyed with blood, before the former were vanquished
and retired to Arran. There are still no less than
fourteen dolmens and thirty-nine cromlechs. The
bones picked up beneath the stone circles, which
keep alive the memory of these sanguinary conflicts,
are those of the warriors who fell ou the battle-
field, but the story of how they met their fate belongs
rather to history than to the subject we are considering.

It is the same with the two huge monoliths of Cornwall,
which commemorate a battle between the Welsh King
Howel Dha and the Saxon Athelstane, as well as with
the cromlechs of Ostrogothland, where, in 736, took
1
Margaret Stokes : "La Distribution des Principaux Dolmens de l'lrlande.'
-
Revue Arch., July, 1882.

5
Sir W. Wilde " Ireland, Past and Present."
: Miss Buckland :
" Cornish and
Irish Prehistoric Monuments.'' Anth. Inst., Nov., 1879. O'Curry :
" Lectures
on the Manuscript Materials of Irish History."
85
place the battle in which the old King Harold Hilde-

brand was overcome and killed by his nephew, Sigurd-
Ring. A group of forty -four circles also marks the site
of the celebrated combat of 1030, in which Knut the
Great defied Olaf the patron saint of Norway. We may
also name in this connection the twenty circles of stone
erected atUpland in memory of the massacre of the
Danish prince, Magnus Henricksson, in 1161. Yet
another group of circles marks the spot where, about
1150, the Swedish heroine, Blenda, overcame King
Sweyne Grate. We might easily multiply instances of
the erection in historic times of similar monuments,
but we have said enough to show that the megalithic
form was by no means confined to prehistoric days.
Menhirs properly so called, also known as lechs in
Brittany, are in reality isolated monoliths or single
upright stones, often of considerable size. One of the
best known is that of Locmariaker (Fig. 59) which was
nearly seventy feet high. 1 was
standing in 1659,
It still
but is now overturned and broken into four pieces.

The flat stone resting on one portion of it is known as
Caesar's table. On some menhirs, notably on Sweno's
pillar in Scotland, a cross has been cut on one side,
showing either that this form of monument was early
adopted by Christians, or more probably, that it was
adapted to their use after having long previously been
a relic of prehistoric times. On the other side of
Sweno's pillar is a bas-relief of fairly good execution.
In some cases menhirs mark the site of a tomb,
and sometimes, as is the case with the obelisks of
Egypt, they commemorate some happy event. A
standing stone in Scotland preserves the memory of
1
Bui. Soc. Pol. du Moriikan, April, 1885.
8J
a
the battle of Largs, which took place in the thirteenth

century, and a piously preserved legend tells how the
menhir of Aberlemmo was set up in honor of a victory
over the Danes in the tenth century.
Some archaeologists, in view of the shape of certain
menhirs and the superstitions connected with them,
think they must be phallic monuments. Menhirs in
France are quoted in this connection, cut into the
form of the phallus and the same form occurs in some
;
menhirs near Saphos, in the island of Cyprus, and in 1
others found amongst the ruins of Uxmal, in Yucatan.

Herodotus relates that Sesostris caused to be set up,
in countries he conquered, monoliths bearing in relief
representations of the female sexual organs. These
are, however, but exceptions, isolated facts, and it
would certainly never do to argue from them that men-

hirs were connected with the worship of the generative
powers of nature.
It is extremely difficult to get at the statistics of
menhirs. A great many have been overthrown, and
yet more have disappeared altogether. Probably, be-
sides the alignments or stone avenues, there are not
more than twenty still standing. 2 One thing is certain,
the monolithic form of monument has always had a
great attraction for the human race, and we meet with
it in Egypt, Assyria, Persia, and Mexico, as well as
in England and Brittany. The historian speaks of

such monuments in the earliest of existing records;
Homer refers to them in the Iliad, 3 and in the
1
S. Reinach, Rev. Arch., 1888. Wilson :
" Megalithic Monuments of Brit-
tany." Cartailhac : "La France Prehistorique," in which the measurements are
given of the principal monuments of Brittany.
2
A. Bertrand " Archeologie Celtique et Gauloise,"
: p. 105.
'Iliad, bookxxiii., v. 380.

Bible we find it related that the Lord ordered Joshua

to set up twelve stones in memory of the crossing of
1
the Jordan by the Israelites.
Alignments are groups of menhirs set up in one or
more rows. Sometimes large slabs are laid across them,
when they are called covered avenues. One such
alignment at Saint Pantaleon (Sa6ne et Loire) consists
of twenty menhirs. The menhirs of El Wad, in
Algeria, form long avenues, running from west to east.
The Arabs call them essenam, and according to tradi-
tion they were erected in fulfilment of a vow made
in the hope of arresting the march of an enemy. The
tumulus of Run-Aour (Finistere) has two avenues run-
ning at right angles to one another. 3 This disposition,
which is very rare, also occurs at Karleby, in Sweden,
and by a remarkable coincidence the length of the ave-
nues (about thirty-nine and fifty-five feet), is the same in
both cases. Sometimes such avenues form communica-
tions between several dolmens, leading us to suppose
that near the chief slept the members of his family or
his favorite companions.
The covered avenues are often built beneath masses
of earth, and the inner rooms became regular hypogea,
These hypogea, or subterranean chambers, are very
common near Paris, and we may mention amongst
many others those of Meudon, Argenteuil, Conflans-
Sainte-Honorine, Marly, Chamant, La Justice, and Com-
pans. The tombs of Denmark, the Gang Graben of
Nilsson, show an arrangement somewhat similar, a vast
subterranean chamber being reached by a passage end-
ing in a small stone cist. The tumulus of Dissignac,
'Joshua, chap, iv., v. \j,etseq.

2
P. du Chatellier, Mem. Soc. d' Emulation des Cdles-du-Nord, vol. xix.
89
near Saint-Nazaire (Fig. 60), shows this strange arrange-

ment of two galleries running parallel with each other
at a distance The walls and
of about eighteen feet.
ceilings are made and the interstices are filled
of slabs,
in with flints. These galleries are some thirty feet long,
and their height insensibly increases from about three
to nine feet.
Fig. 60. —Covered avenue of Dissignac (Loire-Inferieur) ; view of the chamber

at the end of the north gallery.
We must also mention the Cueva de Mengal, near the

Malaga (Fig. 61)
village of Antequera, in the province of
Twenty stones form the walls of the crypt, five blocks
of remarkable size serve as a roof, and to ensure

solidity three pillars are set upright inside of the junc-
tion of the roof blocks. The crypt is some seventy-
nine feet long, its greatest width is about nineteen feet,
and its height varies from about eight to nine feet. The
igo PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
length of the Pastora room, near Seville is about eighty-

seven feet, but its height is not to be compared with
that of the one at Antequera. The square crypt at
Pastora is very interesting. One of the roof stones
having been broken, it has been strengthened by the
addition of an inside pillar. 1
At Gavr'innis, the length of the passage leading to
the crypt exceeds forty-two feet (Fig. 62), and the Long
Fig. 6i. —Covered avenue near Antequera.
Barrow of West Kennet is more than seventy-three feet

long by a width in some parts exceeding thirty-two feet.
In the Long Barrows of Littleton, Nempnitt, and Uley,
the crypt is reached by an avenue, the entrance of which
is closed by a trilithon, and a similar arrangement is
met with in many megalithic monuments of Scania.

The sepulchral chambers of oval shape, such as that
met with in the island of Moen, were surmounted by
1
Cartailhac :
" Les Ages Prehistoriques en Espagneeten Portugal."
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. I
9I
a tumulus some 100 yds. in circumference ; twelve un-

hewn stones formed the walls, and five large blocks the
roof. In removing the earth from the Moen tomb, the
bones of several human individuals were found and ;
a skeleton, doubtless that of the chief, lay stretched

out in the middle of the chamber, whilst the bones of
the others had evidently been ranged against the walls
either in a sitting or crouching position. With the
bones were found a flint hatchet, which appeared never
to have been used, a number of balls of amber, and
several vases of different shapes.
Fig. 62. — Ground plan of the Gavr'innis monument.
The megalithic monuments of Mecklenburg are sup-

posed to date from Neolithic times, and are constructed
in two very different ways. The Hunengraber, formed
of huge blocks of granite set up at right angles to each
other, resemble the covered avenues of France and
elsewhere ; in the so-called Hiesenbetten, or giant's
beds, on the contrary, the sepulchral chamber is merely
sunk in the ground.
We must mention the so-called Qrotte des Fees,
also
or fairy grotto, forming part of so many of the mega-
lithic monuments of Provence. This fairy grotto
includes an open-air gallery cut in the mountain
limestone and roofed in with huge flat stones. This
I92 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
gallery leads to a sepulchral chamber not less than
seventy-nine feet long.

The stones used for the covered avenue of Mureaux
(Seine et Oise) came from the other side of the Seine,
so that the builders must have crossed the river in
a raft. Excavations have brought to light several
skeletons that had been buried without any attempt
at orientation, the bones of which were still in their
natural position. The objects found in this tomb were
very numerous and belonged to the Neolithic period. 1
. -
We have now specified the chief forms and modes

of arrangement of megalithic monuments, and must add
that they are often found in juxtaposition. At Mane-*
Lud, for instance, on a rocky platform which had been
artificially smoothed, and which is some 246 feet long
by 162 in area, we find at the eastern extremity an

avenue of upright stones, on the west a dolmen, and
in the centre a crypt surmounted by a conical pile of
stones. Between the cone and the avenue the ground
is covered with an artificial paving of small stones:
cemented together, and known in France as a nappe

2>ierre>tse, and amongst the stones forming this paving
were found quantities of charcoal and bones of ani-i

mals. The megalith was completely buried beneath a>
mound of earth, or rather of dried mud, the amount of

M
which was estimated at more than 37,986 cubic ieeb
At Lestridiou (Finistere), a cromlech forms the start-
ing-point of an alignment formed of seven rows of

small menhirs, the mean height
of which above the
ground does not exceed three feet; and these align-
ments lead up to two covered avenues and a central
dolmen. In other cases, in England and the land of
1
Verreaux, VAnthropologic, 1890, p. 157.
MEGALITH1C MONUMENTS. 193
Moab for instance, alignments simply lead to crom-

lechs ; whilst in some few cases, as at Stennis (Fig. 63),
the menhirs are scattered about a plain in great num-
bers, with nothing either in their form or their position,
or in the traditions relating to them, to throw the
slightest light on their origin.
Fig. 63.— Monoliths at Stennis, in the Orkney Islands.
One of the most important monuments that have

come down to us is that of Carnac. The alignments of
Menec, Kermario, and Kerlescant include 1,771 men-
hirs, of which 675 are still standing. The alignments
of Erdeven, which succeed those of Carnac, extend for

a length of more than a mile and a half. They origi-
nally included 1,030 menhirs, of which 288 are still
extant.
The archaeologists of Brittany, carried away per-
haps by their patriotic enthusiasm, claim that when
these monuments were intact they included two thou,
sand menhirs. What is really certain, however, is that
a definite plan was evidently followed, the distances
between the alignments tallying exactly; the menhirs
being set up in straight parallel lines gradually de-
creasing in size towards the east. Excavations near

them have brought to light fragments of charcoal, masses
of cinders, chips of silicate of flint, with numerous
fragments of pottery, and tools made of quartzite, gran-
ite, schist, and diorite, similar to those met with under
all the other megaliths of Morbihan. This is yet
another proof, if such were needed, that they were all
the work of the same race and all probably date from
the same period.
The number of megalithic monuments in the world
is simply incalculable. M. A. Bertrand estimates the
totalnumber in France as 2,582, distributed in 66
departments and 1,200 communes. They are most
numerous of all in Brittany ; there are 491 in the C6tes-
du-Nord, 530 in Ille-et-Vilaine. I am not sure of the
number in Morbihan, but T know it is veiy consider-
able. The commission' appointed at the instigation of
Henry Martin decided that there were as many as 6,310
megaliths in France, but then amongst these were in-
cluded polishing stones and cup-shaped stones, with

other similar relics of the remote past. Lastly, a
report recently presented to the Chamber of Deputies

"
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. I95
by M. A. Proust estimates at 419 the number of groups

classed by government. In other countries these
numbers are greatly exceeded. There are 2,000 mega-
liths in the Orkney Islands and a great many in the
extreme north of Scania, and in Otranto in the southern
extremity of Europe, where they resemble the pedras
fittas of Sardinia. Pallas, and after him, Haxthausen,
tells us that there are thousands of kurganes in the
steppes of Central and Southern Russia. 1
These kur-
ganes are cromlechs, tombs surmounted by upright
stones, square or conical hypogea, all scattered about
without any apparent system, surmounted by roughly
sculptured female busts, known amongst the common
people as Jcamena baba, or stone women. Tumuli, too,
abound on the shores of the Irtisch and of the Yenisei,
mute witnesses to the former presence of a vanished
race of which we know neither the ancestors nor the
descendants. These monuments are, however, by
some attributed to the Tchoudes, a people who came
from the Altai Mountains. The Esthonians, the
Ogris or Ulgres, the Finns, and perhaps even the Celts,
are supposed to be branches of the same ethnological
tree. This is however quite a recent idea, and at best
2
but a mere hypothesis.
Algeria presents a vast field for research, and it is
easy to find dolmens and cromlechs, such as that shown

which are sepulchres with a central dolmen
in Fig. 64,
surrounded by a double or triple enceinte of monoliths
1
Haxthausen " Mem. sur la Russie Mer., vol. ii., p. 204.
:
" Fouilles des
Kourganes," par M. Samokoasof, Revue Arch., 1879. Much : Mitthcilungen
der Anth. Gesell. in Wien, 1878.
2
On this point see the excellent work by Maury, " Les Monuments de la
Russie et les Tumulus Tchoudes," and Meynier and Eichtal's "Tumulus des
Anciens Habitants de la Siberie.
ig6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
driven into the ground. These monuments, much as

they form
differ in and arrangement, are undoubtedly
the work of one strong and powerful race that domi-
nated the whole of the north of Africa; and are
represented in historic times by the Berbers, and
at the present day by the Kabyles.
Fig. 64, — Cromlech near Bone (Algeria).
Although a very great many of them have been
destroyed, the French possessions in Algeria are still
as rich in monuments of this kind as any of the
countries of Europe. On Mount Kedgel-Safia six hun-
dred dolmens have been made out, with stone tables

resting on walls of dry stones and frequently sur-

rounded by cromlechs. Dr. Weisgerber has recently
announced the discovery in the valley of Ain-Massin,
on the west of Mzab, of a cromlech consisting of a
number of concentric circles of large stones set
upon an
elliptical tumulus, more than fifty-four square yards in
area. Quite close is a workshop of flint weapons, prob-
ably in use at the time of the erection of the megaliths. 1
In Midjana, the number of megaliths exceeds 10,000,
and General Faidherbe counted more than 2,000 in the
necropolis of Mazela, and a yet larger number in that
of Roknia. " At Bou-Merzoug," says M. Feraud, " in a 2
radius of three leagues, on the mountain as well as on the

plain, the whole country about the springs
is covered
with monuments of the Celtic form, such as dolmens,

demi-dolmens, menhirs, avenues, and tumuli. In a
word, there are to be found examples of nearly every
type known in Europe. For fear of being taxed with
exaggeration, I will not fix the number, but I can
certify that I saw and examined more than a thousand
in the three days of exploration, on the mountain itself,
and on the declivities wherever it was possible to
place them. All the monuments are surrounded
with a more or less complete enceinte of large stones,
sometimes set up in a circle,sometimes in a square,
In some cases the living rock forms part of the
enceinte, which has been completed with the help
of other blocks from elsewhere. It is often difficult
to decide where the monument ends and the rock

begins. When the escarpment was too abrupt, it
was levelled with the aid of a kind of retaining wall,
1
Revue d''Anth. , 1880, p. 655.
2
M/m. de la Soc. Arch, de la Province de Conslantine 1863.
t
which forms a terrace round the dolmen. The dol-

mens in the plain seem to have been constructed with
even greater care. The enceintes are wider and the
slabs of the tables larger." Megalithic monuments
are met with even in the desert. A pyramid built
of stones without mortar rises up in the districts
inhabited by the Touaregs and quite near to it are
;
four or Ave tombs surrounded by standing stones.

In Algeria, we also meet with quadrangular pyra-
mids called djedas, which measure as much as ninety
feet on each face, but do not rise more than three
feet above the ground. The dead were buried be-
neath them in a crouching position. We know noth-
ing either of the origin of these djedas or of the date
to which they belong.
The monuments of Tunisia were probably as numer-
ous as those of Algeria. We may note especially the
vast area in Enfida, completely covered with dolmens,
one hundred of which are still standing, and in
excellent preservation, whilst the ruins of others strew

the soil, bringing up their original number to at least
three thousand. Those described by M. Girard de

Rialle are yet more interesting.
1
Near the village of
Ellez, on the road from Kef to Kerouan, are some
fifteen covered avenues distributed without apparent
order, and rising from the midst of Roman ruins.
The upright stones vary from about ten to thirteen
feet,and are surmounted by huge slabs. The chief

dolmen has within it as many as ten chambers.
There are also numerous tumuli in Syria. We have
already alluded to that of Sarepta and there are ;
1
"Monuments Megalithiques de Tunisie," Ant. A/ric, July, 1884.
la Dr.
Rouire :
" Les Dolmens de l'Enfida,'' Bull. Gcog. Hist., 1886.
;
others near Antioch and in the plain of Beka, between

Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. Major Conder, who as
captain conducted the interesting campaign organized
by the Palestine Exploration Society in 1881 and 1882,
speaks of the exploration of the rude stone monu-
ments as one of the most interesting features of the
surveys, and says " The distribution of the centres
:
where these monuments occur in Syria, is a matter of

no little importance ... no dolmens, menhirs, or ancient
circles have been discovered in Judsea, and only one
doubtful circle in Samaria. In Lower Galilee a single
dolmen has been found ; in Upper Galilee four of
moderate dimensions are known. West of Tiberias
is a circle, and between Tyre and Sidon an enclosure
of menhirs. At Tell el Kady, one of the Jordan

sources, a centre of basalt dolmens exists, and at Kefr
Wal . . there is another large centre.
. At Amman
several fine dolmens and large menhirs are known to
exist ... it is doubtful, however, if all these examples
added together would equal the great fields of rude
stone monuments to be found in Moab, for it is calcu-
lated that seven hundred examples were found by the
1
surveyors in 1881. There is one group of dolmens at
Ali Safat, in Palestine, in which the supports of the table
are pierced with an opening. This is a very interesting
fact, to which I have already alluded, and to which I
shall have to refer again. Another group of some

twenty dolmens was discovered by M. de Saulcy on
the plateau of El Azemieh, one of which rises in the
centre of a belt of roughly sculptured upright stones
and yet a third group is to be seen near Mount Nebo,
which Major Conder thus describes : " Here a well-
1 " Heth and Moab," pp. 191 and 192.

'
defined dolmen was found northwest of" the flat, ruined

cairn, which marks the summit of the ridge. The
cap-stone was very thick, and its top is some five feet
from the ground. The side-stones were rudely piled,

and none of the blocks were cut or shaped ... In sub-
sequent visits it was ascertained that on the south
slope of the mountain there is a circle about 250 feet
in diameter, with a wall of twelve feet thick, consisting
up in a sort of vellum."
of small stones piled
With regard to the megalithic monuments of India,
we can only repeat what we have already said. Colo-
nel Meadows Taylor has counted 2,129 in the district
of Bellary (Deccan) alone. Many legends are con-
nected with them which remind us of those of Europe,
some attributing their erection to dwarfs or giants,
to fairies or to genii, whilst others think they were

the work of the Kauranas and Pandaves, the cele-
brated families whose long struggle is described in
the Mahabharata, and were probably aboriginal races

of the continent. The plain of Jellalabad and of
Nagpore, and the valley of Cabul are literally strewn

with these monuments. They are not less numerous
in the Presidency of Madras, where they chiefly con-
sist of subterranean chambers made of huge unhewn
stones or of dolmens above ground surrounded by one

or more circles of upright stones, s;ich as are shown
in Fig. 65. Major Biddulph, when he ascended the
valleys of the Hindoo Koosh Mountains, was aston-
ished to see on every side megalithic monuments
resembling those Of his own country, and, like them,
the work of an unknown race.
2
1 " Heth and Moab," p. 249.

5 " Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh," Calcutta, 1881.
1
This is, of course, but a very rapid survey of the meg-

alithicmonuments of our globe. They arr, most of
them either tombs intended to hold the bodies of the
dead, or memorials set up in their honor. New facts
are constantlycoming to light in this connection, and
we may add to what we have already said, that
beneath the tumulus of Mugen, as in the Cabeco
d'Aruda ( Portugal ), there are numerous skeletons ;
Fig. 65. —Dolmen at Pallicondah, near Madras (India).
sixty-two repose in the sepulchral chamber of Monas-

tier ( Lozere ) the dolmen known as the Mas de
;
l'Aveugle ( Gard ) covers a circular cavity in which
fifteen corpses had been placed that of La Mouline

;
( Charente ) also enclosed a number of skeletons, all in

a crouching position, whilst above them were placed
two clumsy vases, a pious offering to the unknown
dead, The prehistoric cemetery of Maupas contains
"
several crypts of irregular form, built of rubble stone,

and surmounted by a huge stone which, had become
corroded by age. In these crypts, too, the dead were
piled up on each other, and the relics found with them
justify us in assigning them to the Neolithic age.
Beneath the dolmens of Port-Blanc ( Morbihan ) were
two upper layers of dead, stretched out horizontally
and separated by flat stones. In the Isle de Thinie
( Morbihan ) excavations have brought to light twenty-
seven stone cists or coffins of different sizes, all intended
to be used for burial. Beneath the menhirs of Finis-

tere, cindersand stones charred by fire bear eloquent
witness to the cremation of the dead. " Whenever a
dolmen has been opened in Finistere," says Dr. Flo-

quet, "cinders or bones have been picked up; why,
then, should we dolmens are tombs ?
not admit that all
This is really a conclusion to which we are almost

compelled to come, and the names handed down by
popular tradition are, if need be, yet another proof of
the same thing. One dolmen at Locmariaker, for
instance, is known as le tombeau du vieillard, a covered

avenue at Saint Gildas is le cliamp du tombeau, and
farther on a pathway leading to a ruined megalith is
known as the cliemindn tombeau.. The Abbe Hamard
speaks of a remarkable monolith known as lapierre
du, champ dole/it, and another champ dolent is met with
near Rheims, whilst a group of monuments near

Tivhontereuc is called the jardin des tombes, and the
upright stones of Auvergne are known by the charac-
name of the plouro uses.
teristic
Whether we examine the megaliths of Germany or
of Poland, the mounds of Ohio or of Kentucky, of
Missouri or of Arkansas, it is ever the same thing;

excavations bring to light striking proofs of their

destination, and everywhere we are led to the same
conclusions.
Archaeologistswould certainly appear to have been
justified in hoping that the tombs thus scattered about
all over the world would yield such useful information
as to lead to some Unfortunately,
final conclusions.
however, this has not been the case. Often all trace
of burial has disappeared in successive displacements,
and more often still, the home of the dead has been
violated in the hope, which turned out to be imagi-
nary, of finding treasures ; whilst in other cases the
earliest inhabitants of the tombs have been removed
to make way for their successors, who in their turn
were soon afterwards expelled. Victory and defeat
were not over with life, but were met with yet again
in the grave.
been well pointed out by Fergusson, in his
It has
"Rude Stone Monuments," that the megalithic architec-
ture of the remote past is a thing altogether apart its ;
special form indicating now the tendencies of a race or

group of races of mankind, now the particular degree
of civilization attained by a race at a certain period of
its development. A cursory view of these monuments
as a whole would lead us to class them all together as
masses of rough, scarcely hewn stones piled up with-
out cement, and almost always without ornamentation.
In studying them one by one, however, we find, in
spite of their undeniable family likeness, if we may

use such a term, that it is quite easy to make out
certain differences, the result of the peculiar genius
of the race by whom they were erected, or of the
nature of the materials the builders had at their dis-
posal. To Cromlechs are most

take a case in point :
numerous in England, and dolmens in France, and
in both these countries we meet with a form of

dolmen (Fig. 66) such as is rarely set up in other
districts one of the extremities of the table resting on
;
the ground, and the other on two supporting stones.

In Scandinavia the supports are erratic blocks, in
India fragments of the rocks in the neighborhood in ;
Fig. 66. — Dolmen at Maintenon, with a table about ig^ feet long.
Algeria and the south of France buildings in courses

are often met with in Brittany the monuments of
;
Mane-er-H'roek and Man6-Lud are paved with large

stones. The ground from which rises the dolmen of
Caranda, near Fere in Tardenois (Aisne), is covered
with slabs, and the opening is closed with a flat stone
resting on two lintels. We cannot speak of Caranda
without referring to the discoveries and magnificent
publications of M. F. Moreau, thanks to whom the
daily life of the Gauls, Gallo-Rouians, and Merovin-

gians brought vividly before us. To return, how-
is
ever to our monuments As we have seen, the crypt

:
was in many cases divided into two or more sepulchral

chambers by walls made of stones. We find this
arrangement at Gavr'innis, at Gamat (Lot), at Alt-
Sammit in Mecklenburg, in Wayland Smith's cave in
Berkshire, and in a great many monuments in Scandi-
navia. M. du Chatellier speaks of several megalithic
monuments in Finistere, including a central dolmen
and several lateral chambers. The chambered graves
at Park Cwn in Wales, and at Uley in Gloucestershire,
contain side chambers, those of the former with a
covered passage between them, whilst in the latter
the side chambers are grouped round a central apart-
ment. At New Grange, in Ireland, a passage more
than ninety-two feet long leads to a double chamber of
cruciform shape, with a roof of converging stones. Yet
another fine example of a similar kind is that of
Maeshow in the Orkney Islands. The tomb of Vau-
real ( Seine-et-Oise ) contains three crypts of different
sizes. The long barrow of Moustoir-Carnac contained
four separate chambers, the western one of which is a
-dolmen of the kind known as Grottes des Fees, and is
supposed to be much older than the rest of the group.
A central circular chamber, with walls of upright
stones, has a roof in which an attempt has been made
to form a kind of dome, the stones of which project
and overlap each other, marking, clumsy as is the con-
struction, a considerable advance on anything previ-
ously accomplished, and adding considerably to the
solidity of the monument.
An examination of the megalithic monuments still
standing enables us to judge of the difficulties with

which their builders had to contend, bearing in mind
the primitive nature of their tools. We have already
given the dimensions of the stones forming the align-
ments at Carnac. Those at Avebury vary in height
from about fourteen to sixteen feet, and in the Deccan
is a tumulus surrounded by fifty-six blocks of granite
of an even greater size. One of the slabs of the Pedra-

dos-Muros (Portugal) is remarkable for its size and ;
the length of the table of a dolmen on the road from

Loudun to Fontevrault is more than seventy-two feet
long that of the dolmen of Tiaret (Algeria) is some
;
seventy-five feet long by a width of nearly twenty-six

feet and a thickness of nine and a half feet. This
extremely heavy block rests on supports rising more
than thirty-nine feet from the ground. 1
Stone as well as wood can be much more easily cut

in one direction than in any other. Men early learnt
to recognize this peculiarity, and to take advantage of
it in attacking rock. With their stone hammers they
struck in straight lines, always aiming at the same
points, and then, probably with the help of a fierce
fire, they succeeded in breaking fragments. They

off
also employed wedges of wood, which they drove into

natural or artificial fissures, pouring water on to this
wedge again and again. The wood became swollen

with the damp, and in course of time a block of stone
would be detached. Neither time nor sinewy arms'
were wanting, and Fergusson has remarked that any one
who has seen the ease with which Chinese coolies
p. 458. M. Pallart (" Mori. Meg. de Mascaro"), thinks that
MaL'riaiuc, 1887,
1
dolmen was not erected by man, but that a long slab of stone has slipped
this
down the slopes of the mountain and rested on two natural supports. It is not
easy to accept this view.
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 2QJ
transport the largest monoliths for considerable dis-

tances, will not lookupon the difficulties of transport
as insurmountable. A more serious difficulty would
be the placing of the table of the dolmen on the sup-
ports, which are often raised to a great height above
the ground. It is supposed that earth was piled up
against the jambs so as to form an inclined plane, up
which the table was slid into place with levers and
rollers of the most primitive form, such as were in use
in the most remote antiquity. Sometimes the way in
which these stones are balanced is perfectly marvellous.
The Martine stone, near Livernon (Lot), for instance,
is the shape of a boat, and the slightest touch is enough
to make it rock on its two supports. That of Castle

Wellan (Fig. 55) rests on three stones pointed at the
top, and some of the trilithons of India are of even
more remarkable construction.
Although, as a general rale, megalithic monuments
are without ornamentation, there are a good many ex-
ceptions in the case of dolmens made of very hard
granite,on which numerous carvings and engravings
have been made. It is, however, impossible to decipher
any but a very few of these signs, whether circles,
disks, dots, tooth or leaf mouldings, spirals, serpentine
lines, lozenges, or striae.
M. du Chatellier describes at Commana (Finistere)

an entrance gallery loaded with carvings, and the walls
of one of the Deux-Sevres monuments have on them
some very rough representations of the human figure
cut in intaglio, whilst various megaliths of Ireland are
adorned with circles, spirals, stars, etc. One of the
supports of the dolmen of Petit-Mont-en-Arzon has on
it a representation of two human feet in relief; that of
Cotiedic in Lockmikel-Baden is paved with flat stones

covered with engravings. On the granite ceiling of
the crypt beneath the dolmen of the Merchants, or as
it is called in Brittany the Dol Varchant, is engraved
the figure of a large animal supposed to have been a
Fig. 67. —Part of the Mane-Lud dolmen.

horse, but the head of which was unfortunately broken
off at some remote date. We often meet with repre-
1
sentations of hammers, sometimes with and sometimes

without handles. We give an illustration of one of
1
Dr. de Closmadeuc, agreeing, I think, with Henry Martin, derives the
name of Vol Varchant from Vol March' -Hent, the table of the horse of the
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 20Q
the walls of the ManeVLud monument (Fig. 67), which

will enable the reader to judge of the general character
of these engravings.
The monument of the Isle of Gavr'innis, of which
we have already spoken, is the most remarkable of any
for the richness of its decoration. It includes a gallery,
consisting of forty-nine blocks of granite and two of
quartz, leading to a spacious apartment. These blocks
were brought from a distance, and the fact that the
little arm of the sea separating the island from the
mainland was crossed, proves that the men who built

the monument owned boats strong enough to carry
heavy loads. Excavations carried on in 1884 brought
to light a pavement consisting of ten large slabs of
granite, and beneath this pavement was found a kind
of crypt at least three feet deep, the lower part of the
lateral menhirs forming the walls. We must add,
however, that Dr. de Closmadeuc, and his opinion
should carry weight, thinks that when the Gavr'innis
monument was erected the island was connected with
the mainland. Three of the supports, forming the walls
of the crypt, and all those of the gallery are covered
with chevrons or zig-zag ornaments, circles, lozenges,
and scrolls of which Fig. 68 will give some idea, and
which Merimee compares to the tatooing of the in-
habitants of New Zealand. Megalithic monuments of
Ireland and certain stones in Northumberland are
ornamented in a manner resembling the Gavr'innis
engraving, similar designs being produced by similar
means, and although the engravings of Morbihan are
generally more clearly cut and distinct, we note in all
alike the same absence of regularity, the same rough-
ness of execution, the same strange types, the same
2IO PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
disorder in the arrangement of the signs, and the same

care to preserve the surface of the block in its natural
condition.
There has been a good deal of discussion about the
orientation of megalithic monuments, and the truth on
that point once
ascertained,some
light might be
thrown on the aim
of the builders.
It is evident, how-
ever, that there
never was any
general system of
orientation. The
dolmens of Mor-
bihan, it is true,
nearly all face the
east, doubtless in
homage to the
sun rising in its
splendor ; but
this is not the
case in Finistere,
aud the dolmens
of Kervinion and
Kervardel, for in-
Fig. 68. -Sculptures on the menhirs of the covered stance, are Set due
avenue of Gavr'innis. ,
-,
-, .-.
north and south.

Leaving Brittany, we are told by the Rev. W. Lukis
that the position of the megalithic monuments of Eng-
most of the dolmens of Berry,
land varies considerably :
Poitou, Aveyron, and the island of Bornholm, face

west ; and those of Algeria are and

set southwest,
northeast, so that it is really impossible to come to
any final conclusion.
Some of the megalithic monuments already noticed
have a peculiarity to which we must refer here on
account of its importance. One of the supports, in
nearly every case that which closes the entrance, is
pierced with a circular opening. Sometimes, however,

the opening is elliptical or square.
Fig. 69. — Dolmen with opening (India).

We meet with dolmens thus distinguished in India
(Fig. 69), in Sweden, in Algeria, in France, and in
Palestine, where they are often associated with sepul-
chral niches hewn out of the rock and also pierced with
an opening corresponding with that of the entrance.
In Alemtejo (Spain), square openings occur. West of
Karleby in Sweden, is a sepulchral chamber about
twenty-nine feet long, made of slabs set upright, all
those facing south being pierced with a nearly circular
opening ; and on the shores of the Black Sea dolmens
made of four upright stones surmounted by a slab, have,
in every case, one of the uprights pierced with an arti-

ficial opening about six inches in diameter. These dol-
mens are said by the country people to have been set up
by a race of giants who built them as shelters for a
dwarf people on whom they had compassion.
Fig. 70. — Dolmen near Trie (Oise).

In France, dolmens with openings are so numerous
that it is difficult to make a selection. That known as
La Justice, near Beaumont-sur-Oise, consists of a small

vestibule and a very long mortuary chamber, separated
by a slab pierced with a round opening. We must
also mention the megalithic monument of Villers-Saint-
Sepulchre at Trie (Oise) (Fig. 70), that of Grand-Mont,
with many of those of Morbihan, of which that of
Kerlescant has an oval opening ; the covered avenue
of Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, originally erected at the
confluence of the Seine and Oise, and now set up
:
MEGALITH1C MONUMENTS. 213
exactly as it was found at Saint Germain, has an oval

opening, and presents the exceptional feature, of which
I know no other instance, of having a stone for closing
the opening if necessary ; the covered avenue of Belle-
haye in Normandy, reproduced with precision at the
Paris Exhibition of 1889,which was closed by a trans-
verse stone with an opening some inches in diameter.
Of English examples we may mention the dolmens
of Rodmarten and Avening Merimee quotes several
;
megalithic monuments in Wiltshire and Sir J. Simp- ;
son, the well-known and oft-described KWs Ootty

House, which is nothing more than a dolmen with
an opening. Holed Stones, as they are called, are
numerous in Cornwall, the size of the opening vary-
ing considerably ; that at Men-an-Tol, for instance, is
more than a foot in diameter, whilst others are but a

few inches long. At Orry's Grave, in the Isle of Man,
two large stones are so placed as to leave a circular
space between them, which was evidently intended to
serve the same purpose, or at least was in accordance
with the same superstition, as were similar character-
istics elsewhere. Setting aside the interminable legends
connected with dolmens having openings, there is no
doubt that this peculiarity of structure, which we meet

with in India as in Scandinavia, in the Caucasus as in
France, shows that the builders of all of them were
impelled by a similar idea. These openings are too
small to allow of the introduction of other corpses, or
to afford to the living a refuge in the home of the
dead they could but have served for the passing in
;
of food, of which a supply was so often left for the

departed or yet another interpretation is possible
;
they may have been left for the soul or the spirit to
leave its earthly prison and take flight for those happy
regions in which all races more or less believe, and to
which belief these openings may be witnessed to the
present day. M. Cartailhac, however, hazards yet an-
other explanation, and suggests that the megalithic
monuments were intended for the interment of whole
and that the bodies were not introduced into
families,
the tombs until all the flesh was gone, when the skele-
tons might have been slipped through the openings
left for that purpose. The repeated disturbances of the
remains in the graves have unfortunately often entirely
dispersed all the human bones.
It was in Brittany that the art of erecting dolmens
reached its fullest development, and it is there that the
relics found in the tombs are of the most important
character. Nowhere do we find weapons more care-
fully preserved, more delicately finished ornaments of
a more remarkable kind. The Museum of Vannes,
where most of the valuable objects found in the ex-
cavations are preserved, possesses cpiartzite, fibrolite,
and even nephrite and jadeite hatchets, some of

diorite,
which materials are not native to Europe; as well as
amber beads and a necklace of calaite, that precious
stone described by Pliny, and which long remained un-
known after his time.
Hatchets or more numerous than any other
celts are
objects found beneath dolmens of Brittany. A report,
read by M. R. Galles to the Societe Polymathique of
Morbihan, enumerates the objects found with the dead
beneath the dolmen of Saint-Michel. This report is a
regular inventory, in which figure eleven jade celts of
great elegance of form and varying from about three
and a half to sixteen inches, two larger celts of coarse
5
workmanship both broken, twenty-six small fibrolite

celts with sharp edges, nine pendants, more than one
hundred jasper beads which had been part of a neck-
lace,and lastly an ivory ring. Other megalithic mon-
uments were not less rich in relics. Thirty hatchets
were picked up at Tumiac ; more than a hundred,
nearly all of tremolite, at Mane-er-H'roek which were
;
remarkable for their regularity of form, their polish,

and the variety of their colors. They seldom bear any
traces of having been used, and in many cases they
appear to have been intentionally broken, probably in
conformity with some funereal rite. though
Finistere,
not so rich as Morbihan, furnished an important con-
tingent. The excavations of the Kerhue-Bras tumulus
brought to light a sepulchral chamber which contained
thirty-three arrow-heads. Beneath other dolmens
were picked up a number of little plaques of slate, all
pierced with holes one of these pieces of slate, which
;
was oblong in form, bore on it a representation of a

sun with rays surrounded by ornaments not easy to
make out. The Breton megalithic monuments also con-
tained numerous fragments of pottery, some of which
had formed part of vases without stands, such as those
found at Santorin and at Troy.
In other parts of France, similar discoveries have
been made shells often brought from distant shores,
;
glass beads, amber bowls, hatchets and celts made

of stone foreign to the county. Dr. Prunieres pre-
sented to the French Association, when it met at Bor-
deaux, a collection of weapons and ornaments which
came from the megalithic monuments of Lozere. M. Car-
tailhac described at the Prehistoric Congress of Co-
penhagen the dolmen of Grailhe (Grard). A skeleton
2l6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
was found beneath it crouching in a corner; whilst

round about it lay a knife, a flint arrow-head, a vase
of coarse pottery, and forming the tumu-

in the earth
lus were picked up twenty arrow-heads, a hatchet
of chloromelanite, with numerous beads and fragments
of pottery. Were these offerings to the dead, or to
the infernal deities, given to them hope of pro-
in the
pitiating them in favor of the deceased ? Beneath the
megalith of Saint Jean d'Alcas were found beads
of blue glass and of enamel which Dr. Prunieres, hav-
ing compared with those in the Campana collection in
the Louvre, thinks are of Phoenician origin. The tu-
muli of the Pyrenees have yielded cala'ite beads of the .
shape of small cylinders pierced with holes; and the

dolmen of Breton (Tarn-et-Garonne) eight hundred and
thirty -two necklace beads, some of the shape of a heart.
Beneath the Vaureal dolmen were found five skulls in
a row, and near one of them, that of a woman, lay. a
necklace made of round bits of bone and slate, on
which hung a little jadeite hatchet as an amulet.
These human relics were also accompanied by a fibro-
lite celt, numerous little worked flints, and some frag-
ments of pottery. This arrangement of skulls in a

tomb is very rare, and the only thing I can compare'
it to is the row of five horses' heads placed at the end
of the entrance gallery of Mane-Lud.

At Alt-Sammit (Mecklenburg), were round stone
hatchets, flint knives, fragments of pottery covered with
stria? and ornaments ;at Tenarlo (Holland), urns and
amber beads. At Ancress in the island of Jersey, we
find a regular necropolis dating from Neolithic times,
and one hundred vases or urns of different forms were
collected. In the Long Barrow of West Kennet, too,
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 2\J
were found numerous fragments of potteiy, and with

these fragments boars' tusks longer than those of the
boar of the present day, the bones of sheep, goats, roe-
deer, pigs, and of a large species of ox, all of which are
probably relics of a funeral feast. At a little distance
from West Kennet the Rev. Doyen Merewether found
several flint implements. Here too, then, as elsewhere,
the home of the living was side by side with the rest-
ing-place of the dead.
Beneath the dolmens of West Gothland have been
found polished stone weapons and tools associated with
the bones of domestic animals, in many cases bearing
traces of the work of the hand of man. At Olleria, in
the kingdom of Valencia, at Xeres de la Frontera, we
find diorite hatchets, and in Algeria vases filled with
the shells of land mollusca. In every clime we meet
with tokens of the respect in which the dead were held.
This respect is really very remarkable. The builders
of the dolmens did not hesitate to sacrifice their most
precious objects, their richest ornaments, their hatchets
and precious stones brought from a distance by their
tribe in their long migrations. No one would dream of
robbing the sacred collection. Our own contemporaries,
however civilized we may flatter ourselves by consider-
ing them, would not prove themselves as disinterested.
Hatchets, pottery, and personal ornaments of stone ;
bone, etc., are not the only artificial found objects

beneath the megalithic monuments. Metals, too, have
been discovered, and M. Piette in one of his excava-
tions, came across a plate formed of very thin layers of
gold leaf welded together by hammering and in several ;
parts of the south of France have been found olives

made of gold and pierced lengthwise. The dolmen of
2l8 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
Carnouet in Brittany, insignificant as it appears and

containing but one small sepulchral chamber with no
gallery of access or lateral crypts, beneath a tumulus
about thirteen feet high by some eighty -five in diame-
ter, and which was left untouched until our own day,
actually contained a golden necklace weighing over

seven ounces in the crypt of the Castellet monument
;
was found a golden plaque and a golden bead; whilst

the Ors dolmen in the isle of Oleron concealed a nugget
which had been rolled into the shape of a bead prob-
ably after having been beaten thin with a hammer. At
Plouharnel, two golden amulets were found beneath a
triple dolmen, and M. du Chatellier, in excavating
beneath a megalithic monument in Finistere, found a
magnificent chain of gold. A
somewhat similar chain
was taken from the Leys dolmen near Inverness, and in
1842 Lord Albert Cunningham picked up at New
Grange (Ireland) two necklaces, a brooch, and a ring,
all of gold.
More than hundred megalithic monuments of

a
France have been found to contain bronze, and this
number would be more than doubled if we counted the
finds in tombs not connected with megaliths, such as
those of Aveyron and Lozere, where a few bits of
bronze were found mixed with numerous stone objects.
One fifth of the weapons, especially the swords and
daggers found beneath the dolmens, are of bronze. At
Kerhue in Finistere, a number of bronze swords were
arranged in a circle round a little heap of cinders and
black earth, relics, probably, of the cremation of the
dead, inhonor of whom the tumulus had been erected.
Beneath the dolmens of Roknia (Algeria) were found
thirteen bronze ornaments, and two in silver gilt of
;
MEGAUTHIC MONUMENTS. 2ig
very superior workmanship, and under those of the

Caucasus were picked up blue-glass beads, arrow-heads,
and bronze rings but M. Chantre, who is an authority
;
in the matter, thinks these objects date

from interments
subsequent to the erection of the dolmens.
Iron was much more rarely used than bronze in the
greater part of Europe. was not even known in
It
Scandinavia before the Christian era. In Germany,
Pannonia, and Noricum its use dates from the sixth or
seventh century b.c. Beneath the mounds of Central
America we find but a few fragments of meteoric iron,
the rarity of which made them extremely valuable
on the other hand iron was known to the Hellenes as
long ago as the fourteenth century b.c, and it had
been employed in Egypt for many centuries prior to
that time. The most ancient sepulchres of Malabar
"contain iron tridents, and Genesius dates their use from
before the deluge. It is therefore surprising to find
that some races remained for an illimitable time ig-
norant of the way to procure a metal of such great

utility.
Iron was not used in Brittany until towards the close
of the period during which megalithic monuments
were erected. Stone, bronze, and iron were found
together in the Nignol tomb at Carnac, which dates
from the time when cremation was already practised.
We find the same association of different materials in
the Rocher dolmen.
In the British Isles, especially in Scotland and in Ire-
land, bronze and iron objects are more numerous than
in France. At Aspatria, near St. Bees in Cumberland,
was discovered containing the skeleton of a man
a cist
measuring seven feet frorn the crown of the head to
the feet. Near the giant lay numerous valuable ob-

jects, including an iron sword inlaid with silver, a gold
buckle, the fragments of a shield and of a battle-axe,
and the iron bit of a snaffle bridle. The great cairn
of Dowth, in Ireland, contained iron knives and rings
mixed with bone needles, copper pins, and glass and
aniber beads, all showing rapid progress in the indus-
trial arts. The remarkable cairns near Lough Crew
(Ireland), which were untouched and indeed unknown
to archaeologists until 1863, were found to contain,
amongst many other interesting objects, numerous
human bones, fragments of pottery, shells of marine
mollusca, 4,884 bone implements, and seven pieces of
iron very much The tumuli of the Grand
oxidized.
Duchy and those of Prussia cover kistvaens
of Posen
containing funeral vases, weapons, and silver and
gold ornaments.
We are altogether in the dark as to the date or the
use of the various objects found in these tombs, and
the coins bearing dates which are often associated with
them, do not seem to help us much, belonging as they
doubtless do to a much later period than the erection
of the monuments. We may, however, mention that
near the surface of the mound of Mane-er-H'roek eleven
medals of Roman emperors from Tiberius to Trajan
were found whilst under the tumulus of Rosmeur, on
;
the Peumarch Point (Finistere), were various Roman

coins; at Bergousin Lockmariaker, at Mane-Rutual, and
at other places in Brittany, coins of the earliest Christian
emperors ; some coins of
at Uley, in Gloucestershire,
the time of the sons of Constantine at Mining-Low
;
(Derbyshire), beneath a kistvaen surrounded by a

cromlech, some medals of Valentinianus at Galley-Low,
;
with a magnificent gold necklace set with garnets, a coin

of Honorius, but as these last were found at the outer
edge of the mound there are doubts as to the time of
their deposition ;
these doubts were, however, to some
extent set at rest by the finding of a coin of Geta
beneath the monument itself. We might multiply in-
stances of similar finds, but I will only mention one

more, the discovery under some Scotch barrows of
silver necklaces and coins of the Caliphs of Bagdad,
bearing date from 887 to 945 a.d.
This last discovery confirms what I have already
said, that the introduction of the coins was of much
later date than the erection of the monument.
Another fact adds weight to this decision. The most
ancient Gallic coins date from about three centuries
before our era, and the earliest British from a century
earlier than that. How is it that excavations have
brought to light no specimens of either? The Romans
successively occupied all the countries of which we
have just spoken the tombs themselves bear witness
;
to their conquests; and it is to the violation of the

tombs, the displacements, and secondary interments
that we owe the introduction of coins, pottery, and
bricks that undoubtedly date from the Roman period,
and were probably placed beside their dead by the
Roman legionaries.
Whatever may be the difficulties, however, we are
already able to come to certain definite conclusions.
We cannot connect the megalithic monuments with
any one of the ancient religions known. They were
certainly not set up in honor of Odin or of Osiris, of
Astarte or of Athene, the Phoenician or the Egyptian,
the Greek or the Roman gods their erection seems to
;
have had but one end in view, to do honor to the

dead. Beneath none of them do we find the remains
either of the cave-bear or of the reindeer, still less of
the mammoth or of the rhinoceros; whereas we do
constantly meet with the bones of animals character-
istic of Neolithic times. It is therefore to that period
that we must attribute the more ancient of these
mysterious monuments. And the setting up of such
memorials continued throughout the intermediate time
between the Stone and Bronze ages, and through the
Bronze and Iron periods. It was, indeed, still prac-
tised now and then in the earlier centuries of the
Christian era. More than that, such monuments are
even now occasionally erected. The Khassias of India
make cromlechs of large, flat unhewn stones, some six
to seven feet high,and the Angami-Nagas of the ex-
treme north of British India set up extensive align-
ments of menhirs, similar to those of France. In-
scriptions in the old Irish cipher writing, known as
ogham, prove that megalithic monuments were erected

in Ireland after the time of St. Patrick and, as we
;
have already remarked, some of the Breton menhirs

are surrounded by crosses. In India, too, we find the
symbol of the Christian faith, and in 1867, were dis-
covered on the shores of the Godavery between Hyder-
abad and Nagpore, a few dolmens made of four upright
stones surmounted by one or two slabs of sandstone,
and encircling a cross which is said to date from the
same age as the dolmens themselves. We must add,
however, that the most competent archaeologists are of
opinion that this form of the cross was not introduced
into India until about the sixth or seventh century of
our era. Probably the erection of megalithic monuments
;
was not discontinued in England or in France until

towards the eighth or ninth century after Christ and ;
the menhirs set up later in Scotland and in Scandinavia

prove how fondly the people of those countries clung
to ancient traditions. These rude stone monuments
were handed down from one race to another, from in-
vaders to invaded, from conquered to conquerors.
We must not, however, omit to mention one serious
objection. Roman historians, exact as is their descrip-
tion of Gaul, Britannia, and Germania, are silent as to
stone monuments. Tacitus does not refer to Stone-
henge or to Avebury. Caesar was present at the naval
battle between his own fleet and that of the Veneti, in
the Gulf of Morbihan, and if the megalithic monuments
of Carnac were then there, would they not have
arrested the attention of the great captain ? This
silence is the more inexplicable as one of the earliest
geographers mentions the stone of Iapygia ; Ptolemy
speaks of a similar stone on the shores of the ocean ;
Strabo, of a group of dolmens near Cape Cuneus

Quintus Curtius, of an important alignment in Bactri-
ana Pliny, who mentions a leaning pillar in Asia Minor,
;
says nothing of the megalithic monuments of Gaul,

which he crossed several times. Moreover, Ausonius,
Sidonius, Appollinaris, and Fortunatus, who are so
eager to glorify their own land, maintain a similar
silence with regard to these structures. Sulpicius,
Severus, and Gregory of Tours, old chroniclers of
French history, also pass them over without a word.
More than that, Madame de Sevigne, who was stop-
ping at Auray in 1689, and visited its environs,
writes to her daughter of all she has seen and done,
without alluding to the alignments of Carnac, or of
Erdeven, which were, of course, much more complete

in her day than in ours. In fact, they are mentioned
for the first time by Sauvagere, in his " Recueil des
Antiquites de la Gaule," in which he attributes them to
the Romans. We may therefore, perhaps, conclude
that these decayed and clumsy-looking monuments
were despised for generations, no one realizing their
importance or caring to penetrate their secrets.
If need were, we have yet other proofs of their
extreme antiquity. In excavating an alignment in the
district occupied by the Kermario group, a Roman
encampment was discovered. The enceinte is repre-
sented by a long wall about six feet thick, and propped
up against this wall were found a number of flat stones
blackened with smoke, on which the legionaries doubt-
less cooked their food. In some instances these hearths
were made on an overturned menhir, and other men-
hirs, which had belonged to the alignment, were fitted
into the walls. A Roman road passes near Avebury,

and, contrary to their general custom, the haughty
conquerors had turned aside to avoid the tumulus.
These are decisive proofs that in France and England
at least the megalithic monuments were erected before
the advent of the Romans.
Difficult as it is to come to any definite conclusion
as to the age of the monuments, it is yet more difficult
to ascertain to what race their builders belonged. In
the first place we ask Are they all the work of one
:
race ? The contrary, earnestly maintained by M. de

Mortillet, has long been the general opinion. M. Wor-
1
saae declared, at the Brussels Congress, that the dolmens
were erected by different peoples ; M. Cazalis de Fon-
1
Comple rendu, p. 421.
:
douce, 1 M. Broca, 2 and M. Cartailhac, 3 share this belief.

"Are not the monuments of huge stones," says M.
Fondouce, "the product of a progressive civilization
growing by degrees, rather than the work of a single
people maintaining their own manners and customs in
the midst of the old primitive populations they visited,
without borrowing anything from their hosts ? " To
Broca, the resemblance between the dolmens of Europe,
Africa, and even of America proves but one thing
the similarity of the aspirations and powers of all
men. Everywhere, and at every time, men have aimed,
in their monuments, not only at durability, but at the
expression of force and of power. It was with this
end in view that they erected menhirs and selected
enormous stones for their megalithic monuments. The
dolmen, which looks like an architectural building, is
but a modification of primitive tombs. The cave-man
first turned to account natural or artificial rock shelters,
and when they were not to be had, he imitated them

in such materials as he had at. his disposal. Hence we
have crypts, kistvaens, and dolmens and the resem- ;
blance between them proves nothing as to the parent-

age of their builders.
We may add that the distances between what we
may call megalithic zones is considerable. We meet,
for instance, withdolmens in Circassia and in the
Crimea, but there are no others nearer than the Baltic.
There are none in the districts peopled by the Belgae,
from the Drenthe to the borders of Normandy, nor are
there any in the valleys of the Rhine or of the Scheldt.
1
Mat., 1877, p. 470.
' Ass. Franfaise, Bordeaux, 1872, p. 725.
3
Rev. d'Anth., 1881, p. 283.
25
;
There are but a few in Italy or in Greece, where Pelasgic

buildings were early erected, and bore witness to a more
advanced civilization. We meet with them again,
however, in Palestine, but we must traverse many
miles before we find other examples at Peshawur and
in the valley of Cabul. It is difficult to overrate the
importance of these facts, or to explain these gaps.
Are they, however, so complete as has been supposed ?
The few travellers who have crossed Afghanistan and
Daghestan have seen tumuli which may have served
as points of union between the monuments of India
and those of the Caucasus. The megalithic monuments
of Palestine and of Arabia may yet be found to be
linked with those of Algeria, by examples in the little
known regions between the Nile and the Regency of
Tripoli. If our ignorance forbids us to assert anything
on this point, it equally forbids our denying anything
with any confidence. We may also add one general
remark: the countries where megalithic monuments
are found, abound in granite, in sandstone, and in flint,
whilst other districts have only very friable limestones
and their monuments, if they were ever erected, would
have been more easily destroyed, the very ruins disap-
pearing and leaving no trace.
It has been said, moreover, that the mode of con-
struction of the dolmens, and we have ourselves made
the same remark, is far from being the same every-
where. The dolmens of Brittany have sepulchral
chambers with long passages leading to them; those
of the neighborhood of Paris have wide covered ave-
nues with a very short entrance lobby. In the south
of France we see nothing but rectangular compart-
ments formed of four or five colossal stones. All this
is true enough ; but if we examine our old cathedrals

of comparatively modern date, the common origin of
which is never disputed, we note differences no less
remarkable. On the other hand it urged that if
is
megalithic monuments were all erected by one race,

the objects they contain would certainly resemble
each other to a great extent. But even this is not the
case. The hatchets so numerous in the west of France
are rare in the south ;
those from the Algerian monu-
ments are always of coarse workmanship, whilst those
of Denmark are highly finished. We might multiply
instances, but as a matter of fact do we not see the
same kind of thing in the present day, in spite of our
railways and other modes of rapid communication, and
the perpetual intermarrying of modern peoples ? Com-
pare the ornaments of Normandy with those of the
Basque provinces, those of Brittany with those of Bur-
gundy, and surely the differences between them will
be found to be as great as we note in the weapons and
ornaments of the builders of the megalithic monu-
ments.
To sum up : according to the opinion of many emi-
nent savants, numerous races have been in the habit
of raising megalithic monuments, the form of which
varies ad infinitum according to the genius or the
circumstances of each race, and according to the
nature of the soil or of the material at the disposal
of the builders. All, however, belong to one general
type, and bear witness to one general influence, which
extended throughout the whole world at a certain
epoch. M. Cazalis de Fondouce, from whom I bor-
row these last observations, would probably find it
as difficult to say how a general influence was ex-
tended to races of which he denies the common parent-

age, and the relations and contemporaneity he can.
—
but guess at, as I myself should granting the con-
trary hypothesis— to explain how a people could wan-
der about the world iu incessant migrations without
modifying its own habits or communicating to others
its rites and its mode of erecting monuments.
We cannot, however, fail to recognize the evidence

of facts. We can understand how men were every-
where impelled to raise mounds above the bodies of
their ancestors, to perpetuate their memory or to en-
between flat stones to save
close their mortal remains
them from being crushed by the weight of earth above
them. We may even, by straining a point, admit the
idea that a large cist developed into a dolmen, but
when in districts separated by enormous distances
we see monuments with the wall pierced with a circu-
lar opening or combining an interior crypt with an
external mound and dolmen, it is impossible to look
upon these close resemblances as the result of an
accidental coincidence, and equally impossible to fail
to conclude that the men whose funeral rites were

remarkable for such close similarity belonged to the
same race.
What then was this race ? Are these monuments
witnesses of the great Aryan immigration which was
for so long supposed to have spread from India over
the continents of Asia and Europe, and of which the
Indo-European languages were said to preserve the
memory ? Or is it really the fact that a relationship
of language does not imply a relationship of race ?
Were the builders of the dolmens Celts or Gauls,

Ligures or Cymri ? was Henry Martin right in ascrib-
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 22Q
ing to the Ciraerii of Scandinavia the erection in the

Bronze age of the megaliths of Ireland ? Was it
the Turanians, with their worship of ancestors, their
respect for the tombs of their forefathers, and their
desire to perpetuate their memory to eternity, who
set up the dolmens of Brittany ? Was it not perhaps
rather the Iberians, whose descendants still people
Spain and the north of Africa ? According to Maury,
the distribution of the megalithic monuments of
Europe marks the last refuge of vanquished Neo-
lithic races, fleeing before their conquerors. All these
hypotheses are plausible, all can be defended by argu-
ments, the weight of which it is impossible to deny, but
none are capable of conclusive proof, none can finally
convince the student. 1
An old Welsh poet, referring to the long barrows
of his native land, says that they are altogether in-
explicable, and that it is impossible to decide who
set them up or who is buried beneath them. And
3
surely this ancient bardis right even now. Vainly
do we question these silent witnesses of the remote
past. They give us no answer, and we can but repeat
1
By permission of the author, the translator adds the following quotation
from Taylor's "Origin of the Aryans," p. 17, which is referred to by Professor
Huxley in his paper on the Aryan question in the Nineteenth Century for
November, 1890. Taylor says: "It is now contended that there is no such
thing as an Aryan race in the same sense that there is an Aryan language, and
the question of late so frequently discussed as to the origin of the Aryans can
only mean, if it means anything, a discussion of the ethnic affinities of those
numerous races which have acquired Aryan speech with the further question,
;
which is perhaps insoluble, among which of these races did Aryan speech
"
arise and where was the cradle of that race ?
2
This poet is one of those whose work is to be found in the so-called
'
Black '
Book of Caermarthen. " See also " The Four Ancient Books of Wales, Con-
taining the Cymric Poems Attributed to the Bards of the Sixth Century."
Edinburgh, 1868.
here what we said at the beginning of this inquiry:

Human science is powerless to lift the veil hiding the
early history of humanity. Will it ever be so ? Or
will the day yet dawn when the veil will be rent
asunder at last? Time alone can solve this question,
which is one of those secrets of the future as difficult
tofathom as those of the past.
CHAPTER VI.
INDUSTRY, COMMERCE,AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION ; EIGHTS,

WOUNDS AND TREPANATION.
When we consider the discoveries connected with

the Stone age as a whole, we are struck with the im-
mense numbers of weapons of every kind and of every
variety of form found in different regions of the globe.
The Roman domination extended over a great part of
the Old World, and it lasted for many centuries.
Everywhere this people, illustrious amongst the na-
tions, has left tokens of its power and of its industry.
Roman weapons, jewelry, and coins occupy considerable
spaces in our museums but numerous as are these
;
relics of the Romans, they are far inferior in number

to the objects dating from prehistoric times, and flints
worked by the hand of man have been picked up by
thousands in the last few years, forming incontestable
witnesses of the rapid growth of a large population.
One important point remains obscure. Schmerling
has excavated fifty caves in Belgium, and only found
human relics in two or three of them and of six hun-
;
dred explored by Lund in Brazil, only six contained

human bones. Similar results were obtained in the
excavations of the mounds of North America, as well
as in the caves of France. M. Hamy, in a book pub-
few years ago, only mentions twelve finds of
lished a
human bones, which could, without any doubt, be
231
dated from Palaeolithic times. True, this number has

been added to by recent discoveries, but it is still
quite insignificant. It is the same thing with the
kitchen-middings and the Lake settlements. This
paucity of actual human remains forms a gap in the
evidence relating to prehistoric man, which dis-
turbances and displacements do not sufficiently account

for, and to which we shall refer again when speaking
of prehistoric tombs.
Worked flints are generally found in numbers in one
place, probably formerly a station or centre of human
habitation. Men were beginning to form themselves
into societies, and the dwellings, first of the family and
then of the tribe, rapidly gathered together near some
liver rich in fish, or some forest stocked with game
affording plenty of food easily obtained. The caves
also afford proofs of the number of men who inhabited
them. In one alone, near Cracow, Ossowski discovered
876 bone implements, more than 3,000 flint objects,
and thousands of fragments of pottery. From the
Veyrier cave, near Mount Saleve, were taken nearly
1,000 stone implements; from those of Petit Morin,
2,000 arrow-heads from that of C6ttes, on the banks
;
of the Gartampe, more than 264 pounds' weight of

flints, some of the Mousterien and others of the
Madeleine type, mixed with the bones of the rhi-
noceros, and of several large beasts of prey of indeter-

minate species. The Abbe Ducrost picked up 4,000
flints in one dwelling alone at Solutr6, where the soil
is calcareous and flint is not native, so that it must
have been brought from a distance. More than 8,000

different objects were taken from the fine Neolithic
station of Ors in the isle of Oleron; 12,000 chips of
INDUSTRY. 233
stone, bearing marks of human workmanship, were

picked up in the Thayngen Cave, and more than 80,000
in the different caves of Belgium. The shelter of
Chaleux alone yielded 30,000 pieces of stone, at every
stage of workmanship, from the waste of the manu-
factory to the highly finished implement. Other ex-
plorers have been no less fortunate. The Marquis of
Wavrin found in the environs of Grez no less than
60,000 worked stones belonging to no less than thirty
different types, chiefly arrow-heads, some triangular,
others almond-shaped, others again cutting trans-
versely, some with and some without feathers, some
stalked, others not ; in a word, arrows of every known
type. Nothing but an actual visit to the Royal
Museum of Brussels can give any idea of the import-
ance of the discoveries made in Belgium.
The environs of Paris are, however, no less rich.
As early as Palaeolithic times the valleys of the Seine
and its tributaries were evidently inhabited by a nu-
merous population. M. Riviere mentions a station
near Clamart, where, in a limited space, he picked up
more than 900 flints, some worked, others mere chips,
many of which had been subjected to heat. A sand-pit
of Levallois-Perret yielded 4,000 stone objects, and
on the plateau of Champigny, full of such terrible
memories for the people of France, were found nearly
1,200 flints, knives, polished hatchets, lance heads and
scrapers, mixed with numerous fragments of hand-
made pottery without ornamentation.
Are yet other examples needed ? M. de Mortillet
estimates at more than 25,000 the number of speci-
mens found on the plateau of Saint Acheul, the
scene of the earliest discoveries that revealed the
existence of man in and the sta-

Quaternary times ;
tion of Concise, on Lake Neuchatel, which is one of

the most ancient in Switzerland, yielded a yet more
considerable number. Many have, however, been lost
or destroyed ; the ballast of the railway skirting the
lake contains thousands ofworked stones and of pieces
of the waste left inmaking them, all of which were
taken from the bed of the lake. It must not be for-
gotten that it is only of late years that the importance
of these relics of the past has been recognized and that
any one has dreamt of preserving or of studying them.
The excavation of a gravel pit at Dundrum (County
Down, Ireland) yielded 1,100 flint implements, and
M. Belluci himself picked up in the province of
Perouse more than 17,000 pieces, chiefly spear-, lance-,
or arrow-heads, belonging to six different types. The
Broholm Museum contains 72,409 weapons and imple-
ments, all found in Denmark.
We can quote similar facts in other countries. Pre-
historic stations numerous in the Sahara and
are
throughout the Wady el
Mya, in Algeria, and we have
already spoken of the numerous specimens found near
Wargla. The workshops in this district are generally
surrounded by immense numbers of ostrich eggs, which
1
seem to indicate that that bird was already domesticated.
In America, Dr. Abbott has sent to the Peabody
Museum more than 20,000 stones, which were collected
by him at Trenton, on the banks of the Delaware, and
quite recently I was told that in sinking a well in
Illinois the workmen came upon a deposit of more than
1,000 worked flints, all of oval form. Every one
knows the importance of the recent discoveries at
1
Foureau, Bui. Soc. G/og., June I, 1883.
INDUSTRY. 235
Washington, and we might multiply examples ad

infinitum, for everywhere explorers come upon un-
doubted traces of the active work and intelligence of
comparatively dense populations, all of whom had at-
tained to about the same degree of development.
These numerous deposits often mark the site of
regular workshops, tokens of the earliest attempt at
social organization. In no other way can we explain
the piles of flints in every stage of workmanship lying
beside the lumps from which they were detached. One
of the most celebrated of these workshops is that of
Grand-Pressigny, chief town of the canton of the de-
partment of Indre-et-Loire, which is admirably situated
between two picturesque rivers, the Claise and the
Creuse.
The implements of Grand-Pressigny, of which
flint
specimens can be seen in all the museums of Europe,

are some sixteen inches long, of light color, pointed
at one end and square at the other. One face is
rough, the other chipped into three oblong pieces,

whilst the sides are roughly hewn into saw-like teeth.
If we examine these flints closely we can easily make
out the exact point, the eye, as workmen where
call it,
the stone was struck. At Charbonniere, on the banks

of the Saone, to quote other examples, in a radius of
lessthan a mile, were found weapons, tools, and nuclei,
which may be compared with those of Grand-Pres-
signy. In some places the collections of flints still
remaining look as if they had been used for road-
making. In some cases hatchets, knives, and scrapers
seem to have been buried in pits. Were these the
reserve stores of the tribe, or the so-called caches of the
merchants ?
It is difficult merely to name the different workshops

or manufactories discovered in the last few years. We
must, however, endeavor to mention the most important,
for these workshops, we must repeat, are an important
proof of the existence of a society of organized working
communities. We meet with them on the shores of
the bay of Kiel, in the island of Anholt, in the midst
of the Kattegat, and on the borders of the Petchoura,
and of the Soula, among the Samoieds. Virchow
discovered an arrow-head manufactory on the shores of
Lake Burtneek, and in 1884 the Moscow Society of
Natural Sciences made known the existence of important
workshops near the Vetluga River, in the province of
Kostroma, so that we know that in remote prehistoric
times men lived and fought in a rigorous climate in
districts but sparsely populated in our own day.
There is nothing to surprise us in all these facts.
Recently near the Yenesei River, in the heart of
Siberia, were found bronze daggers, hatchets and
bridle bits (Fig. 71), all bearing witness in the beauty
of their workmanship to a more advanced state of
civilization than the Lake Dwellings or megalithic
monuments farther south. Many of them are orna-
mented with figures of animals, so that at an epoch less
remote, it is true, than the one we have been consider-
ing, but still far removed from our own, we find that
there was an intelligent race, with artistic tastes, living
in a country now
so intensely cold as to be uninhabi-
table to all but a few miserable nomad Tartars.
At Spiennes, near Mons, a field was discovered,
known as the camp des cayaux, strewn with flints,
some uncut, others hewn, together with knives and

hatchets innumerable. There were also centres of
INDUSTRY. 237
manufacture at Hoxne and Brandon, in England, at

Bellaria in Bologna, and at Rome on the Tiburtine
Way. At Ponte-Molle, where worked flints were dis-
covered for the first time in Italy a few years ago, a
workshop was found, remarkable for the great number
of stags' antlers, from which the middle part had been
removed, doubtless to be used as handles for tools.
M. de Rossi, who gives us these details, thinks that
Fig. .71. —Bronze objects found at Krasnoyarsk (Siberia).
this station was inhabited in the Palaeolithic period.

In the settlement of Concise have been found not only
stone implements, but a great many articles made of
bone, so that this place was evidently an important
manufacturing centre. Knives, stilettos, and arrow-
heads were turned out here, and in the hands of skil-
ful workmen the tusks of the boars, which abounded
at this time in Switzerland, were converted into ex-
cellent chisels.
To name the districts where tools were manufac-

tured in prehistoric times in France would be to give
a list of all the departments. In the commune of
Saint-Julien du Saut we find a large manufactory
where every division of the Stone age is fully repre-
sented, from the time of the simply chipped hatchet
to that of the polished implement of rare perfection.
Everything bears witness to the prolonged residence
of man in a neighborhood which offered the attrac-
tion of vast deposits of chalk with bands of flint that
supplied alike Aveapons and tools. Amongst others,
we must name the so-called atelier de la Treiehe, near
Toul, which extends for an area of about a hundred
acres, that of Bonaruc, near Dax ; surrounded by waste
lands covered with a scanty vegetation ; that of
Rochebertier (Charente), which probably dates from
the Madeleine period ; and that of Ecorche-Bceuf, near
Perigueux. The Abbe Cochet tells us of an atelier in
the Aulne valley, and Maurice Sand of another near
La Chatre, where we meet with the most ancient traces
of man in Berry. In the fields, near an alignment not
• far from Autun, were picked up numbers of hatchets
of hard rock, barbed arrows, flakes of flint worked into
scrapers or chisels, whilst near them were the very
polishers onwhich they had been pointed.
We have just spoken of polishers, and we said some
time ago that it was by prolonged rubbing that the
remarkable weapons of Neolithic times were produced.
We must add now that a whole series of the polishers
used are to be seen on the right bank of the Loing,
near Nemours one of which is a regular table (Fig.
;
72), on which can be made out no less than fifty

grooves and twenty-five cup-like depressions.
One would have expected ground near

to find the
these polishers covered with flakes of flint and pieces
of tools of all kinds, but nothing of the kind has been
discovered a fact which leads us to suppose that the
;
workmen only came down into the valley to finish off

their weapons by polishing them.
At the period we are considering all the continents
were peopled, and we must repeat, for it is the most
important point of our present study, that the civiliza-
tion attained to by the inhabitants was everywhere

almost identical. Thus we find centres of manufacture
similar to those of Europe at the foot of the mountains
of Tunis and of Algeria. In one of the latter, at
Hassi al Rhatmaia, the knives were piled up in one
place, the scrapers in another, and the arrow-heads in
a third. In this disposition M. Rabourdin thinks he
sees a sign of the division of labor, one of the most
important features of modern progress. M. Arcelin
mentions a similar deposit on the summit of the Jebel
Kalabshee, near Esneh in Egypt, and a few years ago
another was found in Palestine, near the ancient
Berytus, containing great numbers of hatchets, saws,
scrapers, and all the implements characteristic of the
Stone age whilst amongst them lay the blocks from
;
which they had been cut. Asia Minor was evidently

an important manufacturing centre during the Stone
age, and, as a matter of course,it must have had a
considerable population and even in America dis-

;
coveries of similar extent have been made. At

Kinosha, in Wisconsin, Lapham made out a manu-
factory of flint and quartzite arrow-heads, which elates
from prehistoric times, and quite recently a yet more
important centre of industry has been discovered at
St. Andrew (Winnipeg).
INDUSTRY. 24I
The manufactories of Spiennesand Brandon deserve

special notice, as they show us how our ancestors got
the they used instead of metal.
flint At Spiennes, 1
the excavations were begun in the open air, then the

chalk containing the flint was reached by the sinking
of vertical shafts, many
of which were as much as
forty feet in These shafts were connected
depth.
with each other by galleries running in every direction,
but always following the belts of flints. Cuttings
have brought to light the very implements of the
ancient miners. They were of the simplest description,
such as picks made of stag-horn and heavy stone
hammers, all alike bearing marks of long service. 2
Similar results were obtained in England. Canon
Greenwell explored near Brandon, in Suffolk, a series
of 254 shafts, known in the neighborhood as Grime's
Graves. As at Spiennes, the shafts were connected by
galleries from three to five feet high, and one of them
was twenty-seven feet long. The shafts and galleries
had been hollowed out with the help of picks exactly
like those found in Belgium seventy-nine were picked
;
up that had been thrown away by the workmen. 3

Some few years ago MM. Cartailhac and Boule
discovered one of these primitive quarries at Mur de
Barrez, the chief town of the department of Aveyron. 4
They made out eight shafts in the face of a layer of
limestone some eighty-one feet long, and at every turn
of their excavations they came to fresh shafts. These
1
Munck has just discovered a similar station at Oburg (Hainault), where
similar implements, produced by similar processes as those at Spiennes, were
discovered.
2
Briart, Cornet, and Houzeau : Rappoi'l sur les de'couveries faites a Spiennes
en 1867. Malise : Bui. Acad, royale de Belgique.
3 yournal, Ethnological Society, 1878, p. 419.
4 Acade'mie des Sciences, Nov., 1883. Mat. Jan., 1884. Nature, June 18, 1887.
shafts opened out towards the top like funnels, and

they were not more than three feet three inches below
the surface, the flint having been struck at that depth
(Fig. 73). These shafts were, in many cases, con-
tinued by galleries, as seen in our illustration (Fig.
74), or by trenches, where the light is, however, more
or less shut out by small landslips. It is still easy, in
spite of this, to make out the floor of the mine, for
it is trodden hard by the feet of the ancient miners.
6a8mJt
Fig. 73. — Section of a flintmine t vegetable earth,

;
c pure limestone, c m
Marly limestone, s flint.
Traces of charcoal, too, reveal the path they took,, and

we learn at the same time that they used fire to help
them in their work.
M. Boule, from whom we borrow these
1
details, can-
not restrain his astonishment at the practical knowl-
edge shown by these prehistoric miners. He tells us
that they sometimes left the flint standing as pillars at
pretty short intervals, or they propped up the galleries
with even more resistant material, cementing them with
1
Nature, June 16, 1887.
INDUSTRY. 243
clay or with calcareous earth taken from the detritus.

In spite of these precautions, landslips frequently oc-
curred, and implements of stag-horn (Fig. 75) have often
been flattened by the fall of the roof of the gallery.
It is really curious to find implements of an exactly
similar kind used for exactly purposes at
similar
Spiennes, Brandon, Mur de Barrez, and at Cissbury, to
which, however; we shall have to refer again. In the
shafts of Aveyron, as in those of England, the marks
Fig. 74. — Plan of a gallery, half destroyed in making the excavation which
revealed its existence. G gallery still visible ; G' gallery destroyed by the
excavation.
of blows of the picks are still to be seen, and in many

cases a flint or horn-pick point is still imbedded in the
rock or limestone, as if the miner had but just left his
work.
In this last example of what has been done in
France, we mustadd that of the shafts of Nointel
also
(Oise) and those discovered in Maine by M. de Baye,
in both of which were found nodules of flint in differ-
ent stages of preparation, together with some stag-
horn picks. In none of these excavations was any
metal implement found, or any trace of the use of

metal, so that we must conclude that the mines date
from Neolithic times.
We have seen how man gradually brought to perfec-
tion the tools and weapons which were at first so
clumsy. The growth of industry led to the birth of
commerce, or, to speak more accurately, to that of
barter. From the time of the earliest migrations inter-
course was begun, or rather was carried on, between the
tribes, as they gradually dispersed, often travelling
considerable distances from each other, and fresh
proofs of these relations are continually brought to
light as we become better acquainted with prehistoric
times. The worked by the cave-men of Belgium,
flints
the fossil shells so numerous at Chaleux, in the Frontal

and Nuton caves, at Thayngen on the frontier between
Switzerland and Germany, in Italy, in the stations of
anterior date to the terremare beds, have been found
the shells of the pearl oyster of the Indian Ocean,
whilst in the caves of the south of France, such as the
Madeleine, that of Cro-Magnon, Bize in Herault, and
Solutre on the banks of the Saone have been picked up
the shells of Arctic marine mollusca. The cave-man of
Gourdan was decked with shells from the Mediter-
ranean, and the man of Mentone in his turn wore a
head-dress made of Atlantic shells. Fossil shells were
also much sought after; we have alluded to those
from Champagne found in Belgium; others from the
shell-marl of Touraine and Anjou had been taken into
the caves of Perigord, whilst sea-urchins from the
cretaceous strata of the south of France were found in
a prehistoric station of Auvergne, and M. Massenat
picked up at Laugerie-Basse two specimens of a species
Fig. 75. —Picks, hammers, and mattocks made of stag-horn.
245
" ;
not met with anywhere but in the Eocene deposits of

the isle of Wight. The Neolithic station of Cham-
pigny, near Paris, has yielded some objects from the
Alps, and from Belgium, from the Vosges Mountains,
and the Puy de Dome.
In the caves of Perigord were also found fragments
of hyaline quartz, which must have been brought from
the Alps or the Pyrenees. In Brittany and in Marne
flints foreign to these granite districts are numerous
and Dr. Prunieres tells us that similar discoveries were

made under the megalithic monuments of France, and
that neither in the eroded limestone districts of Lozere,
known locally as les causses, nor under the dolmens
of Haute- Vienne, were found any but implements made

of rock not native to the country.
Hatchets, daggers, and nuclei, or as they are charac-
teristically called by the country peope livres de beurre,
from Grand-Pressigny, have been picked up in the
bed of the Seine, at Limagne in Auvergne, in Brittany,
at Saint Medard near Bordeaux, on the banks of the
Meuse, and even as far north as the Shetland Islands.
At Concise was found red coral from the Mediterra-
nean, whilst the yellow amber of the Baltic was
picked up in the Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, be-
neath the dolmens of Brittany, in sepulchral caves,
such as those of Oyes (Marne) or Lombrives (Ariege),
beneath the megalithic tomb of La Roquette, at Saint
Pargoue (Herault) beneath the dolmen of Grailhe
(Gard), at Malpas, and at Baume (Ardeche). These 1
1
Heilbig " Osservazioni sopra il Commercio del l'Ambra " (Acad, dei
:
Lincci). We must not confound the yellow amber of the Baltic with the
red amber found in Italy, in the mountains of Lebanon, and even in some
lignites in the south of France. Sadowski " Le Commerce de l'Ambre chez
:
les Anciens.
— ;
COMMERCE AND SOCIAL ORGANIZA TION. 247
are nearly all Neolithic tombs, though some few of

them may date from the beginning of the Bronze age
but the cave-men of France owned amber even earlier
than fragments have been found in the
this, for five
Aurensan Cave near Bagneres-de-Bigorre, which was

*
inhabited in Palaeolithic times. Jadeite and nephrite
are met with in the Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and
Bavaria, as in the caves of Liguria and Sardinia
2
chloromelanite and obsidian 3 in Lorraine,
in France,
in the island of Pianosa and in the Cyclades. We
have already spoken of the calaite " found beneath
the dolmens of Brittany, and we may add now that
it has also been found in the caves of Portugal and
beneath the megalithic monuments of the south of

France.
Commerce developed rapidly during Neolithic times,
and, as far as we can make out from traces left, its
course was from the southeast to the northwest.
Streams and rivers were followed by merchants as
by emigrants, and at an extremely remote date the
sea no longer arrested the journeys of men. At a
recent meeting of the British Anthropological Insti-
1
Nephrite found in Turkestan, in Siberia, and in New Zealand. Deposits
is
of jadeite are known

in Burmah, Jeannetay, and Michel.
—
" Note sur la Ne-
phrite ou Jade de Siberie " (Bui. Soc. Mine"ralogique de France, 1881). Meyer :
" Die Nephritfrage kein ethnologische Problem," Berlin, 1882.

2
Objects made of chloromelanite have been picked up in thirty-eight of the
departments of France. No deposit of itis known now. —
Fischer and Da-
mour :Rev. Arch., 1877.
3
Obsidian is chiefly found in the mines and quarries of Terro de las Navajas
(Mexico), known in the time of the Aztecs. Deposits have also lately been dis-
covered in Hungary and the island of Melos.
4
Calaite differs from the turquoise by an equivalent aluminium it was
of ;
described by M. Damour in 1864. It is said that traces of it have been found

in the tin mines of Montebras, which appear to have been worked from pre-
historic times. Mat., 1881, p. 166, etc. Cartailhac : Bui. Soc. Anth., 1881,
p. 295.
tute, Miss Buckland dwelt on the resemblance in the

material, shape, and ornamentation of a golden cup
found in Cornwall, to other cups found at Mykenae
and at Tarquinii, and maintained that the Cornish cup
must have been the work of the same artisans, and
have been brought by commerce from what was then
the extremity of the known world.
It is not only in Europe that we can trace the rela-
tions establishedbetween men separated by vast dis-
tances, by oceans, and by apparently impassable
deserts. The shells of the Atlantic and those of
the Pacific, the copper of Lake Superior, the mica
of the Alleghanies, and the obsidian of Mexico lie
together beneath the tumuli of Ohio, and quite re-
cently Mr. Putnam exhibited An-

to the Society of
tiquaries a collection of jade and ornaments,
celts
some from Nicaragua, others from Costa Rica, and a
hatchet with both edges sharpened from Michigan.
No deposit of jade has so far been discovered on the
American continent, so that we can only suppose these
objects to have been brought from Asia at an unknown
date. The marks they retain of having been rubbed
up, and the holes made in them to hang them up, show
what store was set by them.
Monuments of many kinds scattered over different
countries, weapons and implements, relics as they are
of a remote past, enable us to gain a closer insight into
the manners, customs, and mode of life of our ancestors
of the Stone age. We can picture their daily life,
which we know have been one long struggle, with-
to
out break or truce, for they had to contend, not only
with wild animals but with each other, to fight for the
use of their caves of refuge, for their hunting fields,
FIGHTS AND WOUNDS. 249
and for their watercourses and later, the first shep-

;
herds had to do battle for the pasturage necessary for

their flocks. It is only too certain that, from the earli-
est dawn of humanity, men gave way, without any
effort at self-control, to their brutal passions. The
right of the strongest was the only law, and where-
ever man penetrated his course was marked by violence
and by death. One of the femora of an old man was
found in the celebrated Cro-Magnon Cave, bearing a
deep depression caused by a
blow of a projectile, and on
the forehead of the woman
him is a large
that lay beside
wound made by a small flint
hatchet (Fig. 76). This gash
on the frontal bone pene-
trated the skull, and was
probably the cause of death,
but not of sudden death, for
round about the wound are
marks of an attempt at heal- Fig. 76. — Cranium of a woman, from
1 Cro-Magnon, seen full face.
ing it. According to Dr.
Hamy, many of the bones found in the Sordes Cave
have very curious wounds. A
gaping hole on the right
parietal of a woman must have been a terrible wound
(Fig. 77). The woman of Sordes, like that of Cro-
Magnon, must have survived some time the marks
for ;
of the removal of splinters of bone, which can quite

2
easily be made out, leave no doubt on that point.
In the Baumes-Chaudes caves, situated in that part
1
Broca :
" Les Ossements des Eyxies," Paris, 1868.
2
Lartet and Chaplain-Duparc :
" Une Sepulture des Anciens Troglodytes des
Pyrenees."
,
of the valley of the Tarn which belongs to the depart-

ment of Lozere, Dr. Prunieres picked up numerous
bones bearing scars, characteristic of wounds produced
by stone weapons. 1
Some fifteen of these bones, such
as the right and left hip bones, tibiae, and vertebrae,
still contain flint points flung with sufficient force
to penetrate deeply the bony tissue. Always inde-
fatigable in his researches, Dr. Prunieres also mentions
having found in the cave known as that of I? Homme
Mort bones bearing traces
of cicatrized wounds, and he
presented to the Scientific
Congress at Clermont a hu-
man vertebra found beneath
the Aumede dolmen pierced
with an arrow-head; which
is, so to speak, encased in the
wound by the formation of
bony tissue.
Of the nineteen crania
found in the Neolithic sepul-
fig. 77.— Skull of a womanchre of Vaureal two show
found
at Sordes, showing a severe wound traces of old WOUnds. One
from which she recovered. » „ , ,
oi tnem, that 01 a woman,

has three different scars, two of which were of wounds
that had healed, whilst the third in the occiput was a
gaping hole, which had evidently caused death.
A
sepulchral cave at Nogent-les-Vierges (Oise)
contains the skeleton of a man with a wound on the
forehead, no less than four and a half inches long by
1
Bull. Soc. Anih., 1878, p. 215. The Baumes-Chaudes caves are the most
complete charnel houses of Neolithic times yet discovered. Dr. Prunieres
collected in them as many as three hundred skeletons.
FIGHTS AND WOUNDS. 25 I
three broad. This man, who was quite young, the

sutures being still very apparent, survived this serious
wound for some time.
The Grourdan Cave has yielded crania and jaws
broken by blunt weapons, whilst on other crania have
been made out scratches and stripes which could only
have been produced after the hair and skin had been
removed. In the caves of the Petit-Morin valley,
M. de Baye picked up some human vertebrae pierced
with flints, the points of which were still imbedded in
the bones. In the Villevenard Cave one skull was
found containing three arrow-heads with transverse
points imbedded in the skull, the bone of which had
closed upon them. Another arrow was lodged between
the dorsal vertebrae. It is probable that these arrows
had remained in the wounds ; certainly that is the
simplest way to account for their position. About
two miles from the caves of which we have been speak-
ing, M. de Baye discovered a sepulchre containing thirty
skeletons, all of adult and strongly built individuals.
The bodies were laid one above the other, and sepa-
rated by large flat stones and a thin layer of earth.
This sepulchral cave contained seventy three
- flint
points. As in the case of Villevenard, their position

leads us to suppose that these points had been stick-
ing in the flesh of the bodies when they were interred,
and had fallen out when decomposition set in. Prob-
ably the bodies were those of men who had fallen
victims in a bloody conflict that had taken place in
the valley. In a cave at the station of Oyes, was
found stretched upon a bed of stones a skeleton with
'
a piece of flint, which had been flung with great force,

imbedded in the upper part of the humerus. Round
about the wound are the marks of many attempts at

healing it.
Many of the human bones found in the Vivarais

Cave bear traces of having been violently fractured
by stone weapons with tapering points. In the Chal-
les Cave (Savoy) lies the skeleton of a woman whose
skull was fractured by a flint weapon, but in this

case death was evidently immediate, at least if we
may judge from the fact that there are no signs of
the wound having received any treatment. In the Cas-
tellet Cave, a human vertebra contained the weapon
which had pierced it, but when the bone was touched
Fig. 78. — Fragment of human tibia with exostosis enclosing the end of a flint
arrow.
the arrow-head broke off. It had, however, been flung

with such a sure hand that it had been driven ten
inches deep into the bony tissue. Here, too, the
absence of any exostosis proves that death quickly
followed the wound.
In other cases the victims seem to have lived for
some time. We
have already spoken of wounds in
crania that had healed, and we may add that a few
years ago a human bone was presented to the Archaeo-
logical Society of Bordeaux which still retained a
flint arrow-head in the wound it had made. Traces
could clearly be made out of the inflammation caused
by the presence of the foreign body, and the bony

tissue secreted by the periosteum had, so to speak,
taken the mould of the arrow (Fig. 78).
In the cave known as the Trou d' Argent (Basses-
Alpes) amongst the bones of ruminants and carnivora,
fragments of pottery and rubbish of all kinds, was found
a piece of humerus (Fig. 79) pierced at the elbow joint
and very neatly cut at the lower end, no doubt with the
help of some of the implements of hard rock scattered
about the cave. The position of this human bone
Fig. 79. — Fragment of human humerus pierced at the elbow joint, found in the
Trou d' Argent.
amongst the remains of animals and fragments of a

meal, points to its being a relic of a scene of cannibal-
ism adding yet another proof to what I said
; at the
beginning of this work.
Similar facts are reported from England and Ger-
many. Dr. Wankel mentions an interesting pre-
historic deposit at Prerau, near Olmutz, amongst the
bones of animals belonging to the most ancient Quater-
nary fauna, such as the mammoth, the cave-bear, the
cave-lion, the glutton, and the arctic fox and amongst ;
—
clumsy bone and ivory weapons and ornaments he

found a human jaw and a femur covered with stria?
produced by flint hatchets. In 1801 Mr. Cunnington
took several skeletons from a barrow near Heytesbury,
the skull of one of which had been broken with a blunt
implement; and Sir R. Hoare speaks of a skull from
the neighborhood of Stonehenge split open by a blow
from one of these formidable weapons. Several crania
taken from a long barrow at West Kennet have simi-
lar wounds.
Similar facts were noticed at Littleton-Drew, at Uley,
at Cotswold, and at Rodmarten, and from this Dr. Thur-
mam concluded that nearly all those who were buried
in long barrows had met with a violent death. He 1
speaks, however, of one skull pierced with a large hole,

the edges of which had become rounded smooth, show-
ing the action of a recuperative process, and proving
that the injured man had long survived his serious
wound. In 1809, a farmer of Kirkcudbrightshire set
to work to demolish a large cairn that interfered with
his tilling of the soil, and which, according to popular
tradition, was the tomb of a Scotch king. In taking
away the earth the workmen found a large stone
coffin, in which lay the skeleton of a man of great
stature. The arm had been almost separated from the
trunk by the blow of a diorite hatchet, a broken bit
of which remained imbedded in the bone. 2
One of the few crania that can with certainty be said
to have belonged to Lake Dwellers of Switzerland was
1
"In a large proportion of the long barrows I have opened, the skulls ex-
humed have been found to be cleft apparently with a blunt weapon, such as a
club or stone axe." Archaologia, vol. xlii., p. 161, etc.
" Wilson :
" Prehistoric Annals of Scotland," 2d ed., vol. i., p. 187.
;
found at Sutz, near Zurich ; this skullwas fractured

at the back. The roundness of the wound, which had
been serious enough to cause death, has led authorities
to conclude that it was made with one of the formida-
ble pick-hammers, so many of which were found in the
lake of Bienne. 1 Nilsson speaks of a human cranium
pierced with a flint arrow, and of another, both found
at Tygelso (Scandinavia), containing a dart made out of
the antler of an eland. 3 At Chauvaux, at Cesareda, and
Gibraltar other crania have been found bearing the
marks of mortal wounds, and if we cross the Atlantic
we meet with similar instances. Lund tells us that at
Lagoa do Sumidouro crania were found pierced with
circular tools, whilst near them lay the implements
that had caused death.
3
At Comox, in Vancouver
Island, a skeleton was found with a flint knife im-
bedded in one of the bones, and at Madisonville (Ohio)
another, one of the bones of which was pierced by a
triangular stone arrow ; whilst beneath a mound in In-
diana was picked up a skull pierced by a arrow
flint
more than six inches long. Excavations at Copiapo

(Chili) brought to light the skeleton of a man who
had sustained no less than eight wounds from arrows.
The force with which they must have been shot is
really astonishing one had broken the upper jaw and
;
knocked out several teeth, penetrating to the brain

and others were still sticking in the vertebrae and ribs. 4
In the New as in the Old World man survived
many of these horrible wounds, and a skull found
1
Keller :
" Pfahlbauten," Siebenter Berichl, p. 27, Zurich, 1876.
5 " Habitants Primitifs de la Scandinavie," pp. 212 and 213.
3 " On the Occurrence of Fossil Bones in South America."
4 Journal Anthropological Society, May, 1882.
under a mound near Devil's River shows a serious

wound inflicted many years before death, and one of
the Peruvian crania in the Peabody Museum bears a
long frontal fracture, doubtless produced by the vio-
lent blow of a club the five or six fragments still to
;
be made out and the wounded

are, so to speak, solidified,
man had evidently lived on for many

years, thanks ap-
parently to his good constitution alone, for there are no
signs of the performing of any surgical operation, such
1
as the removal of the splinters of bone, for instance.
In 1884 a human vertebra, with an arrow-head
imbedded in it, was picked up on the island of Santa
Cruz. The apophysis was broken, and the extent of
the fracture shows the great force of the blow. The
victim evidently died of the wound, for there is no
sign ofits having been healed.
I have dwelt upon these deaths and wounds in spite
of the inevitable monotony of such a list, not because
I wish to bring into prominence the fact that from the
was fierce and
earliest times the struggle for existence
bloody, but because I am anxious to prove that in
these remote days an organized and intelligent society
had grown up. No one could have survived such
wounds as we have described, but for the care and
nursing of those around him, such as the other mem-
bers of his family or of his tribe. The wounded one
must have been fed by others for months nay more, ;
he must have been carried in migrations, and his food

and resting-place must have been prepared for him.
Moreover, and this is of even yet more importance to
our argument, they must have been men able to treat
wounds and to set bones.
1
Wyman : Report Peabody Museum, 1874, p. 40.
—
THEPA NA TION. 257
This last fact has been proved beyond a doubt by

the discovery of numerous bones with the old wounds
completely cicatrized. " In several examples," says
Dr. Prunieres, speaking in this connection, "we can
make out the fractures set with a neatness which gives
us a very high opinion of the skill of the Neolithic
bone setters. The setting of one fracture at the lower
end of the tibia and of another at the neck of the
femur, are not inferior to what we should expect from
the most skilful surgeons of the globe." 1
A remark-
able fact truly, but one often met with in the most
widely separated regions of the earth, the importance
of which cannot be overrated, and justifies the giving
of a few more details.
In 1873 Dr. Prunieres, to whom science has reason
to be very grateful for his singular discovery, presented
to the members of the French Association, in session at
Lyons, a human parietal with a rounded piece of bone
let into it. This piece of bone was rather larger than
a five-franc piece, and the skull into which it had been
fixed was found beneath the Lozere dolmen. large A
opening, some three inches in diameter, the edges
of which were worn smooth, had been made in this
skull, and the piece of bone let into it was thicker than
the skull itself, as well as different in color, the cranium
being dark and the foreign piece of bone pale yellow.
Itwas evident therefore that the two pieces did not be-
long in life to one person, and that the rounded piece had
been cut out of some other skull. The following year
Dr. Prunieres added fresh details about other rounded
1
This skill was not always shown, for Dr. Topinard speaks of a femur found
at Feigneux which had been so clumsily set that one part greatly overlapped
the other. Bui. Sac. Anlh., p. 534.
pieces of skull that he had discovered let into crania,

some of which pieces had evidently been introduced
during the life of the patient, who had died under the
operation of trepanation, whilst others had been put in
after death. Dr. Prunieres in every case speaks of
rondelles orrounded pieces of skulls, and we prefer to
quote him exactly, but as a matter of fact the trepana-
tion was sometimes done with elliptical, triangular, or
even pyramidal pieces of bone.
Later no less than sixty fresh examples, corroborat-
ing Dr. Prunieres' discoveries, were found in the
Baumes-Chaudes caves, and Broca in his turn reported
the finding of three crania in the cave of JO'Homme Mart,
from which great pieces had been taken which had evi-
dently not been lost by accident.
From this time excavations and discoveries made
under Dr. Prunieres succeeded each other rapidly. In
1887 his collection contained 167 crania or fragments
of crania, all perforated, 115 of which were picked up
in the caves of Lozere, which are probably of more
recent date, beneath the dolmens of the devezes, as
those vast plains given up to pasturage are called.
These dolmens, which were doubtless reserved for the
burial of chiefs, often contain many valuable objects.
Beneath one, for instance, were found fifteen beautiful
darts of variegated flint, four polished boars' tusks,
some schist pendants, some shells cut into the shape of
teeth, some bone and stone necklace beads, and, lastly,
two small bronze beads. These last-named objects
justify us in dating the dolmen from the Bronze epoch,
when the use of bronze began to spread over the dis-
trict, though it was still not generally employed.

Attention once awakened, similar facts began to be
'
TREPANA TION. >'$9
announced from many different quarters. In the

Neolithic caves of Marne were found skulls with
rounded holes in them, pieces of skull such as are
shown in Fig. 28, which were probably worn as amulets.
M. de Baye has in his fine collection more than twenty
examples of trepanation, one of which is shown in
Fig. 80. In nearly every case the operation had been
performed after death three examples alone show it to
;
have been done during and that the patient cer-

life,
tainly survived, for the wound shows very evident

signs of having healed,
and the edges of the
openings no longer
bear the marks of the
tool of the operator.
On one of the three
crania there were two
wounds near each
other, but they were
quite separate, and
were evidently not
treated at the same Fig. 80. — Mesaticephalic skull, with wound
which has been trepanned.
time.
A tumulus in the Gruisseny commune (Finistere),
excavated about two years ago, covered over a sepul-
chral crypt. At the southeastern extremity was
picked up a badly baked hand-made earthenware
vase with four handles. Beside the vase lay a skull,
on which could be made out traces of oxidation,
which had probably been caused by the wearing of
a metal band, which has not been found. This
skull bears on the right side a little oval hole with
cicatrized edges about an inch long by two fifths
of an inch broad. The discovery of a bronze

dagger and two bronze plaques leaves no doubt as
to the age of this tumulus. This example of tre-
panation is the only well authenticated one of which
I know in Brittany. It is true one skull has been
mentioned as found beneath the megalithic monu-
ment of Saint-Picoux de Quiberon (Morbihan), which
is even said to bear marks of sawing and scraping
made in attempting trepanation, but this fact has
been very much questioned, and the date at which
the trepanation was performed, if performed it were,
is very doubtful. The proof we are seeking of the
1
antiquity of the operation of trepanation is not there-

fore to be found here.
On a plain amongst the hills of the right bank
of the Seine, above Paris, rises a mound resembling
a promontory which is known
Guerin mound,as the
and consists of a vast deposit of chalk which was
excavated long ago. Successive operations have
brought to light eight caves, most of which con-
tained a number of human remains, which were un-
fortunately dispersed without having been scientifi-
cally examined. One alone, opened in 1874, contained
numerous bones belonging to individuals of every
age and of both sexes, with polished flints, frag-
ments of pottery, and implements of stag-horn.
Amongst these relics was found the skull of an old
man showing a very curious example of trepanation.
It was unfortunately broken by the workmen in the
very moment of discovery, and could only be very in-
sufficiently examined. Other examples, however, which
1
Bui. Soc. Anth., 1883, pp. 258-301 ; 1885, p. 412. Bui. Soc. Polymatique
,iu Morbihan, 1883, p. 12.
1
TREPANATION. 26
could be properly authenticated, are not wanting from

the banks of the Seine and Marne ; two fragments of
skull were found in the canton of Moret, one of which
had been trepanned during the life of its owner, and
the other after death. We must also mention the
crania presented to the learned societies at the
Sorbonne, one of which came from the plateau of
Avrigny, near Mousseaux-les-Bray (Seine-et-Marne).
Side by side with the skeleton lay polished hatchets,
scrapers, and arrow - heads, fragments of pottery
blackened by smoke, and lastly a solitary bone of
an ox, pierced with three holes at regular distances,
which had probably been used as a flute. Of nine
crania found in this excavation three were pierced,
two after death and one during life, the edges
of the last named bearing very evident traces of
treatment.
A trepanned skull was also discovered in a Neolithic
sepulchre near Crecy-sur-Morin, where lay no less than
thirty skeletons, remarkable for the strongly defined
section of the tibiae, whilst around were strewn hatch-
ets, flint knives, bones, stilettos and picks of siliceous
limestone with handles made of pieces of stag-horn.
The tomb, built of stones without mortar, contained
two contiguous chambers separated by a wall, and
covered over by a stone weighing more than 1,200
tons. seems likely that this huge stone had not
It
—
been moved it must have been beyond the strength
of the makers of the tomb to lift it, but that the —
spaces beneath, in which the dead had been placed,
had been merely hollowed out. In the covered
Avenue des Mvreaux, of which I have already spoken,
were picked up several trepanned crania. The tools,
scrapers, and piercers, which had probably been used

for the operation, lay near the crania.
A Neolithic sepulchre containing three trepanned
crania was opened at Dampont, near Dieppe. The
operation had been as neatly executed as if it had been
performed by one of our most distinguished surgeons.
As at Crecy, the sepulchral crypt was divided into two
chambers, and the slab between them was pierced with
a sopaare opening,
1
—
a fresh example of the curious
practice of making openings, of which we have spoken
in treating of so many different regions, often appar-
ently completely cut off from communication with
each other.
Beneath the Bougon dolmen (Deux-Sevres), in the
west of France, was found a skull, and at Lizieres in
the same department, the skeleton of a tall old man
with a dolichocephalic skull and platycnemic tibia?
bearing traces of old wounds badly healed. The bony
tissue of the skull was in an unhealthy state and the
trepanation had evidently been part of medical treat-
ment. At Saint-Martin-la-Riviere (Vienna), a tomb
dating from Neolithic times contained five trepanned
crania,on one of which the perforation had been made
by scraping.In this tomb was also found a round
piece of skull with a hole in it, which had doubtless
been used as a pendant. The other objects found in
this sepulchre were of a remarkable character, and
included hatchets made of coralline limestone, jade,
fibrolite, and serpentine, the blades of flint knives,
arrows, some feathered, others stalked, some necklace
beads, and a number of vases, some apodal, others with
flat stands, and nearly all without any attempt at orna-
1
Nature, January 2, 1886.
TREPANA TION. 263
mentation. Beneath a dolmen near St. Affrique, M.
two holes in it one

Cartailhac discovered a skull with ;
near the bregma, which had been made during life, and
the other on a level with the lambda, which had not
been made until after death. We cannot now note the
1
important conclusions founded on these two perfora-

tions, we must be content with adding here that the
tomb contained four other skeletons with crania show-
ing no trace of trepanation ; the tibia? were platycnemic
and the humeri had the so-called perforation of the
olecranon fasces, which certain anthropologists, as I
think without sufficient reason, consider characteristic
of inferior races. We must mention yet one more dis-
covery which it will not do to omit. A human parietal
with a piece missing that had evidently been taken out,
was found beneath the rock-shelter of Entre-Roches
near Angouleme. The skull bore very evident traces
of the performance of an operation which may or may not
have been executed during life. Was it done to remove
—
the diseased bone for it was diseased in the hope of—
prolonging life? Did the patient die under the hands
of the surgeon, or was the piece of bone taken out after
death to be used as an ornament or an amulet ? Any
one of these hypotheses is possible, and all we can say
for certain is that there is no sign of the wound having
been healed in any way. This is a common thing
enough, and the interest of the discovery arises from a
different cause. The rock-shelter of Entre-Roches is
supposed to date from Palaeolithic times, and if it were
certain that there has been no displacement of the soil
on which the parietal was found, it is to be concluded
that trepanation was practised in the Quaternary
.
1
Bui. Soc. Anth, de Lyon, 1883-1884.
period when man was living amongst the large extinct

pachydermata and felidse. But it will be difficult to
admit this unless other discoveries confirming it are
made. If, however, we cannot prove that trepanation
was practised in France in Palaeolithic times, we can
assert that it was continued down to the earliest cen-
turies of the Christian era. One remarkable case of
trepanation was found, for instance, in the Merovingian
cemetery near St. Quentin and a trepanned skull was
;
recently exhibited at a meeting of the Anthropological

Society in Paris, which had been found beneath a
Merovingian tomb at Jeuilly. The patient had long
survived his wound. The skeleton was found in a
stone trough, narrower at the foot than at the head. .
The skeleton of a man between forty and fifty years of

age was found in a Frank cemetery at Limet, near
Liege. On the left parietal of the skull was an oval
hole as big as a pigeon's egg, bearing traces of having
been medically treated. The patient, like the man of
Jeuilly, certainly survived the operation.His tomb, as
were the resting-places of his neighbors in death, was
covered over with a huge unhewn stone, and beside him
lay another skeleton. A few nails and bits of wood
were the only things found in the tomb. We may also
mention the skeleton of a Frank of between fifty-five
and sixty-five years of age with a trepanned skull,
found by M. Pilloy, in a cemetery of the St. Quentin
arrondissement, which also contained numerous objects
dating from the sixth century a.d.
So far we have only spoken of France, but similar
facts are reported all over Europe, and the difficulty
really is to make a selection. Some round pieces of
skull, like those of Lozere, have been picked up in
—
TREPANATION. 265
Umbria and a skull, bearing traces of an operation, the

1
;
aim of which was to remove a portion of the left parietal,

was found in the Casa da Mouva (Portugal), which
dates, asdo so many in France, from Neolithic times.
mentions a discovery in one of the pile-dwell-
Gross
ings of Lake Bienne, of a skull with a large hole in it
with bevelled edges. There is no trace of this wound
having healed, and the patient had evidently died soon
after the operation.
The Prague Museum possesses two crania found at
Bilin in Bohemia ; one, of a pronounced dolichoce-
phalic type, has near the middle of the right parietal
an opening measuring one and a half by two and a third
inches ; the cicatrization is complete, and trepanation
was evidently performed long before death. The other
ismesaticephalic, and bears a round opening about one
and a half inches in diameter. Dr. Wankel, to whom
we owe these details, is well known through other
discoveries; his excavations in the Bytchiskala Cave
brought to light the skeleton of a young girl of ten or
twelve years old, who had undergone the operation of
trepanation. The wound, which was on the right
side of the forehead, was half healed. The child still
wore the ornaments she had been fond of in life
bronze bracelets and a necklace of large glass beads.
Discoveries of a similar character succeeded each
other in Bohemia, and in nearly every case the opera-
tion of trepanation had been performed on the upper
part of the forehead. Not very long ago it was
reported to the Anthropological Society of Berlin that
in excavating two tombs containing the remains of
burnt bodies at Triipschutz, on the west of Brux, some
1
Belluci : Congrh Prdhistorique de Lisbonne, 1880, p. 471.
;
fragments of skull were picked up, showing traces of

trepanation. The edges of the wound in this case had
been healed, and the patient had lived on after the
operation. Virchow came to the same con-
Professor
clusion with regard to a skull from a Neolithic tomb
which bore on the right parietal traces of an ancient
cicatrized wound. He also tells us of the finding in
Poland of a round piece of skull which had evidently
1
been worn as an amulet.
In the north of Europe similar discoveries have been
made. At Borreby, in Denmark, a skull was found
from which large pieces had been taken and another ;
from beneath a dolmen at Noes, in the island of

Falster, had a hole in it no less than two and a quarter
by one and three quarter inches in size. In the one
case the holes were parts of a wound to which the
victim had succumbed in the other the edges were
;
too regular to have been caused by traumatism. A

Russian skull, a cast of which has recently been pre-
sented to the Italian Anthropological Society, bears
traces of two trepanations ; one performed during life,
the other after death. The former had evidently been

caused neither by illness nor by a wound.
General Faidherbe discovered at Roknia, in Algeria,
two trepanned skulls, dating from a remote antiquity,
in which the wound
one of is half an inch in
diameter, and shows no sign of cicatrization ; and

travellers speak of evident traces of similar operations
on skulls dating from the time of the Ainos, the ances-
tors or predecessors of the Japanese at the present day
and if we cross the Atlantic, we shall meet with in-
1 " Uber trepanirte Schadel von Giebiechenstein " {Verh. der Berliner
Gesellschaft fur Anlh., 1879, p. 64).
TREPANA TION. 267
tances of trepanations executed in a similar manner,

nd probably for similar reasons.
We meet with numerous examples of trepanation in
America, and fresh discoveries are daily made by the
nergetic men of science in that country. Dr. Mante-
x
;azza mentions three examples of trepanation from
J
which are of very great interest. One skull,
eru,
tillbound up in many cloths, was found in the Sanja-
luara Cave (province of Anta), which had been twice
repanned, and on which yet two more attempts at tre-
)anation had been made. The latter seem to have
aken place at different times, and death seems to have
ucceeded the last operation. Another skull which
lad belonged to an adult of Huarocondo has two
rontal openings close to each other ; the upper, of
illiptical shape, is and was evidently made
of large size
tfter death. Yet another skull from the province of
)llantay-tambo bears a double trepanation, evidently
nade during life. The healing of the parietal opening
proves that it was made before the wound in the fore-
lead, in which the edges have remained rough. Dr.
Mantegazza thinks that in the two first cases the opera-
ions took place after the patient had been wounded,
)ut that in the third, the patient operated upon had
)een epileptic or perhaps even insane. We find it
lifficult to follow the learned professor here, as we are

gnorant of the grounds for his conclusions.
We give an illustration (Fig. 81) of a trepanned
kull found in a cemetery in the Yucay valley. A
quare piece has been cut out by making four regular
ncisions. The bone shows traces of an ancient in-
Lammation, and many eminent surgeons, including
1
MaUriaux four /' '
Histoire de V Homme, Aout, 1886.

Nelaton and Broca, have not hesitated to attribute the

opening, large as it is (seven by six inches), to a
surgical operation. If the incisions are carefully-
examined it is easy to see that they were made with
the help of a pointed instrument, such as a clumsily
made drill, for instance. Each incision must have
taken a long time to make, and we note with ever-
increasing astonishment that the ancient Peruvians
were not acquainted
with the use of iron or
steel, and that the
hardest metal they
employed was bronze.
A few years ago a
sepulchre was opened
at Chaclacayo, at the
foot of Mount Chosica,
not far from Lima. In
this tomb lay three
mummies of man, a
woman, and a child.
Near them lay a human
skull, having about the
Fig. 8i. — Trepanned Peruvian skull.
middle of the forehead
an opening, measuring some two and a half by two
inches. It is of polygonal form, and eight different
incisions can easily be made out, which appear to have
been made with some notched stone implement. On
raising a strip of skin, still adhering to the skull, there
was seen on the front part of the sagittal suture a very
small perforation, the result either of a wound or of
an operation which had taken place during life. It
has been suggested that the piece of bone taken from
TREPANA TION. 269
the skull had been used to make a lance or arrow-head,

which was superstitiously supposed by the owner to
ensure his victory. This is, however, a mere suggestion,
of which no proof can be given.
In other parts of America discoveries have been
made of trepanned skulls, supposed to date from even
more remote times than those we have just been con-
sidering. A few years ago Professor Putnam found, in
the State of Ohio, some old wells filled with cinders
and rubbish of all kinds. From one of them, which
was deeper than the others, he took several crania,
some of which bore evident traces of trepanation.
From a mound near Dallas ( Illinois ) were taken more
than one hundred skeletons, all of adults, placed side
by side in a crouching attitude. Every one of them
had a round opening on the left temple, and in some
of these wounds the flint implement which had pro-
duced them was still imbedded. It is very evident
that we have here tokens of some funereal rite, the
meaning of which is uncertain, though it was evidently
practised also in districts very remote from Illinois.
To mention yet other examples, the excavation of a
tumulus of irregular form near Devil's River ( Mich-
igan ) has brought to light five skeletons buried
upright, whilst a sixth lay in the centre of the tumulus,
which was evidently, if we may so express it, the place
of honor. On each of the six crania a perforation had
been made after death.
A number of crania and parts of crania on which
trepanation had been performed have also been taken
from several mounds on Chamber's Island, from
beneath the mound in the neighborhood of the
Sable River, near Lake Huron, and near the Red
27O PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
River. 1 Gillman thinks that the Michigan trepanations,

which had been made with clumsy tools, were simply
holes for hanging up skulls as trophies, as is still cus-
tomary amongst the Dyaks of Borneo but this seems ;
scarcely a tenable hypothesis, for as a rule the skeletons

lying in their last home are complete. Quite recently
were discovered, beneath a tumulus near Rock River,
eight skeletons, the skull of one of which bore a
circular perforation made during life, which rather
upsets Gillman's theory.
But resume our narrative.
to The trepanations
reported from North America are generally posthu-
mous, and we can prove nothing as to their origin.
Were they marks of honor made in some religious rite ?
Were they openings to allow the spirit of the departed
to revisit the body it had abandoned ? or, to suggest a
far more' worldly and revolting motive, were they
merely holes through which to pick out the brains of
the dead. A
missionary, in a letter dated from Fort
Pitt (Canada) in 1880, describes the mode of scalping
practised by the Redskins, and says that they often
take a round piece of skull as well as the scalp. May
not this be a case of atavism, or the transmission of a
custom from one generation to another, for the origin
of which we must go back to the most remote ages ?
In the present state of our knowledge, insufficient as it
is, this explanation is the most plausible.
It is even more difficult to come to a satisfactory

conclusion with regard to European examples of the
practice we have been describing. Trepanation was
1
American Detroit, 1875, Nashville, 1877; "Ancient Men of the
Ass.,
Great Lakes"; "Additional Facts Concerning Artificial Perforation of the
Cranium in Ancient Mounds in Michigan." See also on this question generally
Fletcher "On Prehistoric Trepanning and Cranial Amulets," Washington, 1882.
1
TREPA NA 7'ION. 27
certainly practised in the treatment of certain diseases

of the bone, such as osteitis or caries. Professor Par-
rot mentions a case worth quoting. A few years ago 1
several skeletons were found at Bray-sur-Seiue (Seine-

et-Marne) with uumerous objects, such as polished
stone hatchets, bone stilettos, shell necklaces and orna-
ments, all undoubtedly Neolithic. One of the crania
had been trepanned, the position of the operation
showing that its object had been to treat an osteitis.
The operation had succeeded, and the cicatrization of
the bones, both about the wound and in the parts
originally affected, shows that recovery was complete.
This is the only example we have of an operation exe-
cuted with a view to curing a disease that can actually
be seen, and it enables us to conclude that these men,
of whom we know so little, had some notion of surgery.
Were trepanations also practised to cure epilepsy or to
heal mental affections i From the earliest times the
seat of these troubles was always supposed to be the
brain, and an ancient book of medicine recommends as
a remedy the scraping of the outside of the skull.'- In
a recent book (" Pe la Trepanation dans TEpilepsie
par le Traumatisnie du Crane "), Echevenia mentions
several cases of cure by trepanation when epilepsy had
been the result of an injury. Observation may have
led our prehistoric ancestors to discover this. May
we date this custom then from prehistoric times It '.
is very difficult to decide with certainty either for or

against it.
Of one thing, however, we may be quite certain.
>
/}«/. Xv. Jnl!)., February 17, iSSi.
" lehaii Taxil : " Traite de l'fipilepsic. Maladie Appelce Vulgaiiement la
Gouitcte iiux Petits Enfants."

The cranial perforations so much like one another

reported from districts so remote and different in char-
acter, cannot be accidental. It is impossible to attrib-
ute to chance the occurrence of injuries of exactly the
same size in crania of totally different origins. Setting
aside the Entre-Roches skull, the antiquity of which
does not seem to us sufficiently established, we find
thiscustom maintained throughout the period charac-
terizedby the use of polished stone weapons and im-
plements, the erection of megalitbic monuments, and
the domestication of animals. It was practised by the
men of the cave of 1J Homme Mort at the beginning of
the Neolithic period, and was still in use at Moret when
metals began to be known. The discoveries of Dr.
Wankel, the excavations of the tumulus of Guisseny,
prove that trepanation was continued throughout the
Bronze age, whilst the Jeuilly and Limet tombs
show that it was not discontinued even in Merovingian
times.
The long continuance of such a practice is a very
interesting fact, and we may mention a yet more
curious one. How are we to explain trepanations that
had no apparent motive on crania showing no symp-
toms of disease ? How account for the repetition at
different times of this operation, first on the living sub-
jectand then on the corpse, as at St. Affrique, Bougon
(Fig. 82), atFeigneux (Oise), where Dr. Topinard has
recently made excavations in a Neolithic cave and
reports that a dolichocephalic skull of the same type
as the crania of the cave of IS Homme Mort, belonging
to a man of about thirty years of age, bore two perfora-
tions, one made during life, the other after death?
The first measured two and a third by two and a half
TREPANA TION. 273
inches, and was surrounded by scratches, showing how

clumsy the operator had been. 1
In nearly every case the subjects operated on were

young, and long survived the operation. The knowl-
edge of this fact was from the first a very useful guide
in the study of the subject of trepanation, and eagerly
pursued researches constantly confirm it. One skull,
for instance, from the cave of L
'Homme Mort (Fig. 83),
Fig. 82. — Skull from the Bougon dolmen (Deux-Sevres), seen in profile.
had a large opening produced partly by an old opera-

tion and partly by two posthumous trepanations. The
subject had been trepanned in childhood or early
youth. There could be no doubt on that point cica- ;
trization had been complete, the bony tissue having
1
Bui. Soc. Anth., 1887, p. 527.
returned to its original condition. Then after death,

at an adult age, the relations or friends of the deceased
had cut out further round portions of the skull as near
as possible to the old wound, probably with a view to
keeping these pieces as amulets.
This was to Broca a flash of illuminating light, and
according to him was in some cases a religious rite, a
Fig. 83. — Trepanned prehistoric skull.
ceremony of initiation, perhaps even a custom incul-

cated by an established religion. The child who had
been subjected to it and had survived as probably —
—
most of the victims did survive, attained to a certain
position and celebrity in his life, and after his death the
fragments of his skull, especially those portions near
the old wound, became treasured relics, and were in the
end buried with their fortunate possessor on his death.

TREPA NATION. 2?$
This superstition appears to have long survived even

in historic times, and a Gallic chain is quoted on which l
hung a round piece of skull with three holes in it. In-

deed, these ornaments were so much sought after that
counterfeits of them were made at least, we cannot in
;
any other way account for the occurrence of objects

exactly resembling round pieces of human crania, but
in reality made out of pieces of a stag's antler found in
the Baumes-Chaudes Cave.
Yet another point deserves mention. It was evi-
dently considered undesirable that the crania from
which pieces had been taken should be left in a muti-
lated condition, and therefore pieces from other crania
were taken to fill up the gap, so that, says Broca, 2 a
new life was evidently supposed to await the dead,
for otherwise what object can the restitution have
served ?
3
Dr. Prunieres is also of opinion that the introduc-
tion into the crania of certain deceased persons of round
pieces from other skulls implies the belief in another
life. This explanation, hypothetical as it is, is really
very plausible, and it is a pleasant thought that our
remote ancestors had faith in a future life which faith ;
is alike the greatest honor and the greatest comfort of
humanity. Is not yet another more striking proof of

the belief in a second existence to be found in the
number tombs at all periods of
of objects placed in
time and in every part of the world ? It is this belief,
raising man as it does above the material needs of his
1
De Baye " : Trepanations Prehistoriques, " p. 28, fig. n.
8
Bui. Soc. Anth., 1877, p. 42. Broca constantly dwells on this idea. " This
funeral rite," he said, addressing the Anthropological Society, " implies belief
in another life."
s Ass. Franfaise, Lille, 1874, p. 631.
daily life, which forms the true grandeur of the human

race, and if a nation once loses it it is sure to relapse
into barbarism.
When trepanning was the fashion there
is no doubt
that the operation was performed in many different

ways. Posthumous trepanations were accomplished
with the aid of a flint implement used as a chisel, or a
saw. There was greater difficulty about an operation
on a living subject. Broca is of opinion that it was
done with a drill turned round and round in the skull
in the way the French shepherds still treat diseases of
the crania in their sheep. The elliptical form of the
wound seemed to him to prove this, and he was further
of opinion that when an opening had been drilled in
the skull at the point chosen, the trepanation was
completed by scraping the bone with a small flint
blade. 1 Discoveries made since the death of the great
French anthropologist, however, compel us to modify
this opinion. The inflammation of the bone noticed
along the edges of the trepanation proves that a notched
implement was used to saw out the piece of skull. 2
However the operation may have been performed, it
is not one of great danger to the patient or of great diffi-
culty to the operator. Experiments on animals with

Quaternary flint implements have always been success-
ful, and have had no tragic results, which is the best
proof we can possibly give.

The size of the perforations made varies ad infinitum.
One, the largest known, is described which is no less
than sixteen inches in diameter. 3 Examples are
1
Bui. Soc. Anlh., 1864, p. igg.
2
Bui. Soc. Anth., 1882, pp. 143, 535.
8 Ass. Francaise, Blois, 1884, p. 417.
TREPANA TION. 2JJ
known of the trepanation of every part of the skull,

even of the at one time was
forehead, which
supposed to have escaped. have ourselves given We
instances of frontal trepanation, and Dr. Prunieres
mentions eleven cases in which the forehead had been
operated on.
To conclude, we must repeat that trepanation is not
really dangerous operation, and the reason it is
a
nearly always followed by the death of the subject in
our own time is because it is never attempted except
in desperate cases, and the fatal result is really caused
by the cerebral disease, on account of which the opera-
tion was performed. History tells us of its practice
in very ancient times ; Hippocrates speaks of it as
often resorted toby Greek physicians. It is performed
in the present day by the Negritos of Papua and the
natives of Australia and of some of the South Sea
Islands, where it is considered efficacious in many
maladies. We also find it practised by the rough
miners of Cornwall and the wild mountaineers of
Montenegro. An army doctor who travelled in Mon-
1
tenegro a few years ago said that it was no rare thing

to meet men who had been subjected to trepanation
seven, eight, or even nine times. It is an interesting
question, though we must not enter into it here, whether
many races could stand such a number of operations
as this.
The only instance we know in the present day of
trepanation practised as a religious rite, is met with
among the Kabyles, who are established at the foot of
Mount Aures on the south of the Atlas. The opera-
1
Boulogne : Me"m. de Me"decine et de Chirurgie Militaires, 3d series, Paris,
1868. Vedrenes : " Le Trepanation du Crane " (Rev. Anth., October, 1886).
tion is performed among them by the thebibe, one of

their priests, by the aid of a simple gimlet which he
turns rapidly round between his fingers. Among the
Kabyles are men who have submitted to an operation
of this kind several times.
We have now passed in review the weapons of pre-
historic peoples, the wounds they caused, and the
modes of healing them known to our ancestors we ;
have still to study the modes of defence resorted to by

them in face of the many dangers by which they were
surrounded but the importance of this subject is such
;
as to deserve separate consideration.

CHAPTER VII.
CAMPS, FORTIFICATION'S, VITRIFIED FORTS ; SANTO BIN ;
THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSARLIK.
Combativebtess, to use the language of phrenology,

is one of the most lively instincts of humanity. The
Bible tells us of the- struggle between the sous of
Adam, and shows us might making right ever since
the days of primeval man. History is but one long
account of wars and conquests, victories or defeats,
and progress is chiefly marked in inventions which
made battles more sanguinary and added to the num-

ber of victims slaughtered. At the verv dawn of
humanity man learned to make weapons very soon, ;
however, weapons ceased to appear sufficient. The first

fortification was doubtless the cave, which its owner
strengthened by closing the entrance with blocks of
stone and piles of broken rock, or by digging deep
trenches about it.
Population rapidly increased and war was declared

between and tribe, nation and nation, race and
tribe
race. Terrible must have been the struggles between
invaders and the original possessors of the soil. Means
of defence were multiplied to keep pace with new
modes of attack, and our ancestor's of the Stone age
were intelligent enough to make places of refuge in
which on necessity they could shelter their wives and
279
children, and later, when they became sedentary, their

flocks and their stores of grain. In many different
localities we find the remains of camps and fortifica-
tions, which, to avoid using a more ambitious term, we
may characterize generally as enclosures. 1
These primitive enclosures, says Bertrand in his

"Archeologie Celtiquo et Gauloise," may have been
very much more numerous than is supposed, if we
include amongst them, as it appears we ought, many
ruins long thought to date from the Roman era.
There is no doubt as to the purpose served by the
camps, but we are not prepared to speak as positively
as does Bertrand as to their origin, and the difficulty
of deciding is very greatly increased on account of
these camps having been successively occupied at dif-
ferent epochs by different peoples. Bearing in mind
this reservation, we will now sum up to the best of
our ability all that is so far known about the most
important remains hitherto examined.
The residence of prehistoric man in the rich districts
between the Sambre and the Meuse is proved by worked
flints,fragments of pottery, and human bones dating
from most remote times. The stations successively
occupied were situated near watercourses or copious
springs, and, where possible, on isolated escarped pla-
teaux surrounded by ravines. Hastedon, about a mile
and a quarter from Namur, is one of the best examples we
1
On this point an admirable book should be consulted, by De la Noe : "En-
ceintes Prehistoriques, " Mat.,i&&$, p. 324, in which the author says that positions
protected by escarpments bordering the greater pari of the circumference of the
enceinte were at all times chosen for the erection of fortifications. The ab-
sence of water, however, often makes him hesitate in coming to a decision, and
leads him to think that the remains where it is absent must have been temples
for the worship of deities.
1
CAMPS, FORTIFICATIONS. 28
can quote. 1 The camp, first made out in 1865, formed

a long square, covering some thirteen hectares, or about
thirty-two acres. It is situated on an isolated mound
connected with the main plateau by an isthmus 227
and is protected on the south and west by a
feet long,
deep ravine. To these natural defences men had
added important works to those parts that were acces-
sible. The cutting of trenches a few years ago brought
to light walls of a mean thickness of more than nine
feet, formed of masses of rock and sand and round
pieces of wood parallel with a revetement of dry stones
surmounted by a palisade consisting of three pieces of
wood parallel with the walls, and seven perpendicular
traverses. All the wood was charred ; the besieged
had evidently been driven out by fire. Excavations
led to the finding of Koman and the resem-
coins ; this
blance of the palisades to those described by Cassar, 2
the very name of Hastedon, and the tradition every-
where prevalent in the district, that this had been the
site of a Gallic Roman camp, led to the general adop-
tion of that opinion. In fact, Napoleon III. actually
ordered excavations to be made in the hope of
finding traces of the Atuatuques, one of the most war-
like of the tribes of northern Gaul but side by side ;
with historic were no less than ten thousand

relics
flints. These are chiefly merely chips or nuclei which
had served as hammers, or long thin slices, with
some few arrow- and lance-heads often skilfully cut,
some polished hatchets, and saws with fine teeth.
Nearly all are notched and worn with use, which does
away with the idea that the place where they were
1
Congres Pr^hisioriques, Brussels, 1872, p. 318.
2 " De Bello Gallico," book vii., chap, xxiii.
found was the site ofa workshop such as I have

already described. With these worked flints were
found some fragments of coarse pottery, which could
not possibly be confounded with Roman or Gallic
work. The flints and pottery, and the walls put to-
gether without cement, point to the conclusion that if
the camp of Hastedon was occupied by the Roman
legions, it was long previous to their day inhabited by
some Neolithic race, ignorant of the use of any but
stone weapons and implements.
The camp of Pont-de-Bonn in the commune of
Modave (Namur) very much resembles in its arrange-
ment that of Hastedon. A mound stands out upon
1
the plain protected on the north and west by rocks

and connected with the main plateau
difficult of access
by a very narrow tongue of land. Outside we can

make out regular trenches parallel with each other, and
connected by a wall of masonry, at the foot of which
wall were picked up a good many iron nails. Inside
the enceinte itself worked flints were associated with
Roman coins. Are not these proofs in the first place
of a long Neolithic occupation, then of the residence
of Gallic Romans, and yet later of even more modern
people of whom the masonry walls and iron nails are
relics ?
Limburg some defensive works, many

also contains
centuries old, which are as yet but little known. We
may mention amongst them the so-called dyke of Zee-
dyck, near Tongres, a formidable intrenchment some
2,186 yards long by more than 325 feet wide at the
base, and of a height varying from 49 to 65 feet;
the earthen ramparts of Willem on the Geule, the not
1
Dupont :
" Les Temps Prehistoriques en- Belgique," p. 235.
less important ones of Houlem, with many others far

away from the great highways of communication, but
within the limits of the two provinces of Liege and
Limburg. 1
A
few years ago Bertrand said that there are in
France some four hundred earthen enceintes, only sixty
of which contain relics connecting them with the Gal-
lic Romans. Since Bertrand's announcement this
number has been greatly increased, thanks to eagerly
prosecuted local researches. De Pulligny mentions a
hundred in Upper Normandy 2 Martinet says they ;
are very numerous in Berry one of the most remark- ;
able, the quadrilateral of Haute-Brenne, covered an area

of nearly three thousand acres. 3 Amongst the forests
on the Vosges Mountains were discovered long single
and double walls, the course of which follows the
crest of the ramparts overlooking the valley of
the between Lutzelbourg and Saverne. 4 At
Zorn,
Rosmeur, on Penmarch Point (Finistere), Du Chatellier
excavated two tumuli which appear to have been con-
nected with a series of defensive works encircling the
whole promontory. 5 It would be merely fastidious to
multiply instances, we will content ourselves with de-
scribing a few of the most interesting of these antique
6
fortifications.
The camp of Chassey (Sa6ne-et-Loire) may be com-
pared with those of Belgium. It is situated on a
1
H. Bauduin : Bui. Soc. Beige de Ge'ographie, 1879.
2
Recueil des Travaux de la Soci/Ude lEure, Evreux, 1879.
3
Rev. d'Anlk., 1880, p. 469.
4 " Notice sur Quelques Monuments Trouve's sur le Sommet des Vosges " (Soc.
des Monuments Historiques de V Alsace, vol. i.).
5
Rev. d'Anlh., 1880, p. 295.
B
We may mention the Pen Richard in Charente Inferieure, so well
also
described by Cartailhac in his " France Prehistorique," p. 131.
plateau 2,440 feet long by a width varying from 360

to 672 feet. A huge natural rocky barrier rises on
the south and east, whilst on the northeast and south-
west we find two important intrenchments made of
huge blocks with a revetement of earth.
of stone
One of these intrenchments is 45, the other only 29
feet high. There is no trace inside of springs, and the
inhabitants must always have had to obtain their
water-supply by artificial means. The cisterns now
in this have been dug out with iron
camp appear to
implements, and are certainly of later date than the
first occupation of the plateau. Numerous objects
picked up in the Chassey Camp belong to Neolithic
times, but the people who have occupied it since those
remote days, the men of the Bronze and Iron ages,
the Gauls, the Romans, and the Merovingians, have so
turned over the ground that products of industries,
completely strange to each other, are everywhere mixed
1
together in inextricable confusion.
There were originally a good many hearths about
the camp, and it was near to one of them that the
spoon was found, figured in an earlier chapter of this

book (Fig. 25). With it were picked up polished
flbrolite, basalt, chloromelanite, serpentine, and diorite
hatchets evidently made in the neighborhood, as

;
is proved beyond a doubt by the numerous chips

and partly worked pieces lying about, as well as
the discovery of no less than thirty polishers, many of
them showing signs of long service. Bone implements
1 Arcelin :
" L'Age de Pierre et la Classification Prehistorique,'
-
Paris, 1873.
Flouest :
'
' Notice sur Camp de Chassey. Perrault " Un Foyer de Age
le '"
: 1' de
la Pierre Polie au Camp de Chassey " (Mat., 1870). Coynart " Fouilles
: au
Camp de Chassey " (Rev. Arch., 1866 and 1867).
of all kinds and whistles made of the phalanges of

oxen are also constantly found. Even if the presence
of these objects does not enable us to come to any final
conclusion, they are at least most useful and interesting
in enabling us to put together little by little a picture
of the life of the most ancient inhabitants of France.
The camp of Catenoy, near Liancourt (Oise) is
arranged very much in the same manner as that of

Chassey. 1 Ccesar's Camj), as it is called by the people
of the neighborhood, forms a long triangle, the apex of
which rests on the eastern extremity of the plateau.
Excavations have yielded a number of Gallic-Roman
objects, with some polished hatchets, some broken,
others intact, with stone and bone weapons, resembling
but for a few slight differences those we have described
so often. Numerous fragments of pottery were also
picked up, which pottery, hand-made and mixed with
crushed shells, seldom has either handles or any attempt
at ornamentation. Weapons, implements, and pottery
are all alike totally different from any Roman or Gallic
work known. It is impossible to study the relics at
Catenoy without coming to the conclusion that the
camp was occupied at periods prior to Gallic and
Roman times, and that there, as in many other districts,
the Latin conquerors had succeeded an unknown van-
quished race.
De Quatrefages has accurately made out a series of
works extending along the left bank of the Nive, as
far as Itsassou, and of which the Pas-de-Roland marks
the extreme limit. A merely superficial examination
is enough to show that these defences existed only on
the side to which access would otherwise have been
1
Ponthieux, " Le Camp de Catenoy " (Oise).
286 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES,
easy, while the height overlooking the river on the

other side, which is impregnable by nature, has been
left untouched. Here too we find the name Caesar's
Camp given to the relics, a fact of common occurrence
all over France, where the great captain was long held
in honor. Quatrefages is, however, of opinion that the
works are neither Roman, Gallic nor Celtic, and he even
arrives by a process of elimination at the conclusion
that they were erected by the Iberians, Avho preceded
the Aryans, and have deep an impress on all
left so
the countries the)' successively occupied. We do not
feel able to accept entirely this hypothesis but no ;
suggestion of the eminent professor must be overlooked

by those who earnestly seek with unbiassed minds to
ascertain the truth.
Gregory of Tours relates that at the time of the
invasion of the Vandals, the Gabali took refuge with
their families in the Gastrum Gredoneuxe, and there,
for two years, energetically resisted the invaders. 1
Greze, now a little market town of the department of
Lozere, is the cant rum of which the old French chroni-
cler speaks, and Dr. Prunieres there collected forty
stone hatchets, differing in no material respect from
others found in such numbers elsewhere, with flint
knives and scrapers, bone stilettos, and millstones,

doubtless used for grinding grain, all of which are to
the learned French professor proofs of the existence
there of a Neolithic station before the historic period.
In the department of Alpes-Maritimes a series of
defensive works crown the circle of mountains which
risefrom the shores of the Mediterranean. These in-
trenchments certainly date from a remote period, though
1
" Uisl. Krancorum," book i., chap, xxxii.
we cannot assign them to any definite time, and the

fact that theyhave been repaired at different epochs
proves that they were successively occupied. They 1
consist principally of circular or elliptical enceintes

surrounded by walls of stones without mortar, and
they vary in diameter from some 39 to 328 feet. One
of the largest is that on the Colline des Mulets, above
Monte Carlo.
Although the pile-dwellings of Switzerland and of
the terremares of Italy would appear to have been in
themselves protection enough, their inhabitants did not
neglect other means of defence, from which we may
Fig. 84. — Prehistoric spoon and button found in lake station- at Sutz
(Switzerland).
gather that they were engaged in constant and terrible

struggles. The terremares were generally surrounded
by a talus or rampart of earth, with an external fosse
which protected the approaches to the dwellings. The
rampart of Castione (Parma), which dates from the
Bronze age, was even strengthened inside with large
timber caissons. 2 In Switzerland, some works recently
1
De Rosemont "Etude sur les Antiquites anterieures
: aux Romains."
Desjardins "Les Camps Retranches des Environs de Nice. "
: Riviere: Ass.
Franfaise, Rheims, 1880, p. 628.
2
Pigorini :
" Terramara dell'Eta del Bronzo Situata in Castione de'
Marchesi."
undertaken to deflect the course of the Aar, on its exit

from Lake Bienne, have led to the discovery of a
village of the Stone age, with the bridges leading to it
and the little forts intended to protect it. As have the1
neighboring settlements, this station has yielded a great

many arrows, hatchets, scrapers, and harpoons. We
give an illustration of a curious marrow spoon, and of a
round object which seems to have- been a button (Fig.
84), as they mark the progress made.
Great Britain is intersected by lines of fortifications
ofunknown but certainly of extreme antiquity.
origin,
We may mention Dane's Dyke, Wandyke, the Devil's
Dyke at Newmarket, and Offa's Dyke, running from
the Bristol Channel to the Dee, and dividing England
from Wales. Ancient camps and intrenchments, Sir
John Lubbock tells us, crown the greater number of
the hills of England. General Pitt-Rivers explored
several of these camps in the county of Sussex. Many
extend over considerable areas, and all contain num-
erous worked and other relics of prehistoric in-
flints
dustry. These relics are met with in great numbers at

the base of the intrenchments, so that we may justly
conclude that they date from the same epoch.
The most celebrated of these camps is that of Ciss-
bury, three miles north of Worthing. We may also
mention that of Hod-Hill in Dorsetshire, which greatly
resembles the one at Cissbury, but we will describe
the latter in some detail. 2 It is situated on a somewhat
lofty plateau of irregular form, its site having been cho-
sen with great skill as one offering great facilities for de-
1
Nature, 1887, second week, p. 62.
8
Memoranda read'to the Royal Society of Antiquaries in London {Archtz-
ologia, vol. xlii., pp. 27-76). Lane Fox : British Association, Bristol, 1875.
Evans: "Stone Age."
CAMPS, FORTIFICATIONS. 2^g
fence. The earthen ramparts and the fosses protecting

them cover an area and their importance
of sixty acres,
ground thus the
varies according to the relief of the ;
thickness of the walls is very much greater on the

eastern side where an attack would have been most
fraught with danger four doors give access to the
;
interior, and on each side of these doors are ruins of

rectangular structures strengthening their defence.
Archaeologists, however, are of opinion that these re-
doubts, though their construction is exactly similar to
the rest of the fortifications, are of more recent date.
In fact Roman have been found amongst the
tiles
ruins, but these really prove nothing, as every one is

agreed that Cissbury was occupied by the Romans
after the subjugation of England by them and the ;
•
only point at issue is really whether the walls of which
the ruins still remain date from the Roman period, or
from times prior to their arrival. We ourselves lean
to the latter opinion, as drinking-water is absolutely
wanting; a very important point, as the Roman gen-
erals always made it their first care to pitch their
camps near a good water-supply. On the western slope
at Cissbury on each side of the ramparts are fifty
funnel-shaped depressions, some of which are as much
as seventy feet in diameter and twelve feet deep.
These holes may have served as refuges, and the larger
ones were certainly lived in, as is proved by the
charred stones of the hearths and the pieces of char-
coal found near them moreover, Tacitus tells us that
;
*
the Germans lived in similar habitations. Whatever,
' " Solent et subterraneos specus aperire, eosque multo insuper fimo onerant,
suffugium hiemi et receptaculum frugibus " (" De Moribus Gerraanorum,"
chap. xvi.).
19
;
;
hol-
however, may have been their ultimate use, these
lows were in the first place dug out with a view^ to
obtaining the marly chalk forming the hill

flints in
and recent excavations have revealed the existence 01

galleries connecting the depressions. When they be-
came later human habitations some of the inside open-

ings were blocked up with lumps of chalk, carefully
piled up so as to make entrance extremely difficult,
greatly adding to the security of the inmates.
Thirty of these shafts were excavated in succession
and amongst the rubbish of all kinds with which they
were filled were found some well cut celts, showing
no trace of polish, and some weapons or tools of the
Mousterien type. The number of half-finished imple-
ments, and the even greater quantity of chips, points
to these shafts having formed a centre of manufacture.
Many implements were made of stag-horn, and
of the
amongst them we must mention some picks which,
curiously enough, exactly resemble those" of Belgium and
the south of France. 1
Similar wooden picks are found
in the copper mines of the Asturias, in the salt mines
of Salzburg, and in a petroleum well recently opened on
the frontier between the United States and Canada.
In all these localities traces can be made out of ancient
mining operations. But to return to Cissbury from :
amongst the prehistoric ruins there were also taken,

numerous fragments of pottery, not at all like Roman
ware, with the bones of the horse, goat, boar, and ox, all
still represented in the fauna of England with oyster- ;
shells, and the shells of both land and sea mollusca, of

species still to be found in Great Britain. But no trace
has so far been discovered of metals, and neither the
1
American Journal of Archeology.
1
flint implements nor the bones of animals have any of

the marks of rust so characteristic of the Bronze and
Iron ages. Must we not then conclude that these
shafts were sunk at a time long prior to the earliest
historic period ?
The walls of the subterranean galleries of Cissbury

bore not only cup-shaped ornaments, striae, and curved
or broken lines, on the megalithic

recalling those
monuments of Scotland and Ireland but Park Harri- ;
son has made out some regular runes, or written char-

acters, of which a reproduction was shown at the
Paris Exhibition in 1878. This last fact is the more
curious, as Sayce discovered in a passage giving access
to a cave near Syracuse some characters somewhat
similar in form, to which he assigns a proto-Phoenician
origin. We may add that certain characters made out
at Cissbury, differing but little from the modern letter
b or the figure 6, are also found in the most ancient
Palmyrian, Copt, and Syrian alphabets. Were this
fact completely established, still more, if it were cor-
roborated by other analogous facts, we should in it
have a very valuable indication of the relations of
England with the most ancient known navigators.
Germany also contains some ancient fortifications, of
which the most remarkable are the Heidenmauer of
Saint Odila, near Hermeskiel, between the Moselle and
the Rhine. Huge stones, piled up without cement,
form a triple enceinte, but there is nothing to connect
these remains with prehistoric times. It is the same
with the intrenchments in the Grand Duchy of Posen,
the existence of which was announced at a meeting
of the Anthropological Society of Berlin.
1
Many
1
Zeitschrift fur Anthropologic, 1874, p. 115 ; 1875, p. 127.
Potzrov
of these defensive works, notably those of
and of Zahnow, had been erected on piles. In thi
district between Thorn and the Baltic are numerou
mounds of the shape of a truncated cone, the plat
form of which is surrounded by an embankment son*
590 feet in diameter. Near many of these wer<
1
picked up many broken human bones, mixed togethei

in the greatest confusion with weapons, hatchets, and
hammers, resembling Neolithic types. Everything
bears witness to the struggles of which these moundi
were the scene.
Similar relics of a past still obscure are met witl
in the south of Europe. Cartailhac has brought ink
notice the citanias, which are strange fortified towns
in Portugal. On the plateau of Mouinho-da-Moura.
southwest of Lisbon, were found numerous polished
hatchets, associated with shells of marine molluscs
and the bones of mammals belonging to species still
2
extant. This station was protected by intrenchments
of so great an extent that it has been impossible tc
examine the whole of them. There are also near the

same place several caves, now nearly choked up. One
of them was originally a regular tunnel the cutting ;
leading to the entrance was made of earth and small

stones ; it contained the bones of animals, some
cinders, and four large vases of coarse workmanship
It is difficult to make out what this cave was used for
the great confusion in which the bones lay excluding
all idea of its having been a tomb. Eibeiro had
already made out at Lycea an intrenched camp pro
1
Zaborowski " Monuments Prehistoriques de la Basse Vistule."
:
'Ribeiro: "Notice sur Quelques Monuments Prehistoriques du Portugal,'

Lisbon, 1878.
tected by clumsily constructed walls. Inside the

enceinte he picked up numerous fragments of orna-
mented pottery, with polished hatchets, shells, and a
good many bones of animals. He also made out sev-
1
eral sepulchres.
The prehistoric station of La Muela de Chert in Maez-
trago reminds us of those of Portugal. It is situated
on a little eminence, protected on the north and east

by the natural escarpment of the plateau, and on other
sides by a wall of some height made of stones without
mortar. Some foundations of an oval shape, on which
doubtless were built the homes of the inhabitants, can
be made out in the middle of the enceinte. We can,
however, but repeat here what we have said so often
elsewhere, that it is impossible to fix the exact date at
which these intrenchments were made. The discovery,

however, of polished flint hatchets, diorite lance-heads,
and a few bones and cervidse unknown
of ruminants
in Spain in prehistoric times, would appear to point to
a very considerable antiquity. Lastly, two young
2
Belgian engineers have lately made out between Al-
meria and Carthagena a considerable number of pre-
historic stations in which can be traced successively
the different Stone ages and those of Copper and of
Bronze. Several of these stations (Fig. 85) are regular
fortified camps, protected by thick stone walls cemented
with a thin layer of clay. The fire which destroyed
the habitations has left behind, beneath the ashes
and numerous objects, with the aid of which
cinders,
we are able to form a picture of the life led by the
men who built the fortifications, and we know that
1 " Noticia de Algunas Estarves e Monumentos Prehistoricos.''
2
H. and L. Siret:
'
Les Premiers Ages du Metal dans le Sud-est de l'Espagne."
'
they were agriculturists, for the very stores of grain

have been found charred and agglutinated by fire. In
the more recent stations flint, which was in the earliest
time the one material used, has disappeared and is
replaced by the copper, of which a plentiful supply
was found in the rich mines riddling the mountains.
Excavations have even brought to light the workshop
of the metallurgist, with its moulds and vases con-
verted into crucibles, its essays at new forms, its scoriae,
and lastly its finished weapons, showing real skill in
their production.
Although it is impossible to assign to them a definite
date, we must, to make work complete,
this part of our
say a few words on the earthworks met with in Rou-
mania. A former minister of that principality, M.
1
Odobesco, classes them as valla, tumuli, and cetati
de pamentu or citadels.
The valla include important works. One of them
cuts across Valachie parallel with the Danube and
Southern Russia. Another crosses the
loses itself in
north of Moldavia and Bessarabia, following a di-
rection convergent with the former. These valla,
although they are known in the country in which
they occur as Fosses de Trajan, are certainly of earlier
date than the Roman occupation, and in fact Roman
roads cut across the intrenchments or fosses which
have been levelled or covered over to make way for
them. Excavations of the large tumuli ai'e not yet
sufficiently advanced for us to hazard "an opinion
about them. The smaller ones, however, are seldom
of Roman origin. The funeral vases of calcareous
stone which they contain bear witness clearly enough
1
Congrh Prdhislorique de Copenhague, p. 118.
to their destination, and also to the rite with which

they were connected.
The pwnentoi are regular earthen fortifica-
cetati Je
tions set up within short distances of each other on all
the heights overlooking the torrential rivers of Rou-
mania. These intrenchments, generally of round or
oval form, are protected by deep fosses, parapets, and
palisades..Masses of cinders and burnt earth bear
unmistakable evidence to the cause of their destruc-
tion. All about, excavations have brought to light
coarse pottery, grindstones for crushing grain, stores of
millet which had been damaged by the flames, and a
few primitively constructed bronze idols. When the
vanquished Roumanians were driven from their in-
trenchments, they had evidently learned to use bronze,
but were still, as we have already remarked, unac-
quainted with iron, as no object in that material has
been found, nor does anything bear any trace of rust.
Thus, throughout Europe, man, in the presence of
the many dangers surrounding him, endeavored in the
very earliest times to protect by similar means his
family, his flocks, and his wealth. In America we are
able to quote facts of even more importance. The
vast territory comprised between the Alleghanies and
the Rocky Mountains, between the great lakes of
Canada and the Gulf of Mexico, is intersected with
truly colossal fortifications, almost all of them made
entirely of earth. ancient Americans knew how
The
to protect every height and every delta formed by the
junction of two rivers with redoubts, walls, parapets,
fosses, and circumvallations. Not without astonish-
ment we make out a regular system of fortresses con-
nected with each other by deep trenches and secret
passages, some of them hewn out beneath the beds of

rivers, observatories on the heights, and concentric
walls, some actually strengthened with casemates pro-
tecting the entrances., All these works were con-
structed by the so-called Mound-Builders, of whose
ancestors or of whose descendants absolutely nothing
is known.
All the strongholds of the Mound-Builders rise near

abundant watercourses, and the best proof that can
be given of the intelligence which guided their con-
structors in their choice of sites, is the fact of the
number of flourishing cities such as Newark, Ports-
mouth, Cincinnati, Saint Louis, Frankfort, and New-
Madrid, etc., which were, built upon the ruins of
various earthworks.
It would take us too long merely to enumerate all
the ancient fortifications still existing in North Am-

erica. Moreover they all resemble each other so much
that the description of a few of them is really all that
is needed to prove their importance.
Fort Hill (Fig. 5, p. 39) rises from an eminence over-
looking a little river called Paint Creek the walls vary ;
in height from eight to fifteen feet, and exceed thirty

1
feet in thickness. Several doors facilitate entrance,
and one of them leads to a square enceinte, the walls
of which have been almost entirely destroyed. This
enclosure probably contained the homes of the peo-
ple, which may have been mere cabins of adobes or
sun-burnt bricks, or huts covered with rushes, inter-
laced branches, or the skins of animals ; on this point
we are reduced to guesswork. In the centre of the
principal enclosure can be made out, in almost every
1
Putnam :
" Report Peabody Museum," vol. iii., p. 348.
—
case, several smaller enclosures, each containing

much
in their turn one or more mounds. Some think these
were consecrated to religious rites, but this is a mere
conjecture, for nothing is really known of the form of
government or of the religion of the Mound-Builders.
Forest trees have grown up on these abandoned
ruins, succeeding other vegetable growths the huge ;
girth of the decaying trunks proving their longevity.

Man, impelled by motives we cannot fathom, had
abandoned the districts where everything bears wit-
ness to his power and intelligence, and the vigorous
vegetation of nature once more has it all its own way.
The most remarkable group of prehistoric fortifica-
tions in North America is perhaps that near Newark,
in the valley of the Scioto. It includes an octagonal
enceinte eighty acres in area, a square enceinte of
twenty acres, with two others, one twenty the other
thirty acres in extent. The walls of the great circle
are still twelve feet high by fifty feet wide at the base.
They are protected by an interior fosse seven feet deep
by thirty-five feet wide. According to measurements
carefully made by Colonel Whittlesey, the total area
1
covered by these intrenchments is no less than twelve

square miles, and the length of the mounds exceeds
two miles. The large entrances protected by mounds
thirty-five feet high, the avenues leading to them which
are regular labyrinths, the quaintly shaped mounds
one, for instance, represents the foot of a gigantic bird
all combine to strike the visitor with astonishment.
We give a representation (Fig. 86) of a group, not
unlike that we have just described, which is situated at
Liberty (Ohio), and includes two circles and one
1
" Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley."
square. The diameter of the great circle

is 1,700 feet,
and encloses an area of forty acres, whilst that of the
it
smaller enceinte is 500 feet the area of the square, each

;
side of which measures 1,080 feet, is twenty-seven

acres. The walls are not strengthened by any ditch,
and, contrary to general usage, the earth of which they
are made was dug out from the inside of the enceinte
itself. We may also mention Old Fort (Greenup
w,^^^^^
t^r^M^.0 .
"— i. •;..««#
Fig. 86.— Group at Liberty (Ohio).
County, Kentucky), successively described by Caleb

Atwater, Squier, and J. H. Lewis. It is situated forty
feet above the river, and the total length of the walls
exceeds 3,175 feet. Six entrances give access to it, and
in the centre rises a mound representing some animal,
a bear probably, measuring more than 105 feet. Sev-
eral small mounds, beneath which were found human
bones, cluster about the larger one.
We must not omit to name an extraordinary system

of intrenchments at Juigalpa, in Nicaragua, which so
far as I know is quite unique. This is a series of
trenches extending for several miles ( Fig. 87 ), varying
in width from nine and a half to thirteen feet at ;
equal distances are oval reservoirs, the longest axis of

which measures as much as seventy-eight feet. In each
^^^^^^^^^^ Fig. 87. —Trenches at Juigalpa (Nicaragua).
reservoir are two or four mounds, probably serving as

watch-towers. We know nothing either of the people
who erected these singular structures or of the enemy
from whom they formed a protection. Nor can any-
thing be guessed as to the way
which the defence
in
was conducted. All is involved in obscurity, and at
every turn we are compelled to repeat that prehistoric
studies are weighted with uncertainty, long and arduous
study being necessary to bring ever so little order into
the chaos in which everything connected with them is
involved.
We must cursorily refer to some other fortifications
which really scarcely belong to our subject, though

certain archaeologists claim for them a prehistoric
origin. We refer to the vitrified forts, which are
strange structures in which stones, such as granite and
gneiss, quartzite and basalt, have been subjected to a
heat so intense as to produce vitrification.
These vitrified forts are enceintes, generally of round
or elliptical form, carefully erected where they were
most needed for defence, and protected by one or more
VITRIFIED FORTS. 30I
ramparts. 1
The ramparts all bear traces of vitrifi-
cation,more or less complete, which has, so to speak,

cemented them together. The vitrification is very
unequal, being complete in some parts and scarcely
noticeable in others. It is evident that the builders
did not know how to direct their fire uniformly.
Ever since 1777 vitrified forts have been known in
Scotland, and until 1837 they were supposed to exist
nowhere else. About that time, however. Professor
Zippe called attention to similar ruins in Bohemia,
and later it was announced that discoveries of the
same kind had been made in various parts of France,
Denmark, and Norway. Virchow speaks of the
ScMaken Walle, or ramparts of vitrified scoria, near
Kern 2 and Schaaf hausen, and gave an account of them
at a meeting of German naturalists at Ratisbon. It
would be easy to multiply instances. Vitrified walls
are known in the Puy-de-D6me, in which the facing is
of clay, and draught flues, for regulating and fanning
the flames, have been made out. At Castel-Sarrazin is
a camp refuge with similar dispositions, 3 and recently
Daubree presented to the Academie des Sciences a
piece of porphyry artificially vitrified from the pre-
-
historic enceinte of Hartmannswiller Kopf in Upper

Alsace. 4
however, that are situated the
It is in Scotland,
most remarkable vitrified forts. few years ago no A
less than forty-four were counted. The most cele-
brated are those of Barry Hill and Castle Spynie in
1
See Dr. Hibbert in the Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries of
Scotland, vol. iv., Appendix, p. 181.
2
Zeitschrift fur Ethnographic, 1870, p. 270.
3
Pomerol: " Murailles
,
Vitrifiees de Chateauneuf " Ass. Franc., Blois, 1884.
i Congres Soc. Sav., Sorbonne, 1882.
3<D2 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
Invernesshire, Top-O-Noth in Aberdeen, and a small

fort which rises from a lofty rock in the midst of the
Strait of Bute. Vitrified cairns also occur in the
Orkney Islands, notably on the little isle of Sanday,
but the most interesting structures of the kind are
Craig Phoedrick and Ord Hill of Kissock, which rise up
like huge pillars on the hills at the entrance of Moray
Firth, at a distance of three miles from each other.
1
Craig Phoedrick is now covered with a luxuriant

vegetation of broom, furze, and fern, with groves of firs
and larches, amongst which the explorer makes his
way with difficulty to the fortifications, or rather to

the piles of massive blocks to which that name has
been given. These blocks form an acropolis of oval
form, the upper part of which is a flat terrace encir-
cling a central basin some six and a half to nine and a
half feet deep, which may be compared to the craters of
the extinct volcanoes of Auvergne. The sides of the
mound are strewn with cyclopean blocks of vitrified
granite, which evidently originally formed part of the
fortifications. It is on the eastern side, overlooking
the valley of the Ness, that the buildings are of the
greatest importance ; two terraces can be made out,
the lower projecting beyond the upper, forming a
double series of almost perpendicular fortifications,
constructed of vitrified blocks cemented together with

thin layers of mortar, spread without any attempt at
regularity. The blocks form, with the mortar, a con-
glomerate so compact that when struck with a hammer
they break without separating. Examination of frag-
ments under the microscope prove that they have gone
1
J. Marion : Bui. des Soc. Savantes, 4th series, vol. iv. Daubree : Rev.
Arch., July, 1881.
VITRIFIED FORTS. 303
through important mineralogical transformations, under

the influence of what must have been an extremely
high temperature. The heat must have been indeed
intense which could cause mica to disappear entirely,
and feldspar to melt almost completely.
The hill known as Ord Hill of Kissock is crowned,
as is Craig Phoedrick, with ruins still standing, but the
vegetation about them is so dense and thorny that it
is difficult to make out the condition of the remains.
The which can only be seen from one side,
ruins,
appear however to have formed part of fortifications,
dating from the same time and serving the same pur-
pose as those of Craig Phoedrick. Were they forts?
There no sign of their having been used as
is certainly
habitations. Or were
they, as some archaeologists are
disposed to think, beacon houses used for warning the
people of the approach of the Norman pirates or
Scandinavian vikings, whose depredations were not
discontinued until the eighth century of the Christian
era ? Hypotheses are always easy, but proofs of these
hypotheses are difficult to find, and we confess we have
1
none to bring forward.
Passing to France, we find the greater number of
vitrified forts in the Departement de la Creuse. At
Chateau vieux is an enceinte of oval form, 416 feet
wide at its broadest part. 2 An earthwork, 22 feet
1
Sir J. Lubbock compares the ruins of Aztalan, in America, with the vitrified
forts of Scotland but we think this is
; a mistake, for the walls of Aztalan con-
sisted of irregularly shaped masses of hard, reddish clay, full of hollows, retain-
ing the impression of the straw or dried grass with which the clay was mixed
before it was subjected to the action of heat, whether the application of that
heat was intentional or accidental. There isnothing about this at all re-
sembling the melted granite of the vitrified forts.
8
De Cassac " Notes sur les Forts Vitrifies de la Creuse."
: Thuot : "La
Forteresse Vitrifieedu Pay de Gaudy," p. 102.
wide at the base, serves as foundation to a wall, the

outer and inner portions of which consist of small
granite stones, arranged in regular layers. The space
between the two series of small stones is filled in with
a sheet of melted granite,some twenty -four inches wide,
resting on calcareous tufa. The whole mass is com-
pletely vitrified, and regular geodes or nodules lined
with crystals and draped with pendent drops of melted
rock have been produced.
The ancient fortress of Ribandelle, of circular form,
risesabove the Creuse, opposite Chateauvieux. It was
successively occupied by the Celts, the Romans, and
the Visigoths, but we are unable to fix the date of its
erection or the name of the people who built it. There
remain but a few ruins at the present day, but we can
make out in them the same mode of construction as
that followed at Chateauvieux. The walls are faced
with unhewn stones, the outer side of which still
retains a natural appearance, while the inner is cor-
roded and disintegrated. In the wall itself, separated

from the facings by beds of peat mould, are great
blocks of vitrified granite. The traces of the action of
fire are specially noticeable in the upper part of the
walls, so that they were evidently finished when the
fusion took place.
The site of the furnace in these forts is difficult to
determine. was evidently not situated under any
It
of the blocks, for the earthworks on which they rest
retain no traces of the action of fire. Nor was it situ-
ated at the side, for the outer facings have retained
alike their original form and consistency. Nor can
the furnace have been lit on the blocks, as heat exer-
cises its action by radiating in every direction. We
;
are therefore forced to the conclusion that the fire was

spread with the aid of spaces left in the inside of the
construction at various points, for the vitrified mass is
divided into blocks, about nine and three fourths feet

from each other.
long, at very short distances
These few examples will be enough to give some
idea of the strange vitrified forts. Many of them
retain traces of Roman occupation. The Gueret
Museum possesses a fragment from the Ribandelle
walls in which a Roman tile is completely imbedded
and M. Thuot picked up other tiles in a similar condi-
tion amongst the ruins. This is a very decided
proof that the vitrification took place after the arrival
of the conquerors of Gaul. The weapons and tools
discovered would appear to confirm this idea, and to
suggest similar explanations of vitrification elsewhere.
If so, we shall have to admit that vitrified forts date
from the earliest centuries of the Christian era, and
are not prehistoric at all. We have, however, noticed
them here on account of the grave doubts in the
matter,and because they furnish a striking and valu-
able illustration of the relations existing from the
most remote times between widely separated races,
and maintained until the present time. In no other
way can we account for the practice of the extremely
difficult and complicated operation of the vitrification
Norway and
of hard rocks in districts so far apart as
Germany and the midlands of France.
Scotland,
The more we think of the difficulties vitrification
presents, the greater is our astonishment. How was
the fusion achieved of elements so refractory alike in
their structure and in the by accumu-
resistance offered
lated masses of material ? By what processes was heat
brought up to the 1300 degrees necessary for the fusion

of granite ? The incineration and fusion of the ma-
terials of which the vitrified forts are made, especially
the granite ones of La Creuse and the C6tes du Nord,
bear witness, says Daubree, to a surprising skill and
knowledge of the management of fire in those who

burned them, but these qualities were manifested also in
extremely ancient metallurgical operations. It is quite
impossible to suppose the vitrification to have been the
result of a conflagration. No
whether accidental
fire,
or the work of an incendiary, could be powerful enough

to produce such results. The use of petroleum in the
most terrible conflagrations of our own time those of —
the Commune in 1871, for instance did calcine and —
disintegrate stone, but I know of no case of vitrifica-
tion.
The Keramic Museum of Sevres contains several
specimens which present very notable differences to
each other. Those from Chateau-Gontier are formed
of very close-grained quartzite granite of a greenish
color streaked with black. The conglomerate welding
them together is a vitrified scoria full of very small
bubbles made by the escape of gas which had not had
sufficient strength to get out. The block from Sainte-
Suzanne (Mayenne) consists of quartz mixed with
half .calcined grains of feldspar, bleached by the action
of fused glass, which once introduced filled up as it
congealed all the vacant spaces with a vitreous sub-
stance of light greenish-white color. The fractures
are green and bright, and are dotted with white points,
which are all that is left of the stones after their dis-
integration in the grip of a heat that was alike intense
and rapid in its action. The fragments brought from
Scotland differ from those just described. They con-

sist of small pieces of granite completely merged in a
thick paste with which they form the mass, the whole
breaking together when it does break ; and the melted
matter seldom has any bubbles in it. 1
The process employed in cementing the materials of
the vitrified forts was then perfectly unique. The pro-
cesses employed to obtain the necessary heat varied
according to circumstances and according to the nature
of the materials used. At Sainte-Suzanne and at La
Courbe marine salt was used as a flux. Captain
Prevot 2 thinks that the walls were smeared with a
coating of clay, and that as in the baking of bricks
spaces were left between so as to produce more in-
tense heat. M. de Montaiglon is of opinion that the
buildings were in the first instance erected without the
use of any calcareous or argillaceous material, and that
glass in a state of fusion was poured over them after-
wards, this glass consolidating them and forming with

them one indestructible mass. M. Thuot seems much
disposed to share this last opinion, but he thinks that
some chemical materials such as soda or potash were also
used. Yet one other possible solution may be men-
tioned, a solution which is becoming more and more gen-
erally accepted, namely that the granite was not after
all really melted, but that the vitrification should
either be attributed to the fusion of the argillaceous
mass, which has been subjected to an igneous trans-
formation, such as that which often takes place in
3
furnaces for baking bricks and in lime-kilns.
1
We take most of these details from a note by M. A. de Montaiglon pub-
lished in the Bulletin des Socie'te's Savantes.
5
Mat., 1881, p. 371.
3 Bui. Soc. Anlh., 1884, p. 816, etc.
Whatever explanation we may accept, however,

the processes employed certainly bear witness to a
much more advanced state of civilization than was
acquired in the earliest ages of humanity. We have
been led by the great interest and mystery of the sub-
ject to dwell longer on it than we intended, and we
must hasten to return to prehistoric times with a
determination not to transgress again.
Fortifications are a proof of combined action lead-
ing to a common end they imply social organization,
;
chiefs to command, workmen to obej A recent dis- r

.
covery enables us to form a very accurate picture of

prehistoric men gathered together not only for pur-
poses of defence, but in a society already rich, indus-
trious, and, if we may so speak, learning to cultivate
the arts of peace.
The Êgean Sea has ever been the theatre of igneous
phenomena, and the three little islands of Thera, Thera-
sia, and Aspronisi, which shut in the Bay of Santorin,
are built up chiefly of volcanic materials.

1
In 1573
an eruptive cone suddenly appeared in 1707 the in- ;
habitants of Santorin saw rise up a short distance from

their shores a rock that increased in size for several days
and then suddenly split up. This splitting up was suc-
ceeded by a great eruption of incandescent materials an ;
eruption which lasted for no less than five years, forming

at the end of that time an island some 400 feet high by
3,279 feet in circumference. In 1866, after many violent
shocks of earthquake, the ground was rent asunder on
this island and masses of volcanic matter were belched
forth, whilst on the other side of the island the soil
sank to such a degree that canoes were used to get to
1
Fouque, Nature, 1876, second week, p. 65.
SANTORIN. 3O9
houses which but the day befoi-e were nine feet above
the sea-level. This eruption went on uotil 1870,
and the quantity of scoriae vomited forth during its
continuance welded three islets, which had hitherto
been separate, to the principal island, of which they
now form part. On entering the Bay of Santorin we
see on every side banks of lava, beds of scoriae, and
piles of cinders of a purplish-gray color rising in cliffs
to a height of more than 1,312 feet. All these ma-
terials are the result of innumerable eruptions, and
the central crater of the volcanois probably situated
about the middle of the bay. It is supposed that at

one time a conical mountain, from 1,958 to 2,600 feet
high, rose where soundings now give a depth of water
of over 1,300 feet. A
sudden break up of the moun-
tain probably produced this abyss, and formidable
eruptions have led to the pouring forth of immense
quantities of pumice-stone. The three islets mentioned
above would be the remains of the old central cone,
and a bed of pumice-stone from 98 to 131 feet thick is
spread over the whole of their surface, telling of a
violent cataclysm of which neither history nor tradition
has preserved the memory.
The letters of Pliny the Younger ' say that the erup-
tion Vesuvius which caused the destruction of
of
Portici lasted five days, and we know that the houses
are covered with a uniformly distributed bed of pum-
ice-stone some thirteen feet thick, and of cinders about
three feet thick. Everything points to the conclusion
that a very similar catastrophe overtook Santorin there ;
too whole villages were buried beneath cinders, stones,

'-
Book vi., chap. xvi. and xx. — Pliny the Elder, uncle and father by adoption
of Pliny the Younger, lost his life in this catastrophe, which took place in 79 A. D.
;
and molten by a volcano in action

lava, belched forth
there too ineD were the witnesses and the victims of
the eruption, as is proved by an accidental circum-
1
stance which took place some twenty-three years after.

The removal of the pouzzolana, so called after the
volcanic ashes of Pozzuoli in Italy for the works on
the Isthmus of Suez, necessitated important excavations,
and the cuttings revealed the existence of dwellings
which had been hidden away from the light of day for
many centuries. The masses of rubbish hiding these
prehistoric ruins were some sixty-five feet high, and
consisted chiefly of volcanic ashes piled up, for some
accidental reason, in comparatively modern times.
Beneath the pouzzolana a thin layer of humus con-

tains fragments of pottery of Hellenic origin which ;
marks the close of the historic period, and covers over

the mass of pumiceous tufa vomited out by the vol-
cano. It was which is eight feet thick,
in this tufa,
that the first signs of buildings were discovered. Fur-
ther excavation brought to light two houses with
doors, windows, and bearing walls. In one of these
houses there were five different rooms. Other dis-
coveries rapidly succeeded each other, alike in the
island of Therasia and at Acrotiri, the principal
island, which has given its name to the group. The
plan of these houses is an irregular parallelogram, the
angles of which are rounded and the sides more or less
curved. This arrangement differs greatly from that
adopted in Greece as well as from that in use at
Therasia after the time of the volcanic eruptions. The
1
Cigalla : Acad, des Sciences, November 12, 1866. Fouque : Acad, des
Sciences, March 25, 1867. " Un Pompei Prehistorique," Revue des Deux-
Mondes, October 15, 1869.
SANTORIN. 311
houses too are quite different in their mode of construc-

tion. The walls consist of great blocks of lava placed
one above the other, without any trace of cement or of
lime, and are merely kept in place by a reddish earth
mixed with chopped straw or marine algae. Large
branches of olive or cypress trees, still with the bark
on, are imbedded in the masonry. These pieces of
wood, the size of which varies considerably, were prob-
ably added to give the necessary solidity to the walls in
the numerous earthquakes, the disastrous effects of which
were only too well known to the ancient inhabitants
of Santorin. It is curious and interesting to note the
use of the same expedient among the inhabitants of
the islands of the Archipelago who are still exposed
to the same danger. The doors and windows are
clumsily arched, and the roof seems to have been a
low vault. It was made of stones and coated with clay
and supported by the trunks of olive trees, the charred
remains of which lay upon the floors of the crushed
homes. These trunks show no sign of having been
touched with metal tools not a metal nail or clamp
;
has been found, and we cannot but conclude that the

remains belong to the age when stone alone was
employed.
The inside walls were not glazed or decorated in
any way, except in one instance, that of a house at
Acrotiri, from which the rubbish has been cleared
away, revealing on the walls a layer of lime on which
was some colored ornamentation which still retained
an extraordinary brilliancy when it was discovered.
In all the houses and in every room of each were
found beneath the tufa burying them masses of lava
and volcanic scoriae, forming a most eloquent witness
of the cause of their destruction. Near one of the

houses of Therasia is a little cylindrical .structure,
about three feet high ;which cannot have been a well,
as it rests directly on impermeable lava, and was
certainly not a cistern, as it is too small for that. May
as some think, have been an altar ? We cannot tell,
it,
and though the religious sentiment was probably no

more absent among these primitive races than it is among
the barbarous peoples of our own day, it does not do
to express an opinion in the absence of positive proof.
excavations have yielded a number of
Successive
objectswhich throw a new light upon the manners and
customs of the inhabitants. Terra-cotta vases are more
numerous than anything else (Fig. 88), and among
them preponderate large yellow vessels capable of
holding about one hundred quarts. Most of them
have a and a rough attempt has been
clumsj'' brim,
made at ornamentation by the potter with his fingers

on the damp clay. Other vases of finer clay, colored
red or yellow, are covered with ornaments and graceful
arabesques ; the garlands of fruit and flowers are often
of remarkably beautiful workmanship. Cups with
well-shaped rounded handles, made of some kind of
red ferruginous earth, others of gray material, were
j)icked up in all These various vessels
the houses.
were used for many different purposes some to cook ;
food, the marks of the hearth being still on them,

whilst others retained some of the chopped straw with
which the domestic animals had evidently been fed.
The most curious of all are those which are supposed
to represent a woman ; the front part projecting and
surmounted by a narrow neck bent backwards, with
two brown prominences supposed to stand for breasts,
and dots round the upper part representing a necklace,

while ear-rings are indicated by elliptical bands of
different colors. We have to refer again to these
shall
curious vases when we speak of the discoveries made
at Troy we need only add now that the pottery found
;
at Santorin differs completely, alike in form and orna-

mentation, from the Greek, Phoenician, and Etruscan
specimens, of which the museums of Europe contain so
many. They are evidently therefore not of foreign
origin, but of native manufacture. The absence of
clay in the island of Santorin has thrown some doubt
on this, however, but the researches of M. Fouque
have revealed the former existence of a large valley, at
the base of the principal cone, which valley ran down
to the sea-shore near the island of Aspronisi ; and in
which probably was found the clay which the potters
of the district soon learned to turn to account.
With these vases were found some troughs for hold-
ing crushed grain, and lava discs very much like those
still in use among the weavers of the Archipelago to
stretch the woof of their tissues ; skilfully graduated
lava weights, the correlation of which is very evident,
as they weigh 8, 24, and 96 ounces a flint arrow-;
head and a saw of the same material with regular

teeth together with a great variety of other objects,
;
including many obsidian arrows and knives, reminding

us in their shape of those characteristic of the Stone
age in North Europe.
Two rings of gold beaten very thin, and a little
copper saw with no trace of any alloy, are, so far, the

only metal objects found in the excavations. The
origin of the former, moreover, is very uncertain, and
there has been much discussion as to where the rings
SANTORIN. 315
came from. In spite, however, of all the gaps in the

evidence about them, there remains no doubt that the
inhabitants of Santorin were farther advanced in
civilization than the Lake dwellers of Switzerland, the
builders of the terrernare of Italy, or the Iberians of
the south of Spain, who were very probably their con-
temporaries; and we cannot refrain from expressing
our admiration of the wonderful progress made by the
inhabitants of the little group of volcanic islands under
notice.
Before the catastrophe which overwhelmed them,
Santorin was covered with comfortable and solidly
built houses. Men knew how to till the ground, and
gathered in crops of cereals, among which barley was
the most abundant, then millet, lentils, peas, coriander,
and anise they had learned to domesticate animals, as
;
is proved beyond a doubt by the number of bones of

sheep and goats they kept dogs to guard their flocks,
;
and horses to aid in agricultural work they knew how ;
to weave stuffs, to grind grain, to extract the oil from

olives, and even to make cheese, if we may give that
name to the pasty white stuff found at the bottom of
a vase by Dr. Nomicos. They were acquainted with
the arch, and they used durable and brilliant colors.
The copper saw is an example of the first efforts of
the natives at metallurgy the gold and obsidian which
;
were foreign to the island bear witness to commercial

relations with people at a distance. They loved art, as
proved by the shape of their vases and the ornamenta-
tion on many of them, which is really often worthy of
the best days of Greece. All around we see signs
appearing as it were suddenly of a civilization, the
origin and tendencies of which are alike still unknown.
But one human skeleton has so far been found in
Santorin, and that is of an inhabitant who had evi-
dently been overtaken in his flight and crushed

beneath the burnina: from the volcano. This
scoriae
man was of medium height, and is supposed to have
been between forty and forty-eight years old. The
bones of the pelvis are firmly consolidated, and the
teeth are worn with mastication.
Let us endeavor to guess at the period when the
people of Santorin lived. De Longperier tells us that
vases similar to those left by them are represented on
thetomb of Rekmara amongst the presents offered to
Thothmes III., who lived in the eighth century b.c,
but if so the people of Santorin appear to have bor-
rowed nothing in their intercourse with Egypt. The
first invasion of Greece by the Phoenicians is supposed
to have been in the fifteenth century B.C., but the
buildings, the pottery, and the various implements
of Therasia and Acrotiri differ essentially from those
of the Phoenicians, who, moreover, from the earliest
times, used metals. Must we not therefore conclude
that the catastrophe which overwhelmed Santorin
took place before the fifteenth century b.c. ? Con-
jectures as to the date of the fatal eruption, however
plausible, are of no use
anything relating to the
in
origin of the people, or the time of their first occupa-
tion of the island. On these points all is still hope-
less confusion, and we must wait for further discoveries
before we can hope to come to any conclusions in the
matter.
We have gone back to the very earliest days of man
upon the earth we have shown that he was the con-
;
temporary of the mammoth and the rhinoceros, of the

THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSARLIK. 317
cave-lion and the cave-bear we have seen him crouch-

;
ing in the deep recesses of his cave and fighting the

battle of life with no weapon but a few scarcely
sharpened flints, leading an existence infinitely more
wretched than the animals about him. Not without
emotion have we watched our remote ancestors in their
ceaseless struggle for existencenot without emotion
;
have we seen them gradually growing in intelligence

and energy, and attaining by slow degrees to a certain
amount of civilization. Santorin is a striking and
brilliant proof of their progress, and we shall appre-
ciate this progress yet more when we have examined
the ruins piled up on the hill of Hissarlik. There we
shall close this portion of our work, for from the time
when the buildings of which these remains were the
relics met their doom, the use of metals, copper, bronze,
gold, silver, and iron became general. History began
to be written, and it is her task to tell us of the migra-
tions of races, the early efforts of historic races, the
foundation of empires. In a word, the prehistoric
age was over ; that of self-conscious portraiture was
now to begin.
A few years ago I was on the ancient Hellespont
and my fellow-travellers, grouped about the deck of
our were trying to make out on the receding
vessel,
Troy and of the tumuli which
coast of Asia the sites of
were then still supposed to have been the tombs of
Achilles, Patrokles, and Hector, but which are now,
thanks to the able researches of Dr. Schliemann, known
to belong to a comparatively modern epoch. The
streams, bearing the ever memorable names of Simois
and Scamander, were also eagerly pointed out by the
watchers, recalling the words of Lamartine :
;
318 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. J

Le nautonnier voguant sur lesflots du Bosphore
Des yeux cherchait encore

Le palais de Priam et les tours d'llium.
Great indeed is the privilege of genius, immortalizing

all that it touches for it must be pointed out that
;
Troy was never an important town, and the war in

which it disappeared was in reality but one of the
incessant struggles between the petty princes of Greece
and Asia.
When I visited the East, scholars were not at all
agreed as to the site of the town which was so long
besieged by the Greeks ;and certain sceptical spirits
even went so far as to deny that there ever was such a
person as Homer at all, or that if there were, he wrote
the epic poem which has borne his name so long.
Tradition, however, was pretty constant in pointing to
the hill of Hissarlik as the site on which Troy was
built. Strabo was quite an exception in relegating the
town to the lower end of the bay, where the miserable
little village of Akshi-koi now stands. In 1788 a new
idea was started ; Lechevalier in his account of his
journey in Troas claims to have recognized the site of
Troy at Bunarbashi. At that time erudition was not

very profound, and Lechevalier's site was accepted
indeed it was long maintained, and quite recently it has
been defended by Perrot. But the nineteenth century is

more exacting the most plausible hypotheses are not
;
enough without facts to support them, and excavations

at Akshi-koi and at Bunarbashi show that there never
was a town on either of these sites.
Excavations on the hill of Hissarlik, begun by Dr.
Schliemann in 1871, and carried on under his superin-
tendence for more than ten years, have, on the contrary,
;
yielded most definite, satisfactory, and conclusive results.

At a depth of fifty-two feet the diggers came to the
virgin soil, The
a very hard conchiferous limestone.
immense masses of debris of which the embankment
is made up date from different epochs we have before ;
us, if we may use such an expression, a perpendicular
Pentapolis or series of five ancient cities one above the

other. One town was destroyed by assault and by fire
another rapidly rose from its ruins, built with stones
taken from the midst of those very remains. The study
of the piled-up rubbish enables us to build up again a
picture of the remote past with all its vicissitudes, and
Virchow may well say that the hill of Hissarlik will
for ever be considered one of the best authenticated
witnesses of the progress of civilization. 1
The first layer of rubbish rests on the rock itself,
and may very well have belonged to the town built by
Dardanus, of which Tlepolemus relates the destruction
by his grandfather Hercules. According to the Homeric 2
story six generations, and according to generally ac-

cepted modern calculations two centuries, separate
Dardanus from Priam. If therefore we accept 1200 b.c.
as the date of the Trojan war, the town built by Dardanus
would date from 1400 b.c, and we should possess data,
3
if not absolutely certain, at least approximately so.
1
Schliemann :
" Troy and its Remains," translated by Philip Smith, London,
Murray, 1875 " Ilios Ville et Pays des Troyens," translated by Mme. E.
;
Egger, Paris, Hachette, 1885 E. Burnouf Revue des Deux-Mondes, January

; :
1, 1874 Virchow " Alt Trojanische Graber und Schadel."

; :
s
Iliad, canto v., v., 692.
3
Egyptologists tell us that in the fourth year of the reign of Ramses II., or
about 1406 B. c. , the Hittites placed themselves at the head of a coalition against
the Egyptian Pharaoh. With these Hittites, or Khittas, whose descendants
still dwell in the north of Syria, were the Mysians, the Lycians, the Dardanians,
and other tribes.
There remain but a few relics of the buildings erected

by the first inhabitants of the hill of Hissarlik, which
relics consist of great blocks of irregular size, with
remains of bearing walls composed of small stones
cemented together with clay and faced with a glaze
which has withstood the wear and tear of centuries.
The second town, which would appear to have been
that described in the Iliad, was probably built by a
race foreign to those who erected the first. The hill,
which was to become the Acropolis of the new town,
was surrounded by the new-comers with a wall several
feet thick, of which the foundations consisted of
unhewn stones whilst the upper part was made of
;
artificially baked bricks, the baking having been done
after they were put in place, by large fires lit in vacant

places left at regular intervals ; an arrangement recall-
ing what we have said in speaking of vitrified forts. 1

It is also interesting to note a similar mode of construc-
tion at Aztalan in Wisconsin in structures which prob-
ably date from the time of the Mound Builders. The
walls at Hissarlik were protected by re-entering angles
and projecting forts. The interior of the enceinte
was reached by three doors, and it is still easy to
make out the ruins of the different buildings. A room
sixty-five feet long by thirty-two wide is surrounded by
very thick walls, and towards the southeast is a square
vestibule, opening into the room by a large door. 2
These, Dr. Schliemann thinks, were the naos and pro-
"Amerique Prehistorique " (Masson), translated by Nancy Bell (N.

D'Anvers), and published by Murray, London Putnam, New York.
;
8 " Troy and its Remains,"

plate ix. See also excellent essay on the same
subject by S. Reinach, which appeared in the Revue Arche'ologiqite in 1885.
Later investigations by Dr. Schliemann also brought to light a remarkable
resemblance between the buildings at Hissarlik and those of Tiryns.
1
108 of a temple dedicated to the tutelary gods of the

wn. Quite close to them is another building with
nilar dispositions; a square vestibule giving access
a large room, which in its turn leads to a smaller
tartment. These two buildings, which are reached
Tough a propylwum, are the only ones of which the
rplorers have been able to make out the measure-
ents with any exactitude.
Other ruins are evidently remains of the royal resi-
mce. The homes of the people were clustered on
ie sides and at the foot of the hill. After the
town by the Greeks, the Acropolis
;struction of the
rmed one which bits of walls
vast mass of ruins, from
ood out here and there as mute witnesses of the
itastrophe. The thin layer of black earth covering
ie ruins seems to point to the speedy rebuilding of
ie town. The houses of the third settlement are
jry irregularly grouped, and consisted mostly of one
ory only, containing a number of very small rooms.
)me of the walls are of bricks with glazed facings,
ihers of very small stones cemented together with
ay. In one house of rather larger size than the
;hers was found some cement made of cinders, mixed
ith fragments of charcoal, broken bones, and the
:mains of shells and pottery. On the northwest the
iw colonists erected walls in place of those which
id fallen down, but they were of very inferior
asonry, coarse bricks baked on the spot, in the
ay customary among the Trojans, having formed the
aterial.
The destruction of the third town was more com-

lete than that of Troy. The walls of the houses can
ill be made out rising to a certain height, and it was
upon them as foundations that the fourth colony set uj

their abodes. These dwellings are smaller still, witl
flat roofs formed of beams on which was laid a coating
of rushes and clay. Every generation appears to have

been poorer than the last, alike in material wealth and
in fertility of resource.
The colony spread northwards and eastwards.
fifth
Their homes were built very much in the same style

as those of their predecessors. The resemblance does
not end there, and Dr. Schliemann notes that among
the ruins of the three towns, which successively rose
from the site of Troy, are found similar strange-
looking idols, hatchets in jade, porphyry, diorite, and
bronze, goblets with two handles, clumsy stone ham-
mers, trachyte grindstones, and fusaioles or perforated
whorls bearing symbolic signs of a similar form. Evi-
dently the men who succeeded each other after the
great siege of Troy on the now celebrated hill oi
Hissarlik belonged to the same race, perhaps even to
the same tribe. There are, however, certain notable
differences which must not be passed over. The latei
pottery is not of such fine clay or so well moulded as
the earlier specimens, nor are the stone hammers, which
appear to have been the chief implements used, of such
good workmanship. The piles of shells left to ac-
cumulate about the houses of the fourth and fifth

towns can only be compared to the kitchen-middings
and there is no doubt that those
so often referred to,
who such heaps of rubbish about their dwellings
left
could not have been so civilized as were the celebrated
Trojans.
Beneath the ruins of the Greek town, which strictly
speaking belongs to history, Schliemann found a quan-
THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HJSSARLIK. 323
and very different to

tity of pottery of curious shapes
anything he had previously discovered. He ascribes
them to a Lydian colony which dwelt for a short time
upon the This pottery resembles that known as
hill.
proto-Etruscan, of which so many specimens have

been found in Italy. Probably the makers of both
were contemporaries.
By numerous and careful measurements Dr. Schlie-
mann has been able to determine exactly the thickness
of the which correspond with the different
layers,
periods during which Hissarlik was inhabited. The
remains of the Greek and Lydian towns extend to a
depth of 7^ feet beneath the actual level of the
soil; the fourth layer, from 7^ to 15 feet; the third,
from 15 to 22^ feet; Troy itself, from 22^ to 32 feet;
and lastly Dardania, from 32 to 52 feet. The last
layer carries us back to the golden age of Greek art,
where all doubt is finally at an end. The bas-reliefs
of remarkable workmanship bear witness to the Ilium,
founded in memory of Troy. This is the town visited
by Xerxes, Alexander the Great, and Julian the Apos-
tate. That the town still existed about the middle of
1
the fourth century is proved by medals taken from

the ruins, but it evidently fell into decadence soon
after that time, for its very name was forgotten by
history, was reserved for our own time to resus-
and it
citate the ancient city of Priam and its successors from

the ruins which had been piled up by the destructive
hand of man and by the lapse of time. But this task
has been nobly achieved by the enthusiasm, scientific
1
The British Museum contains a manuscript of the fourteenth century, in
which is a letter from Julian, written when he was emperor, between 361 and
363 A.D., and relating to his visit to Ilium.
acumen, and we inay perhaps add good-fortune of an

archaeologist who cherished a positive passion for
everything relating to Homeric times.
The number of objects picked up at different stages
of the excavations was very considerable. Dr. Schlie-
mann neglected absolutely nothing that appeared to
him worthy of his collection, which now belongs
at all
to the Royal Museum of Berlin and contains some
twenty thousand objects, including weapons and im-
plements, some of stone, others of bronze, and thou-
sands of vases and fusaioles, gazing upon which we
see rise before our eyes a picture of a civilization
unknown before but through the Iliad and a few
meagre historical allusions.
Before we note in detail the most remarkable of the
objects in Dr. Schliemann's collection, we must add
that recent researches have also brought to light the
remains of a little temple dedicated to Pallas Athene
and referred to in history, as well as those of a large
Doric temple erected by Lysimachus, and of a mag-
nificent theatre capable of holding six thousand spec-
tators,and which probably dates from the end of the
Roman Republic. The human bones picked up among
the ruins of the different towns may be attributed to
the practice, already general, of cremation. Virchow
has examined the skull of a woman found at Troy,
which is of a pronounced brachycephalic type (82.5).
The crania from the third town, on the other hand, are
dolichocephalic, the mean cranial capacity being sixty-
seven. If we could reason with any certainty from
cranial capacity, this would appear to j)oint to a differ-
ent race, but it would not do to come to any positive

conclusion with only one Trojan cranium to judge by.
But to return to Dr. Schliemann's fine collection. The

pottery from the first town, found at a depth of from
thirty-two to fifty-two feet (Fig. 89), is superior alike in
and construction, to the keramic ware of the
color, form,
following periods. The potter's wheel was unknown,
or at least very rarely used, and pottery was hand- 1
made and polished with bone or wood polishers, the

marks of which can still be made out. The forms are
varied and often graceful, many of them, as do those
Fig. 89. —Vase ending in the snout of an animal. Found on the hill of Hissarlik
at a depth of 45-J feet.
found in the North America imitating

mounds of
those of the animals among which the potters lived.
The usual color of the keramic ware is black, some-
times decorated with white lozenge-shaped ornaments.
Some vases have also been found colored red, yellow,
1
The potter's wheel was, however, in use at a very remote antiquity. In
China its invention is attributed to the legendary Emperor Hwang-Ti, who is
supposed to have lived about 2697 B.C. The wheel was also known from the
very earliest times in Egypt, , and Homer (Iliad, c. xviii., v. 599) compares
the light motions of the dancers represented on the shield of Achilles to the
rapid rotation of the potter's wheel.

and brown, and even decked with garlands of flowers

and fruit, as are some of those of Santorin. We must
also mention some apodal vases, and others with three
feet, used for funeral purposes, containing human
ashes (Fig. 90). The terra-cotta fusaioles, found in
such numbers among the ruins of the towns that rose

successively from the hill of Hissarlik, are, on the other
hand, rare at Dardania, if we may retain that name.
1
Excavations have
brought to light
more than six hun-
dred celts or knives,
generally of smaller
size than those found
in Denmark or France.
Rock of many kinds,
including serpentine,
schist, felsite, jadeite,
and nephrite,
diorite,
were used; and saws
of flint or chalcedony,
some toothed on one
side only, others on
both, are of frequent
human
Fig. 90.- -Funeral
ashes Found
vase
at a
containing
depth of 50 feet.
occurrence. They
were fixed into
handles of wood or horn, and kept in place with some
agglutinative substance, such as pitch, several of
them still retaining traces of this primitive glue. We
must also mention awls, pins of bone and ivory, and
1
Rivett-Carnac :
" Memorandum on Clay Discs Called Spindle Whorls and
Votive Seals Found at Sankisa " (Behar), Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal,
vol. xlix., p. I.
ossicles or knuckle bones, in every stage of manufac-

ture, who
confirming the accounts of Greek historians,
tell game played, with
us of the great antiquity of the
them. The Dardanians used wooden and bone imple-
ments and weapons almost exclusively. It is impossible
to say whether they were acquainted with the use of
metals, but we might assert that they were if we could
Fig. 92. — Earthenware pitcher found Fig. 93. —Vase found beneath the
at a depth of iy^ feet. ruins of Troy.
quite certainly attribute to them

mould of mica
a certain
schist, found at a depth of 45^ feet, which had been
used in the process of casting spits and pins, which are

supposed to be of more ancient date than the fibulae.
The most valuable objects of the collection come
from the deposits representing the town of Troy they ;
are all twisted, broken, and charred, bearing witness

THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF IIISSARLIK. 329
to the fierceness of the flames in which the town per-

ished. These discoveries reveal to us the daily life
of the people of Troy.

Judging from the num-
ber of boars' tusks found,
hunting must have been
a favorite pastime with
them. The bones of
oxen, sheep, and goats,
^ of smaller species than
those of the present day,
have also been found.
Horses and dogs were
rare, and cats unknown.
The domestic poultry of
the present day was also
wanting, no remains of
Fig. 94.- -Terra-cotta vase found with the
birds having been found
treasure of Priam.
except a few bones
of the wild swan and the wild goose. Fish and
mollusca, as proved by
the immense numbers
of bones and shells,
formed an important
part of the diet of the
Trojans. They also
fed largely on cereals,
which thev cultivated
with- success and
wheat, the grains of Fig. 95. —Vase found beneath the ruins of
Troy.
which were very small,
was known to them. The preservation of these vege-
table relics was due to carbonization.
The pottery discovered is of an infinite variety, and

includes jars from 4| feet to 7£ feet high (Fig. 91), of
which Schliemann found more than six hundred, nearly
all of them empty. need not surprise us,
Their size
for Ciampini speaks of a pottery dolmm of such vast

'
size and height that a ladder of ten or twelve rungs

was needed to reach the opening.
8
With these jars
were found some large goblets, some long-necked ves-
sels (Fig. 92), some amphorae, and vases with three
feet (Fig. 93). Some of the vases had lids the shape
of a bell (Fig. 94), others were provided with flaps or
Fig. 96. —Earthenware pig found at a depth of 13 feet.
horns by which to lift them (Fig. 95). The potter

gave free vent to his imagination, but the decorations
representing fish-bones, palm branches, zigzags, circles,
and dots, are all of very inferior execution.
Two series of terra-cotta objects deserve special
1 " De Sacris ^dificiis," ch. ix., p. 128.

' It is interesting to note the discovery of urns closely resembling those of
Troy, and containing human remains, in Persia (Sir W. Ouseley :
" Travels in
Persia "),and at Travancore, in the south of Malabar, where, according to tra-

dition, they were intended to receive the remains of young virgins sacrificed in
honor of the gods. — " Some Vestiges of Girl Sacrifices," Journ. Anth. Inst,,
May, 1882.
1
mention, one representing animals, generally pigs (Fig.

96), though an example has been found of a hippo-
potamus a fact of very great interest, as this animal
;
does not live at the present day anywhere but in the

heart of Africa. We
know from this terra-cofcta rep-
resentation that it lived in Greece in the days of Troy.
Pliny speaks of it in Upper Egypt in his day, and
according to Mariette it lived thirty-five centuries be-
fore the Christian era in the delta formed by the mouth
Fig. 97. —Vase surmounted by an owl's head. Found beneath the ruins of
Troy.
of the Mle. The second series of objects referred to

above as of special interest are vases representing the
heads of owls with the busts of women (Fig. 97). It
is easy to make out the beak, eyes, and ears of the
bird, and the breasts and navel of the woman. In
some instances the face, breasts, and sexual organs of a

woman are represented by a series of dots forming
a triangle with the point downwards. 1 Other dots
represent a necklace, and very similar designs are to
be seen on the Chaldean cylinders. Can we then con-
nect them in any way with the relics of Troy, and is
it possible that the Trojans and Chaldeans were of
common origin ? However that may be, the constant
repetition of these signs proves that they were of hieratic
character. Terra-cotta was also used for a very great
number of other purposes, as was the case every-
where before the introduction of metals. Some deep
and some flat plates made of very common clay have
been found, together with buttons, funnels, bells, chil-
dren's toys, and seals on which, some authorities think,
Hittite characters can be made out. No lamps, or any-
thing that could serve their purpose, have been found.
The Trojans probably used torches of resinous wood
or braziers, when they required artificial light.
would be impossible to give a list of the objects

It
of every variety found among the ruins of Troy, with
the aid of which we can form a very definite idea of
the private life of its people. Some fragments of an
ivory lyre, and some pipes pierced with three holes at
equal distances, bear witness to their taste for music ; a
distaff, still full of charred wool, deserted by the spin-
ner when she fled before the conflagration, tells of
domestic industry and manual dexterity, while marble
1
The vulva was sometimes
represented by a large triangle. The same pecu-
liarity some black marble statuettes, found in the tombs of the Cyclades
occurs on
and Attica. Three such statuettes from the island of Paros are in the Louvre,
and the British Museum owns a rich collection. Dr. Schliemann also mentions
a female idol made in lead of very coarse workmanship, in which the sexual
organs are represented by a double cross.
THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF H1SSARL1K. 333
and stone phalli prove that the generative forces of

nature were worshipped. 1
The weapons and implements found included haema-

tite and diorite projectiles used in slings, stone hatchets,
and hammers pierced to receive handles, flint saws and

obsidian knives. Metallurgy began to play an im-
portant part, and stone with
its minor resisting power
was quickly superseded by bronze. In fact, Virchow
Fig. -Copper vases found at Troy.
1
The phallus was, as we have already stated, the symbol of generative force.
Its worship extended throughout India and Syria a gigantic phallus adorned
;
the temple of the mother of the gods at Hierapolis, and it was carried in
triumph in processions through Egypt and Greece. It is still worshipped
in some places at the present day. Near Niombo, in Africa, there is a temple
as certainly justified in saying that the whole town

^longed to the Bronze age. Iron was still unknown,
; least so far no trace of it has been found, either
nong the ruins of towns which suc-
Troy or of the
;eded it. Several and moulds of mica,
crucibles
hist, or clay have been found with one of granite of
G. 99.- —Vases of gold and electrum, with two ingots, found beneath the ruins
of Troy.
ictangular shape bearing on each face the hollows in-
snded to receive the fused metal. The Schliemann

ntaining several phallic statues ; at Stanley-Pool the fete of the phallus is
lebrated with obscene rites. The Kroomen observe similar ceremonies at the
ne of the new moon, and in Japan on certain fete days young girls flourish gigan-
•phalli at the end of long poles. Thephallus is also often represented on the
Dnuments of Central America —on the stones of the temples of Izamal and
e island of Zapatero, for instance. Possibly the worship of the productive
d generative forces of nature was the earliest religion of many primitive peo-
es, but all that is said on the subject must be sifted with considerable care.
museum possesses numerous battle-axes 1

of bronze,
some double-bladed daggers with crooked ends, lances
similar to those discovered at Koban, 2 and thousands
of spits, some with spherically shaped heads, others
of spiral form. Some of these spits are made of cop-
per, as are some large nails weighing thirty ounces,
Fig. 100. — Gold and silver objects from the treasure of Priam.
so that this metal was evidently still often used in a

pure state.
At the foot of the palace, the ruins of which rise
from the Acropolis at a depth of 27-J feet, the pick-
1
Similar hatchets of pure copper (Fig. 2) have been found in Hungary, and
Butler (" Prehistoric Wisconsin") speaks of them also as being found in North
America.
s
The tin used in making bronze probably came from Spain or Cornwall,
perhaps also from the Caucasus, where small quantities of it are still found. It
was doubtless imported by the Phoenicians, the great navigators of antiquity.
See Rudolf Virchow's " Das Grliberfeld von Koban im Lande der Osseten,"
Berlin, 1883.
?es of the explorers brought to light metal shields,

ases (Fig. 98), and dishes mixed together in the
reatest confusion, often by the
soldered together
itense heat to which they had been subjected. They
:g. ioi. — Gold ear-rings, head-dress, and necklace of golden beads from the
treasure of Priam.
ad probably been enclosed in a wooden chest that

r
as destroyed in the conflagration. 1 We are aston-
' This idea gains probability from the fact that the remains of a key were
eked up near the treasure, which we have reason to suppose belonged to Priam.
THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HSSSARLIK. 337
ished at the wealth revealed to us. Cups, goblets,

and bottles of gold 99 and 100) lay side by
(Figs.
side with golden necklaces * and ear-rings of elec-
trum. 2 The ornaments that had belonged to women
are especially curious. At one place alone several dia-
dems (Fig. 101) were picked up, with fifty-six ear-rings,
six bracelets, and nine thousand minor objects, such as
rings, buckles, buttons, dice, pins, beads, and ornaments
of a great variety. 3 All these treasures were piled up
in a great silver vase, into which they had doubtless
been hastily thrown in the confusion of a precipitate
flight. They are all of characteristic forms, quite un-
like anything in Assyrian or Egyptian art. Were they
made in Troy itself ? Dr. Schliemann doubts it ; he
thinks that the makers of such clumsy pottery are not
likely tohave been able to produce jewelry of such
delicateand remarkable workmanship. I should not
like to be so positive, for even amongst the most
advanced peoples we find very common objects mixed
with others showing artistic skill. Why should it not
have been the same at Troy ? I think that in future
Trojan art must take its place in the history of the
progress of humanity. The nineteenth century has
brought that art to and by a strange caprice of
light,
chance the treasures of Priam adorn the museum of

Berlin, and we have seen the diadem of fair Helen
4
exhibited in the South Kensington Museum of London.
'
The gold may have come from the mines o£ Astyra, not far from Troy.
8
Electrum was the ancient name for amber, but was also given to an alloy of
gold and silver, the yellow color of which resembles that of amber.
3
Dr. Schliemann gives a very careful description of all these objects. See
" Troy and its Remains," Figs. 174 to 497, pp. 260 to 353.
4
The xPV^ 8Juvor or diadem of the wife of Menelaus is a narrow fillet from
which hang several little chains formed of links alternating with small leaves,
;8 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
we have been
Treasures nearly as valuable as those
ascribing were found in earthenware vases in several
;her parts of the ruins. Unfortunately, many of the
ejects found were stolen and melted down by the
orkmen, whilst others were taken to the Imperial
alace at Constantinople, whence they are doomed to
3 dispersed. In 1873, however, Dr. Schliemann was
irtunate enough to hit upon a deposit containing
venty gold ear-rings, and four golden ornaments
1
hich had formed part of a necklace. Similar orna-
ents were found at Mykenae, near Bologna, in the
aucasus, in the Lake dwellings, and, stranger still, on
te banks of the Rio Suarez in Colombia. 2
I will not add more to what I have already said
jout the towns which succeeded each other on the
lins of Troy, and of which the successive stages of
ibbish on the hill of Hissarlik are the only witnesses

ft. The flames spared none who settled on that
wined spot, and new arrivals disappeared as rapidly
i they came. The Ilium of the Greeks and Romans
one enjoyed any prosperity, but it too was in its turn
vept away and at the present day a few wandering
;
lepherds and their flocks are the sole dwellers upon

le hill immortalized by Homer.
Before concluding this chapter I must refer once
d ending in rather larger leaves, these leaves all representing the woman with
; owl's head, so characteristic of Trojan art. The golden objects are all sol-
red with the same metals, which modern goldsmiths seem unable to do. At
ryns, which we believe to have been contemporary with Troy, the art of
Idering was unknown, and ornaments were merely screwed together.

1
Bastian, Zeitschrift der Berliner Gesellschaft fur Erdiiinde, vol. xiii.,
ites i and 2.
2
If we accept 1200 B.c as the date of the Trojan war and the eighth century
that of the foundation of Ilium, the towns that succeeded each other on the
11 of Hissarlik only lasted four centuries altogether.
THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HTSSARLIK. 339
more to a fact of considerable interest. In that part

of the deposits of Hissarlik which represents Troy,
Dr. Schliemann picked up the perforated whorls to
which the name of fusaloles has been given (Fig. 102),
and of which we spoke in our account of the Lake
Dwellings of Switzerland. These fusaloles are gener-
ally of common clay mixed
with bits of mica, quartz, or
silica, though some few have
been found at Mykenae and

Tiryns of steatite. The clay
whorls before being baked
were plunged into a bath of
Fir- »a.-Te mw »tta w>i«.
a very fine clay of gray, yel-
low, or black color, and then carefully polished. They
nearly all bear ornaments of very primitive execution,
such as stars, the sun, flowers, or animals, and more
rarely representations of the human figure.
We ourselves think these f usaioles are amulets which

were taken to Troy by the Trojans, and piously pre-
servedby their successors. One important fact tends
to confirm this hypothesis. A great number of them
1
bear the sign of the swastika (Fig. 103), the cross
with the four arms, the sacred symbol of the great
Aryan race so long supposed to be the source of all the
Indo-European races. The swastika is engraved, not
only on the fusaioles, but also on the diadems of the
daughters of Priam, on the idols the Trojans wor-
shipped, and on numerous objects from the Lydian
and Greco-Roman towns. We meet with the double
cross among the prehistoric races of the basin of the
1
In the Vedas the word swasti is often used in the sense of happiness or
good-fortune.
34Q PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
Danube, who colonized the shores of the Troad and

the north of Italy, and it was introduced with the
products of that antique civilization on the one side
to the Greeks, the Etruscans, the Latins, the Gauls, the
Germanic races, the Scandinavians, and the Bretons •
and on the other to the people of Asia Minor, Persia,

1
India, China, and Japan.
This sign of the swastika meets us at every turn;
we find it on many ancient Persian books, on the tem-
ples of India, on Celtic funeral stones, and on a Hittite
cylinder. It is seen on vases of elegant form from
Athens and Melos on others from Ceres, Chiusi, and
;
Cumse, as well as on the clumsy pottery recently dis-

covered at Konigswald
on the Oder and on the
borders of Hungary; on
bronze objects from the
Caucasus, and the cele-
brated Albano urn on a ;
medal from Gaza in Pales-

tine and on an Iberian
Fig. 103. — Cover of a vase with medal from Asido. We
the symbol of the swastika. Found
see it on the Gallo-Roman
at Troy.
rings of the Museum of
Namur, and on the plaques of the belt, dating from the
same epoch, which form part of the magnificent collec-
tion of M. Moreau. Schliemann tells us of it at Mykense
and Chantre found it on the necropoles of
at Tiryns.
the Caucasus. It is engraved on the walls of the
catacombs of Rome, on the chair of Saint Ambrose at
Milan, on the crumbling walls of Portici, and on the
1
Comte Goblet d'Auriella, Bui. Acad. Royale de Belgigue, 1889.
most ancient monuments of Ireland, where it is often

associated with inscriptions in the ogham character. 1
The swastika, occurs twice on a large piece of copper

found at Corneto, which now belongs to the Musexim
of Berlin. Cartailhac noticed it in the citania of Por-
tugal, some of which date from Neolithic times. 2 The
English in the Ashantee war noticed it on the bronzes
they took at Coomassie on the coast of Guinea, and it
has also been found on objects discovered in the Eng-
lish county of Norfolk.
Moreover, if we cross the Atlantic we find the same
symbol engraved on the temples of Yucatan, the origin
of which is unknown, on a hatchet found at Pember-
ton, in New Jersey (Fig. 104), on vases from a Peruvian
sepulchre near Lima, and on vessels
from the pueblos of New Mexico.
Dr. Hamy, in his "American De-
cades," represents it on a flattened
gourd belonging to the Wolpi Indi-
ans, and the sacred tambours of the
Esquimaux day bear
of the present
the same symbol, which was prob-
ably transmitted to them by their
ancestors. The universality of this
one sign amongst the Hindoos,
Persians, Hittites, Pelasgians, Celts,
and Germanic races, the Chinese, Fig. 104. —Stone hammer
from New Jersey bear-
Japanese, and the primitive inhabi-
ing an undeciphered in-
tants of America is infinitely strange, scription.
and seems to prove the identity of

races so different to each other, alike in appearance
1
G. Atkinson, Congrh Prdhistorique, Lisbon, 1880, p. 466.
2
"Ages Prehistoriques en Espagne et Portugal," figs 410, 411, 412, p. 286.
md in customs, and is a very important factor in deal-

ng with the great problem of the origin of the human
pecies.
We have dwelt much on the discoveries of Dr.
3chliemann, but we must add that, like all great dis-
soveries, they have been very vigorously contested. 1
Uoetticher, for instance, considers the ruins of Hissar-

ik to be nothing more than the remains of a necropolis
vhere cremation was practised according to the Assyrio-
Babylonian custom. 8 A distinguished and very honest
;avant, S. Reinach, constituted himself the champion
>f meeting of the Congress in Paiis
this theory at the
n 1889. Schliemann replied very forcibly, and the
neeting appeared to be with him in the matter, as were
ilso a number of meu of science who visited Hissarlik
n 1888, and we think that in the end history will
idopt the opinion of the great Danish antiquarian.
We have now passed in review the chief of the works
eft behind him byman from the earliest days of his
ixistence to the dawn of historic times. We must still
how prehistoric man in the presence of death, the
miversal destroyer, and learn from the evidence of the
ombs of -the remote past how our ancestors met the
flmmon doom.
1
Aussland, 1883. Zeitschrift fur Museologie tind Antequaten Kunde, 1884.
ilusoeon, 1888 and 1889.
8
Virchow, who visited the remains at Hissarlik, treats this idea as furchtbaren
Jnsinn (ridiculous nonsense).
CHAPTER VIII.
TOMBS.
The true history of man

be found in his tombs, will
says Thucydides and as a matter of fact the sepulchre
;
has ever occupied much of the thoughts of man, the

result of a religious sentiment, a conviction that all
does not end with the life which so quickly passes by.
From the very earliest times we meet with tokens
of the hopes and fears connected with a future exist-
ence ; but, as I have already stated, the human bones
that can with certainty be said to date from Palaeolithic
times are very rare. We know but very few facts jus-
tifying us in asserting that the contemporary of the
mammoth and had already learnt to
of the cave bear
respect the remains of what had once been a man like
himself. One of these few facts deserves, I think, to
be noticed with some detail.
In 1886, excavations in the cave of Spy (Namur), 1
1
The true name of this cave is fhe-Betche aux Roches. A very excellent essay
on the subject was read by the explorers, MM. de Puydt and Lohest, in
August, 1886, to the Historic Society of Belgium, and " Les Fouilles de Spy,''
by Dr. Collignon, published in the Revue d' Anthropologic, 1887, may also be
consulted. Excavations were also carried on in the same cave in 1879 by M.
Bucquoy (Bui. Soc. Anth. de Belgique, 1887). He distinguished five ossiferous
levels and picked up some flints of the Mousterien type, and even some Chelleen
hatchets, to which he gave the name of coups de poing. —
Fraipont and Lohest;
" Recherches sur les Ossements Humains Decouvertes dans les Depots Quater-
naires d'un grotte a Spy."
343
some thirty -six feet long by nine-

rather in a terrace
sn and a half wide giving access to it, brought to
jht two human skeletons. One was that of an indi-
dual already advanced in probably of the femi-
life,
ne sex, the other of a man

in the prime of life,
tiese skeletons were imbedded in a very hard breccia
ntaining also fragments of ivory and numerous flints

veiy small size. Some of them had very fine
ratches on both sides. From what I could learn on
e spot, the skeletons when found were in a recum-
snt position. The bones, few of which were missing,
3re still in their natural position, and near to one of
em were picked up several arrow- or lance-heads, one
which, of phtanite, some two and a half inches long,
as of the purest Mousterien type. The bones were
ose of short, squat individuals, and the skulls were
the type of the Canstadt race, the most ancien't of
hich anything is known ; the thickness of the crania
is about oue third of an inch. The forehead is low
d retreating, the eyebrows are prominent, and the
wer jaws strong and well developed.
At the same level and in that immediately above it
3re picked up the remains of the mammoth, the
hinoceros tichorhinus, the cave bear, and the large

ve hyena, the reindeer, and numerous other mammals
longing to the Quaternary fauna. Everything points
the conclusion that the man and woman whose
mains have so opportunely come to light were con-
tnporary with these animals, and that their bodies
3re placed after death in the cave in which they were
und.
Belgium has furnished numerous examples of sepul-
ral caves, of a date, however, less ancient than that
tombs. 345
we Lave been considering. Recent excavations in the

Chauvaux Cave revealed two skeletons leaning against
the walls in a crouching position, the legs tucked under
the body. In the Gendron Cave M. Dupont discov-
ered seventeen skeletons lying in a low, narrow passage,
stretched out at full length with the feet toward the
wall, and arranged in twos and threes, one above the
other. In the middle of all these dead was the skele-
ton of one man placed upright, as if to watch over the
other bodies.
The Duruthy Cave Sordes opens near the point
at
of junction of the waters of the Pau and Oloron,
whence their united waters flow into the Adour. At
the northern extremity of this cave is a natural niche
in which lay more than thirty skeletons, some of men,
some of women, and some of children, mixed together
in the greatest confusion. Worked flints, bone stilet-
tos, and ornaments lay around, all of the forms charac-
teristic of Palaeolithic times.

would seem that we have here evidence of the
It
practice of a funeral rite, which consisted in first
stripping the bodies of flesh, and then laying the bones
in caves, where they were often left unnoticed by the
living occupants of the same refuge. 1
The caves of Baousse-Rousse, near Mentone, give

fresh proof of the extension of this rite, if we may so
call it. The skeletons lay upon a bed of powdered
iron ore, in some cases as much as two fifths of an inch
1
We borrow these details from a valuable work by Cartailhac (Mat. ,
1886, p. 441 Rev. d'Anth., 18S6, p. 448).

; The conclusions of our learned
colleague are that we really know nothing of the funeral rites of the men of
Chelles and Moustier, and that it is to the Solutre'en period that we must assign
the first really authenticated tombs. Cartailhac's admirable book,
'
La France
'
Prehistorique," p. 302, should also be consulted.

thick, and this accumulation could not have taken plac

if the skeleton had not been deprived of its fl.es
before inhumation. The flesh must have been take

off by some rapid process, for the bones remain, as
general rule, in their natural positions, united by the:
tendons and ligaments. In Italy, says Issel, the cav

men buried their dead in the caves they lived in,
thin layer of earth alone separating them from th
1
living; the bodies,adds Pigorini, generally lay on tl
left side, thehead rested on the left hand, and tl
knees were bent. Beside the skeleton was placed
vase containing red chalk, to be used for painting tl
body in the new world it was supposed to be about i
enter.
We could quote similar discoveries in Sicily, Be
gium, and the southern Pyrenees. Beneath the tumi
lus of Plouhennec, in Brittany, bones were strew
about in the greatest disorder. Some archseologisl
are of opinion that the openings in certain dolmer
were used for throwing in the bones of the dead wh
successively went to join their ancestors. In many (
the Long Barrows of England the bones appear i
have been flung in pell-mell the space was too narrc

;
to hold the complete body, so that before inhumatio

the flesh must have been separated from the bone
In no other way can we explain the confusion i
which the human remains lay when they were disco

2
ered. Pigorini thinks this is a proof that primiti^
races worshipped their dead, and held their bodies i
veneration. 3 Perhaps they even carried them about i
their migrations. However that may be, the custo:

1
" Ipui Antichi Sepolcri dell Italia."
2
ArchfEological yournal, vol. xxii.
3
Matfriaux, 1885, p. 299.
tombs. 347
of separating the flesh from the bones

was continued
until cremationbecame general. This would explain
the huge ossuaries found in regions so widely sepa-
rated.
Although, however, the mode of sepulture we have
just described was practised for a long time in certain
places, we cannot admit it to have been general. In
certain megalithic tombs we find dispositions similar
to those described in speaking of the Gendron Cave.
Excavations beneath the Port-Blanc dolmen (Morbi-
han ) brought to light a rough pavement on which lay
numbers of skeletons, closely packed one against
another, which skeletons were probably those of men
who had been held in honor, and to commemorate
whom the dolmen was set up. Separated from them
by a layer of stones and earth rested another series of
skeletons, not so closely packed as the first. The
new-comers had respected their predecessors, and no
one had violated the sanctuary of the dead. Similar
1
facts were noted at Grand Compans, near Luzarches,
and it is evident that successive inhumations beneath
dolmens often took place, and instances might, if
necessary, be multiplied.
Another singular funeral rite was practised in
remote antiquity. Many of the bones found in the
various caves of Mentone were colored with red hema-
tite.
2
As this was only the case with the bones of
adults, those of children retaining their natural white-
ness, evidently had some special significance.
it In
1880, the opening of a cave of the Stone age in the
district of Anagni, a short distance from Eome, brought
1
This dolmen was carefully excavated by MM. Hahn and Millescamps,
Bui. Soc. Anth., 1883, p. 312.
3
Riviere : Congrh des Sciences GJographiques, Paris, 1878.
' light the facial portion of a human cranium, colored

ight red with cinnabar. Nor are these by any
eans exceptional cases, for similar coloration was
jticed on bones picked up at Finalmarina and several
;her places in Liguria and Sicily. The custom had
lerefore become general in the Neolithic period in
le whole of the Italian peninsula.
1
We also meet
ith it in other countries ; at the Prehistoric Congress,
hen in session at Lisbon, Dolgado added to what
as said about the discoveries in Italy the fact that
le cave men of Furninha practised a similar rite. In
le Tcurganes of the department of Kiew crania were
»und colored with a mineral substance, fragments of

were strewn about near the skeletons. The
hich
tost ancient of the hurganes appear to date from the
tone age, for in them were found implements made

I flint and reindeer-horn, mixed with the bones of
)dents
2
long since extinct in that district. A similar
ractice is met with in the tombs of Poland, many
ones being covered with a coating of red color, in
>me instances one fifth of an inch thick. Excavations
i the Kitor valley (province of Irkutsk, Siberia) have
rought to light several tombs which appear to date
•om the same period as the hurganes of Kiew. The
ead were buried with the weapons and ornaments
ley would like to_ use in the new life which had
egun for them. The tomb was then filled in with
md, with which care was taken to mix plenty of red
jhre. It is difficult not to conclude that this was a
ilic of a rite fallen into desuetude.
1
Atti delta R. Acad, dei Lincei, 1879-1880. Pigorini : Bui. de Pal,
zliana, 1880, p. 33.
* Soc. Anth. de Munich, 1886,
tombs. 349
At the present day certain tribes of North America

expose their dead on the tops of trees, and before
burying the bones, when stripped of their flesh, cover
them with a coating of a bright red color. In the
island of Espiritu Santo many human bones have also
been picked up painted with an oxide of argillaceous
iron. These customs, strange as they may appear,
were evidently practised in honor of ancestors; ata-
vism is as clearly shown in customs and traditions as
in physical structure.
At Solutre is a sepulchre formed of unhewn slabs
of stone. The body of the dead rested on a thick bed
of the broken and crushed bones of horses. The
remains of reindeer were mixed with the human bones.
Were these too relics of funeral rites, and were the
animal bones those of the horses and reindeer that had
belonged to their hunter? It is impossible to say.
Solutre, situated as it was on an admirable site on a
hill overlooking the valley of the Seine, protected
from the north winds and close to a plentiful stream,
has also been a favorite resort of man. In the tombs
all ages are mixed together, and some do indeed if
date from Neolithic times, others are

Roman, Burgun-
dian, Merovingian. There may be among them a
certain number dating from the Reindeer period that ;
is about all we can assert with any certainty in the
present state of our knowledge. The Abbe Ducrost,

however, in an important essay asserts that he has 1
found incontrovertible proofs of the interment of Solu-

treens on the hearths of their homes in Palaeolithic
times. If this be so, thecustom is one of frequent
occurrence, and has been continued for centuries for ;
1
Soc, Anth, de Lyon, 1889.
i Colanges, in his fine work on ancient cities,
ows that at Rome the earliest tombs were on the

arth itself of the dwelling. De Mortillet, on the
ler hand, dwells very earnestly on the mode of
mmation at Solutre^ and sees in the juxtaposition of
man remains and the debris of hearths but the result
displacement, and of the regular turning upside
wn of which the hill of Solutre has been the scene.
> this Reinach replied, to the effect that, whereas a
tv years ago De Mortillet's authority led many
jhseologists to suppose that the men of the Reindeer
riod did not bury their dead, facts, ever more im-
rtant than theories, have now proved beyond a
ubt that this very decided opinion is a mistake.
)t only did the men of remote antiquity bury their
ad; they laid them, as at Solutre, on the hearths
1
ar which they had lived.
The dead were often buried seated or bent forward,
d it is interesting to note the same custom beneath
e mounds of America and the tumuli of Europe. It
touching to see how in death men wished to recall
eir life on earth the cradle was, so to speak, repro-
;
Lced in the tomb, and man lay on the bosom of

rth, the common mother of humanity, like the child
the bosom of his own mother. Perhaps, too, the

ited position was meant to indicate that man, who
,d never known rest during his hard struggle for
istence, had found it at last in his new life. The
3n of the rough and barbarous times of the remote
st were unable to conceive the idea of a future
which was not in
fferent to the present, or of a life
ery respect the same as that on earth had been.
1 " Histoire dn Travail en Gaule," p. 24.
TOMBS. 351
Whatever may have been the motive, this mode of

burial was practised from the Madeleine period. At 1
Bruniquel, in Aveyron, the dead were found crouching

in their last home. This position is, however, pecul-
iarly characteristic of Neolithic times,
and is met with
throughout Europe. Eight skeletons were recently
discovered bending forward in the sepulchral cave of
Schwann (Mecklenburg). In Scandinavia there are
so many similar cases that it is difficult to make a
In the sepulchral cave of Oxevalla ( East
selection.
Gothland) the dead are all in crouching attitudes
and tumuli dating from the most remote antiquity
cover over a passage, formed of immense blocks of
stone, leading to a central chamber, in which are
numerous seated skeletons resting against the
walls.
On the shores of the Mediterranean, excavations of
theVence Cave (Alpes-Maritimes) brought to light a
number of dead arranged in a circle as if about to take
a meal in common. The bodies were crouching in
the position of men sitting on their heels the spinal ;
column was bent forward and the head nearly touched

the knees. In the centre of this strange group were
noticed some fragments of pottery and the remains of
a large bird, a buzzard probably. Perhaps its death
among the corpses was a mere accident. 2 The dolmens
of Aveyron yielded some flint-flakes and arrow-heads,
pieces of pottery, pendants, and bone, stone, shell, and
slate-colored schist beads. Beneath one of these dol-
mens was found one small bronze object, quite an ex-
1
Troyon :
" De 1' Attitude Repliee dans la Sepulture Antique," Revue
Arch., 1864.
8
MaUriaux, 1875, p. 327.
,52 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
:eptional instance of the occurrence of that metal. The

keletons rested against the walls! In one of the tombs
ome human bones, which had been originally placed
it the entrance to the cave, had been moved to the
>ack ; the vanquished had here, as in life, to give way
)efore the conquerors. Excavations in the Mane-Lud
onib have led explorers to suppose that here too the
jorpses were buried in a crouching position. It is the
iame at Luzarches and in the Varennes cemetery near
Dormans. 1 In the last named were found traces of a
ire had been lit above the tomb, and some pottery
that
vas picked up ornamented with hollow lines, filled with
lome white matter not unlike barbotine. M. de Baye
;ays this mode of interment is confined to the district
>f Marne ; but for all that he himself gives an example
)f its practice elsewhere. 2
In the prehistoric tombs discovered at Cape Blanc-
STez, near Escalles (Pas-de-Calais), the position in which
he body had been interred could be made out in four
nstances. The ends of the tibia3 humeri, and radii ,
vere united, the bones of the hands were found near

he clavicles, so that the bodies had evidently been
>ending forward with the arms crossed and the fingers
>ointing toward the shoulders. 3 Similar facts are
[uoted from a cave at Equehen on the plateau which
tretches along the seashore on the east- of Boulogne.
The bodies, to the number of nine, were crouching
vith the face turned toward the entrance of the cave,
vhich was closed with great blocks of sandstone.
Two polished stone hatchets, broken doubtless in
A. Nicaise : Matiriatix, 1880, p. 186.

Arch. Prihistorique, p. 178.
1
Congrh Prdhistorique Jc Bruxelles, p. 299.

;
TOMBS. 3S3
accordance with some sepulchral rite, had been placed

near the skeletons.
Numerous human bones were found in the Cravanche
Cave near which probably dates from the close
Belfort,
of the Neolithic period, judging from the total absence
of metal and the shape of the flint and bone imple-
ments picked up. Here too the bodies were bent
almost double, the head drooping forward and the
knees drawn up nearly to the chin. Several of these
skeletons were completely imbedded in the stalagmite
which had formed in the cave, the head and knees
alone emerging from the solid mass. The position in
which they were originally placed had thus of necessity
1
been maintained.
A similar we must call this mode of
rite, for rite
burial,was practised in Italy, and the Chevalier de
Eossi speaks of a tomb of the Neolithic period at
Cantalupo, near Rome, in which one of the bodies was
placed in the crouching attitude, which he says is
familiar to all who have studied ancient tombs. 2 This
practice was still continued in protohistoric times
Schliemann noticed it in the excavations he superin-
tended at Mykense, and Homer says that amongst the
Lybians the dead were buried seated.
The necropolis near Constantine contains numerous
megalithic monuments. These are either round or
square cromlechs surrounding sarcophagi, or circular
enceintes, in which the dead were laid in a trench. In
the former there are always a great many funeral
1
Bui. Soc. Anth., 1876, p. 191. Grad : Nature, 1877, 1st week, p. 314.
2
Memorie sulle scoperte paleoethnologiche delta campagna romana. Pigorini
adds in his turn :
'
' I cadaveri erano abitualmente adagiati sul jianco sinistra,
col cranio appogiato sulla mano sinistre e le ginocchia alquanio piegate in guisa
che tavolta si irovarono le tibie assai prossime alia cassa loracica."
23
rjects in the tomb, and the body of the dead is in a

ouching posture ; in the latter there are few things
jside the corpse itself, and that is in a recumbent
jsition. Do these peculiarities denote different races ?
the tombs all date from the same period, or are
lese arrangements but fresh indications of the differ-
lce everywhere maintained between social classes?
,is difficult to decide, and we must be content with
lumerating facts. We may add, however, that the

•ouching position of corpses is constantly met with in
irica^nd in North and South America, from Canada
> Patagonia.2
funeral rites of which we have spoken necessar-
The
y imply burial man did not abandon to wild beasts
;
* birds of prey the bodies of those who had once been

ke himself. At Aurignac, at Bruniquel, and in the
rontal Cave, the cave man had taken the precaution
1 closing with the largest stones he could find the
ltrances to the last resting-places of those belonging
> him. The caves of U
Homme Mart, and of Petit-
[orin which date from Neolithitic times, retain traces
I similar blocking up. There were five entrances to
le cave of Garenne de Verneuil (Marne) in which
as a regular ossuary the floor was paved and the

;
>of kept up with eleven upright stones. The objects

i the tomb with the dead were a clumsy earthenware
ase, a few flint knives, and some shell necklace beads.
The sides of the almost inaccessible mountains of
eru are pierced, at a height of several hundred feet,
ith numerous caves which have nearly all been arti-
1
Pallery " Mon. Megalithiques de Mascara," Bui. Sac. Ethn., 1887.
:
"Bancroft: "The Native Races of the Pacific,' vol. i., pp. 365,
-
etc.
oreno :
" Les Paraderos de la Patagonie," Rev. d'Anlh., 1874.
tombs, 355
flcially enlarged. It was in them that the Peruvians

placed their dead, and the people of the country still
call them Tantama Marca or abodes of desolation.
The entrances were concealed with extreme care, but
this care did not save the tombs from violation the ;
greed for the treasures supposed to be concealed in the

tombs was too great for respect to the unknown dead
.to hold curiosity in check.
In other cases, the dead was laid near the hearth
which had been that of his home when living, and his
abode during life became his tomb. The dolmens,
cella, and Gangraben in Germany, and the barrows in
England, appear to bear witness to the prevalence of a

similar custom in those countries and. we find the
;
same idea perpetuated even when cremation became

general. At Alba, in Latium, at Marino, near Albano,
at Vetulonia and Corneto-Tarquinia were discovered
urns with doors, windows, and a roof imitating human
dwellings. 1
modes of sepulture came into use. In
Later, other
Marne M. Nicaise made out seven funeral pits resem- 8
bling in shape, he tells us, long-necked bottles with flat
bottoms. One of these pits at Tours-sur-Marne con-

tained at least forty skeletons, and among the bones
were found thirty-four polished stone hatchets, fifty
knives,two flint lance-heads and a great many arrows
with transverse edges, a necklace of little round bits of
limestone, several fragments of coarse pottery which
had been mixed with grains of silica and baked in the
fire, and lastly three little flasks made of staghorn
J " Necropole de Colonna, prov. de Grosseto," R. Acad, dei Lincei, Roma,

1885.
''Bui. Soc.Anth., 1880, p. 895.
;
,6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
allowed out in a curious manner and with stoppers of

le same material. These quaint little flasks doubtless
mtained the coloring matter with which the dead had
dnted their bodies when alive. All the objects of
hich we have spoken belonged to the Neolithic period
at a flat bronze necklace bead made by folding a
lin slice and a bit of rib bearing
of metal, a radius,
êen marks resulting from long contact with metal, ap-
3ar to fix the date of this pit at the transition period
stween the Stone and Bronze ages. If this be so it
quite an exceptional case of a sepulchral pit dating
om this time, for most of those known are of much
,ter origin. Those for instance of Mont-Beuvray,
ernard (La Vendee), and Beaugency are not older
lan Gallo-Roman times. According to Count Gozza-
1
ini, those of Manzabotto in Italy, which are twenty-
;ven in number, date from the IVth century after the

mndation of Koine, and are of Etruscan origin. They
"e constructed with small pointed pebbles, with no
•ace of cement, and resemble in shape a long amphora
ase, or perhaps, to be more accurate, the clapper of a
ell. They are from six and a half to thirty-two and

half feet deep, with an opening varying in diameter
om one foot to nearly two and a half feet. 1
We have said so much in preceding chapters on

lonuments erected in memory of the dead, that but
ttle remains to be added here. Doubtless there are
Lany distinctions to be noted at different times and in
ifferent countries, but everywhere the aim remains
1
Abbe Baudry et Ballereau :
" Les Puits Funeraires du Bernard," La Roche-
r-Yon, 1873.
2 " Renseignements sur une Ancienne Necropole Manzabotta, pres de
3logna," Bologna, 1871.
;
TOMBS. 357
the same, and the means used for attaining that end
same all the world over. Take for ex-
are radically the
ample the Aymaras, the most ancient race of Bolivia
and Callao they laid their dead sometimes beneath
;
megalithic monuments (Fig. 58, p. 178) resembling the

dolmens of Europe, sometimes beneath towers or chul-
pas, which are however probably of more recent date.
Ohulpas, generally of square or rectangular form,
consist of a mass of
unhewn stones faced
outside with blocks
of trachyte or basalt,
painted red, yellow, or
white. A very low
door, always facing
east, as if in honor of
the rising sun, gives
access to a cist in
which the dead was
laid. The chulpa of
our illustration (Fig.
105) is situated near
the village of Palca;
it rises from an exca-
vation four feet deep
FlG -
IOS — Chul P a near Palca -
its height about sixteen feet, and the cornice consists

is
of ichu, a coarse grass which grows in abundance on the

mountains, and which after being firmly compressed was
cut with the help of sharp instruments. The human
bones, which were mixed together in the greatest
confusion, made a heap in the sepulchral chamber

more than a foot high.
The mounds of Ohio also cover over sepulchral
:
lambers of a peculiar construction, being often formed

!
round pieces of wood, five to seven feet long by

ire to six inches in diameter ; near the bodies were
laced afew ornaments, chiefly copper ear-rings, shell
3ads,and large flint knives. Most of the skeletons
y on the bare earth but one exception is mentioned
;
.which the ground was paved with mussel shells. A

smarkable discovery has quite recently been made at
loyd (Iowa), the account of which in Natwre for
muary 1, 1891, we will give in the words of
lement Webster " In making a thorough explora-
:
on of the larger mound . . . the remains of five

iman bodies were found, the bones even those of the
agers, toes, etc., being, for the most part in a good
ate of preservation. First, a saucer or bowl-shaped
rcavation has been made, extending down three and
iree-quarter below the surface of the ground
feet
'ound the mound, and the bottom of this maca-
amized with gravel and fragments of limestone. In
le centre of this floor five bodies were placed in a
tting posture with the feet drawn under them, and
)parently facing the north. First above the bodies
as a thin layer of earth and ashes, among which were
und two or three small pieces of fine-grained charcoal,
early all the remaining four feet of earth had been
langed to a red color by the long-continued action of
e." Mr. Webster goes on to describe the various
:eletons and says of one of them, that of a woman
The bones in their detail of structure indicated a
srson of low grade, the evidence of unusual muscular
ivelopment being strongly marked. The skull of
is personage was a wonder to behold, it equalling if
)t rivalling in some respects and in inferiority of grade,

TOMBS. 359
the famous Neanderthal skull. The forehead, if fore-

head it could be called,
very low, lower and more
is
animal-like than in the Neanderthal specimen. . . .
Fig. 106. — Dolmen at Auvernier near the Lake of Neuchatel.
The question has been raised how was it that these

five bodies were all buried here at the same time,
their bodies being still in the flesh." . . . Webster
adds that the probability is that all but one of the
had been sacrificed at the death of that one, who had

most likely been a chief.
We have seen that men began by placing the bodies
of their dead in caves, and only later took to burying
them underground when caves were not to be had.
Very often the corpse was placed between large un-
hewn stones to keep off from it the weight of the
tumulus above. Such were the last resting-places alike
of the men of Solutr6 and of those of Merovingian times.
In the necropolis of Vilanova, which is supposed to
date from times prior to the foundation of Rome, the
tombs enclosed a chest, the walls of which consisted of
slabs of sandstone set on edge and connected by a con-
glomerate of small stones. At Marzabotto, the chests
are made and placed beneath a heap of peb-
of bricks,
bles. We reproduce a chest discovered near the Lake
Dwellings of Auvernier in Switzerland (Fig. 106) 'and
another (Fig. 107) brought to light by MM. Siret in
the south of Spain. These drawings will help us bet-
ter than long descriptions to form an idea of this mode
of burial.
In other cases the dead body was enclosed in earthen-
ware jars. At Biskra in Algeria, two of these jars were
found together the one containing the head, the other
;
the feet of the departed. In some instances the jar

was replaced by a large clumsy earthenware basin, some
six and a half feet long by three feet wide. Such basins
are mentioned as having been found near Athens, but
there is nothing to help us to determine their date.
1
Gross :
" Les Proto-Helvetes." Morel-Fatio : "Sepultures des Populations
Lacustres de Chamblandes. " As at Auvernier, a great many bears' tusks were
found lying near the dead, which may possibly also have had something to do
with a funeral rite.
1UM&S. 3OI
The ancient Iberians used one large jar only (Fig. 108)
in which the dead was placed in a crouching position,
still wearing his favorite ornaments. The vase was
closed with a stone cover and placed in the tomb. We
meet with the practice of a similar mode of interment
in historic times. The Chaldeans placed their dead in
earthenware vases; two jars connected at the neck
serving as a coffin. Excavations in Nebuchadnezzar's
Fir,. 107. — A stone chest used as a sepulchre.

palace brought to light bodies bent nearly double and
enclosed in urns not more than three feet in height by
about two feet in width. On the western coast of Mala-
bar, as far as Cape Comorin, we find near megalithic
tombs large jars four feet high by three feet in diameter
filledwith human bones. This mode of sepulture was
practised at Sfax,in the Chersonesus of Thracia, and at
the foot of the hill on which Troy was built. The tu-
mulus of Hanal-Tepeh covered over a huge amphora in

which crouched a skeleton, and the wealthy Japanese
loved to know they would rest in huge artistically
decorated vases, masterpieces of native pottery. If we
cross the Atlantic, we meet with the same custom in
Peru, Mexico, and on the shores of the Mississippi.
At Teotihuacan, the bodies of children were placed
1
head downwards in funeral urns, and excavations in
the alluvial deposits of the Mississippi yielded, among

immense quantities of pottery, two huge rectangular
basins glued together with clay and containing the
body young child.
of a It is indeed interesting to meet
with the same practice in so many different places and
to find the genius of many races expressing itself in
the same way in so many diverse inventions, produced
at times so widely separated.
It is probable that early man also turned to account
the trees he saw growing around him, using them as
coffins for his dead. But the rapid decay of this
fragile case led to its total disappearance. A few ex-
ceptions must, however, be mentioned. In 1840 some
dredgers took from the bed of the Saone, at Apre-
mont, from beneath a bed of gravel five feet thick,
the trunk of a tree which still contained the bones
thathad been placed in it. Similar discoveries were
made in the Cher, and in the celebrated cemetery of
Hallstadt, near Salzburg. The cairns of Scania cov-
ered over split trunks of oak and birch trees, which
had been hollowed out to receive the dead. At Gris-
thorpe, near Scarborough, in England, a coffin was
found made of scarcely squared planks roughly put
together and another very like it was discovered at
;
1
D. Charnay : North American Review, January, l88l.
III!
Hove, in Sussex, the latter containing a splendid am-

ber cup, evidence of the wealth of the man who had
1
been buried in this primitive coffin.
The ancient Caledonians sewed up their dead in the
skins of oxen before burying them. The Egyptians
also embalmed the ibis, the ox, the cat, the crocodile,
and other animals deified by them, and the bodies of
these creatures were then placed in vast subterranean
chambers, where they have been discovered in the
present day in great numbers. The Gruanches of
Teneriffe, the last representatives of the Iberians, and
probably the most ancient race of Europe, took out
the intestines of the corpse, dried the body in the air,
painted with a thick varnish, and finally wrapped

it
it in the skin of a goat. This last custom was evi-

dently a relic of the original idea of embalming, with
a view to rendering the mummy as nearly as possible
indestructible use a happy expression of
and, to
Michelet, to compel death to endure (forcer la mort
de durer). Our own contemporaries are thus able to
look upon the very features of those who preceded
them on the earth some forty centuries ago ; and but
yesterday photography reproduced in every detail
what was once Ramses the Great, one of the most
glorious kings of history.
Embalming was
also practised in America. Recent
travellers reporthaving seen in Upper Peru tombs of
2
the shape of beehives, made of stones cemented with

clay, each tomb containing one mummy or more in a
crouching position (Pigs. 109 and 110). This custom
was still practised for many centuries ; Garcilasso de la
1
Stuart : "The Early Modes of Burial."
2
Vidal Seneze : Bui. Soc. Anth., 1877, p. 561.
365 Fig. log. —Aymara mummy.
Vega tells us that the dead Incas were seated in a temple

at Cuzco, wearing their royal ornaments as if they were
still their hands were crossed upon their breasts,
alive ;
1
and their heads were bending slightly forward.
The facts enumerated above prove that burial was
long practised, though it is impossible to say when it
first came into use. About the time of the beginning
of the Bronze age, or perhaps even earlier, however,
a remarkable change took place in the ideas of man,
and the dead instead of being buried intact were con-
sumed by fire on the funeral pile.
What can have been the origin of this custom?
What race first practised it ? It has long been sup-
posed by many archaeologists that it was the Aryans
from the lofty Hindoo Koosh Mountains who first in-
troduced into Europe a civilization more advanced
than that which had hitherto obtained there, and
taught the people to cremate instead of bury their
dead. This theory was accepted for a considerable
time without question, but of late years a new school,
headed by Peuka, has arisen who claim that the re-
formers came not from the East but from the North.
The Marquis de Saporta had indeed before suggested
that the primitive races who were the contemporaries
of the mammoth and the rhinoceros came originally
from the polar regions, where the remains of a
luxuriant vegetation prove that climatic conditions
prevailed in remote times of a very different character
to those of the present day. The lignites of Iceland
are made up of tulip, plantain, and nut-trees, even the
vine sometimes occurring. In the ferruginous sand-
stones, associated with the carboniferous deposits of
1
" Histoire des Incas," Paris, 1744, chap, xviii.
TOMBS. 367
Spitzberg, the beech, the poplar, the magnolia, the

plum tree, the sequoia, and numerous coniferous trees
can be made out. The sturdy sailors who dare the
regions of perpetual ice come across masses of fossilized
wood in Banks, Grinnell, and Francis Joseph's Lands,
at 88° N. Lat. Among this fossil wood Heer made
out the cypress, the silver pine, the poplar, the birch,
and some dicotyledons with caducous leaves. These
were not relics of wood which had drifted where it
Fig. no.— Peruvian mummies.
was found on floating ice, but of an actual local vege-

tation, as proved by trunks still erect in their original
positions, buds, leaves, and flowers in every stage of
growth, fruits in every stage of ripening. The very
insects that had lived on honey from the flowers or on
the leaves themselves could be identified. In those
remote days, life, abundant life, similar to that now
only found in the temperate countries farther south,
flourished in those polar regions, so long supposed to
have never been anything but lifeless deserts.
All this, plausible as it is, does not, however, appear

k>be conclusive on the point under discussion; and
though we may have to abandon the idea of the
Aryans having introduced cremation, we are scarcely,
[ think, in a position to say that races from the North
were the first to practise it. I have dwelt more fully

ya. the question of the origin of races and the evidence
which language seems to give of a common source in

two papers called " Les Premiers Populations de
['Europe," which appeared in the Correspondent for
October 1 and November 25, 1889. Whatever may
be the final decision on the much contested points
involved in this controversy, one thing is certain that
cremation, involving though it does a complete revolu-
tion in manners and customs, spread with very great

rapidity. We meet with it from Greece to Scotland
and Scandinavia, from Etruria to Poland and the
south of Russia, in China as in Yucatan and certain
parts of Central America.
In the early days of history, cremation was practised
all over Europe. The Greeks attribute its inaugura-
tion to Hercules, and the funeral pile of Patrokles is
described in the Iliad. The Pelasgians and the Proto-

Etruscans burned their dead, x
and we are told of the
incineration of contemporaries of Jair, the third judge
of Israel.
On the other hand, the earliest inhabitants of Latium
buried their dead. Visitors, who probably came by
way of the valley of the Danube, introduced the new
custom, and for a long time the two rites were practised
side by side. At Felsina aud at Marzabotto we find
instances alike of inhumation and cremation, and at
1
Conestabile :
" De l'incineration chez les Etrusques.''
;
TOMBS. 369
Vilanova only half the tombs are those of corpses that

had been cremated. In 365 of the tombs excavated in
the Certosa, near Bologna, only 115 show signs of
cremation having been practised. At Rome, the two
rites were long both performed, probably, however,
by the two distinct peoples who formed the primitive

population of the town of Romulus. We know that
Numa Pompilius forbade the burning of his corpse;
Cicero relates that Marius was buried, and that Sulla,
his fortunate rival,was the first of the Cornelia gens
whose body was committed to the flames. We do not
know how early cremation was introduced in Gaul
we can only say that Caesar found it generally practised
when he made his triumphal march across the country. 1
The celebrated excavationsof Moreau prove that in-

humation and incineration were both practised among
the Gallo-Romans established in the eastern provinces
of France. We may even assert that the two rites were
practised long before the introduction of the use of
metals. One thing is certain, the custom of cremation
was but slowly abandoned as Christianity spread, for
Charlemagne, in an edict dated 789, ordered the punish-
ment of death for those who dared to burn dead bodies.
What we have just said about historic times applies
equally to more remote epochs. Thanks to the learned
researches of Dr. Prunieres 2 we are able to trace for a
great length of time the modes of sepulture adopted in
Lozere. The cave men of the eroded limestone dis-
Les Causses took their dead to the caves in
tricts of
which their ancestors had been laid, and the invaders,

who were probably more civilized than those they
1
A. Bertrand :
" Arch. Celtiqueet Gauloise," Introduction.
8
Ass. frartfaise, Nantes, 1875 ; Havre, 1877.
=4
;
37° PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
dispossessed, placed theirs beneath the dolmens which

they erected in their honor. In the sepulchral caves of
Rouquet and of U
Homme Mort we find inhumation
beneath the megalithic monuments dating from the
end of the Neolithic period, we meet with the first
traces of cremation, but so far of a very incomplete

cremation ; the action of the funeral fire had not been
and the bones were hard and resisted the heat.
intense,
Noting beneath certain dolmens a few bones black-
ened by fire mixed with large quantities unaffected by
it, one is inclined to think with the learned Doctor,
that after practising cremation men had reverted to
the old mode of burial. In the tumuli of the Bronze
age, on the other hand, where the date can be deter-
mined with the aid of the ornaments and trinkets scat-
ered about, the ustion was more complete the bones ;
are friable and porous, crumbling into dust when

touched, and there is nothing to indicate that inhuma-
tion and cremation were both practised.
"It is strange indeed to find that incineration was
practised from Neolithic times in the wild moun-
tains of Lozere. There can be no doubt on the point,
however, and excavations beneath the dolmen of Mar-
connieres strikingly confirm the earlier discoveries
of Dr. Prunieres. Beneath a layer of broken stones
and a very thin pavement, was found a mass of human
bones in the greatest confusion some still retaining
;
their natural color, others blackened and charred by

fire. Among up an arrow of
these bones was picked
rock foreign to the country, three admirably polished
lance-heads, and some finely cut flint-darts. The dol-
men contained no metal objects, and there was no
trace of metal on any of the bones.
TOMBS. 371
At the same period the two rites appear to have

been practised simultaneously in Armorica, but there
incineration was the dominant custom. In one hun-
dred and forty-five megalithic monuments supposed to
date from the Neolithic period, seventy-two give proof
of incineration and twenty of inhumation only. The
few cinders, but it was impossible to
others yielded a
come to any definite conclusion. In many cases, as
we have seen, the megalithic monument was sur-
rounded by a double or triple enceinte of stones
without mortar. Inside these enceintes were some
small circular structures made of stones reddened
by the action of heat. In the lower part of these
structures were openings to admit a current of air
to fan the flames. These strange structures, full of
cinders and black greasy earth, bear the significant
name of Ruches de Cremation} Of thirty-nine sepul-
chres of the Bronze age twenty-seven gave evidence
of incineration, two of inhumation, whilst ten decided
nothing one way or the other. 8 The dolmen of Mont
St.-Michel and that of Tumiac are separated by a
short distance only; they were erected by the same
race and probably about the same period, yet at Mont
St.-Michel we find incineration, while inhumation was
practised at Tumiac. How explain this difference in
funeral customs ? Does it imply a diversity of race,
of caste, of religion, or of social position, or may ifc
not rather be explained as being merely the result of

those later displacements which upset the most careful
reasoning ?
1
Luco : "Exposition de Trois Monuments Quadrilateres par feu James Miln,"
Vannes, 1883.
"P. du Chatellier : "Mem. Soc. d'Emulation des C6tes-du-Nord, " Saint
Brieuc, 1883.
Whatever may have been the cause of the different

lodes of burial, we meet with them in every country.
In Scandinavia, during the Bronze age, cremation and
urial were practised in about equal proportions,
imilar facts are noticed in Germany, but in the North
icineration predominates, while in the West it is in-
umation. Beneath the cairns of Caithness in Scotland,

re find some bodies lying at full length, while others
re in a bent position, and large jars of coarse pottery
lied with cinders and calcined bones which had be-
Dnged to men of medium height. One of the largest
f these jars is fifteen or sixteen inches high by forty-
1
ine wide at its largest part. In excavating the
•arrows of the Orkney Islands, Petrie noted the prac-
ice of both modes of buriaP; but were those buried
n manners so different contemporaries ? This is what
ve are not told, and what we have to find out.
At Blend owo in Poland, beneath a cromlech was

ound an urn filled with calcined bones, and thirty cen-
imetres lower down a skeleton was discovered buried
n the sand. Near this body was found a coin of
Theodosius, and we wonder in vain whether both the
ndividuals, whose remains are thus within a common
omb, lived at the same time. Throughout Prussia
md in the Grand Duchy of Posen skeletons and jars
lontaining human ashes are met with in the same
iombs.
3
We must not forget to note," especially, the
lecropolis of Hallstadt, which was situated in the
leart of the district of Bohemia occupied by the Boii.
1
Proceedings Soc, Anth. of Scotland, January II, 1886.
2 "On the Ancient Modes of Sepulchre in the Orkneys" {British Association,
877).
8
Kohn and Mehlis :
'
' Ztir Vorgeschichte des Menschen im Ostlichen Europa,

1 '
ena, 1879.
:
tombs. 373
The most ancient of the tombs in these vast burial-

places date from about two thousand years before the
Christian era, and the Hallstadtian period, as it is
sometimes called, culminated during the first half of

the millennium immediately before the coming of
1
Christ. Nine hundred and ninety-three tombs have
been excavated all, to judge by the objects found with
;
the human remains, belonging to the Bronze age; of

these five hundred and twenty-seven contained buried
bodies, and four hundred and fifty-three cremated
2
relics. This is a larger proportion than in the primi-
tive necropoles of Italy.
In the tombs in which burial was practised, the
bodies were laid in the trench without covering, and
the remains of anything in the way of slabs or coffins
or protecting planks are very rare ; in those tombs in
which cremation had been the rule, ustion had often
been very incomplete, sometimes the head and some-
times the feet having escaped the flames.
Similar facts are noted at Watsch, at San Margare-
then, at Vermo in Styria, at Rovesche in Southern
and
Carniola, and at Rosegg in the valley of the Drave.
At Watsch, but ten skeletons were found, among two
hundred examples of incineration. In the cremation
sepulchres, if we may so call them, the cinerary urn
was protected by large slabs while in those where;
burial was practised, the bodies were simply confided

to the earth as at Hallstadt but by a singular contrast,
;
the latter tombs contained much more important

1
Hochstetter " Die neueste Graber Funde von Watsch. und S. Margarethen
:
und der Kultur Kreiss der Hallstadter Period," Wien, 1883. Siebenter
" Bericht der Prehistorischen Commission," Wien, 1884.
2
In these tombs were found 64 gold objects, 5,574 bronze, 593 iron, 270
A. Bertrand Rev. d Ethnographic, 1883.
amber, 73 glass, and 1,813 terra-cotta. :
the objects with the dead being more valuable

relics,
and of finer workmanship. At Rovesche, the urn was

placed in a square chest made of unhewn stones. The
buried bodies lay with the head turned toward the
east, an urn was placed at their feet, and their shrouds
were kept in place by bronze fibulae, while on the

fingers were many rings of the same metal.
Lastly, to conclude this gloomy catalogue, excava-
tions in the mounds of Ohio and Illinois have shown
1
that there too cremation and inhumation are met with

in sepulchreswhich everything tends to assign to the
same race and the same period.
2
The sepulchral crypts
of Missouri contain several skeletons which had been
subjected to intense heat. The human bones were
mixed with the remains of animals, fragments of char-
coal, and pieces of pottery, with some flint weapons.
In a neighboring mound excavations revealed no trace
of cremation the bodies were stretched out upon the
;
ground, and those who discovered them picked up near

them a valuable collection of flints and of carefully
made pottery. There is however nothing to show
whether those who buried and those who burnt their
dead belonged to the same race or lived at the same
time. Cremation long survived among the most
savage tribes of Alaska and California, where it is still
practised, and the Indians of Florida preserve the
ashes of their fathers in human skulls. In California,
the relations of the deceased covered their faces with
a thick paste of a kind of loam mixed with the ashes
of the dead, and were compelled to wear this sign of
their grief until it fell off naturally.
1
Smithsonian Report, 1 88 1.
!
Putnam, xii. and xx. Reports of the Peabody Museum.
TOMBS. 375
Although we meet with the burial of the dead either

in a recumbent or a crouching position, everywhere the
minor ceremonies connected with death are innumera-
ble each people, each race, indeed, having its own cus-
;
tom, handed down from one generation to another, and

piously preserved intact by each successive family.
Feasting was from the earliest times a feature of the
funeral ceremonies. An Charlemagne forbids
edict of
eating and drinking on the tombs of the deceased, and
Saint Boniface, the apostle of Germany, complains bit-
terly that the priests encouraged by their presence
these feasts of death. We meet with the same kind
of thing among the lower classes at the present day,
and the cemeteries of Paris are surrounded with cafes
and wine shops, where too often grief is drowned in
wine. The custom of holding these feasts really comes
down from the earliest inhabitants of Europe, and the
savage cave man gorged himself with food upon the
tombs of those belonging to him. At Aurignac, in the
cave of JDHomme Mart, in the Trou du Frontal,
broken bones and fragments of charcoal bear witness
to the repast. Similar traces of feasts are met with
beneath the dolmens and the tumuli. From the Long
Barrows have been taken the skulls and feet of bovidae,
and it is probable that the other parts of the body had
been devoured by the assistants, and that the head and
feet were placed in the tomb as an offering either to
the dead or to the divinities who are supposed to have
presided at the death. In the ancient sepulchres of
Wiltshire Sir R. Colt Hoare picked up the bones of
boars, stags, sheep, horses, and dogs which he too con-
;
sidered were the remains of funeral feasts.

Were feasts the only ceremonies connected with in-
— ;
7& PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
3rments ? We think not. The body was often placed

1 the centre of the sepulchral chamber, and around it
rere ranged the wives, servants, and slaves of the de-

eased, condemned to follow their chief into the un-
nown world to which he had gone. Beneath a dol-
len of Algeria was found a crouching skeleton with
wo crania lying at his feet, which crania had doubtless
ielonged to victims immolated in his honor. The
narrows of Great Britain preserve traces of human
acrifices, and Caesar says in speaking of the Gauls:
Their funerals are magnificent and sumptuous.
Everything supposed to have been dear to the de-
unct during his was flung upon the funeral pile
life
ven his animals were sacrificed, and until quite

ecently his slaves and the dependants he had loved
l
vere burnt with him."
The facts we have been noticing prove that early
lan cherished hopes of immortality. All was not ended
or him with death; a new life commences beyond
—
he tomb, marked for his ideas could go no farther
>y joys similar to those he had known on earth, and
vents such as had occurred during his life. What
Ise could be the meaning of the weapons, the tools of
lis craft, with food placed near the de-
the vases filled
unct, the ornaments and colors intended for his adorn-

aent, the wives, slaves, and horses flung into the same
omb or consumed upon the same pile ? It is pleasing
o find this supreme hope among our remote ances-
ors and clumsily as it was expressed, it implies a be-
;
ief in a being superior to man, a protecting divinity

ccording to some, but according to some few others a
1
" De Bello Gallico," book vi., cap. xix. Consult also Pomponius Mela:
De Situ Orbis," book iii., cap. ii.
tombs. 377
malignant and tyrannical spirit. The proofs so far to

hand are not enough to justify us in seriously asserting
that ancestors were worshipped by prehistoric man.
But the subject is too important for us to refrain from
putting before the reader such indications of this wor-
ship as have been collected,
and which are necessarily
connected with the moral and material condition of
our remote ancestors.
The radius of a mammoth was discovered at Chaleux,
occupying a place of honor on a large sandstone slab
near the hearth. The Chaleux Cave dates from the
Reindeer period ; at which time the mammoth had long
since been extinct in Belgium, so that there can be no
doubt that the cave man had taken this bone from the
alluvial deposits of the preceding epoch, and this huge
relic of an unknown creature had been the object of
his veneration, a lar or protective divinity of his home.

A somewhat similar fact was discovered at Laugerie-
Basse and, by a strange coincidence, certain tribes of
North America of the present day preserve the bone
of a mastodon or of a cetacean in their huts as a pro-
homes.
tection to their
From Paleolithic times men were in the habit of
cutting celts or hatchets in chalk, bitumen, and other
fragile substances, which were certainly of no practical
use. Thousands of similar objects in harder rock, but
showing no sign of wear or tear, have also been found,
and there is little doubt that they all alike served as
amulets. This superstitious respect for certain objects
lasted for many centuries, and was handed down from
one generation to another. The tombs of the Bronze
and Iron ages are often found to contain flint hatchets,
some of them broken intentionally, a proof, as I have

already said, that they were connected with funeral

rites of the nature of which we are ignorant.
We also find votive hatchets beneath dolmens. By
the side of some skeletons at Cissbury lay flint celts.
A hatchet one and a quarter feet long was found in

a Lake Station of Switzerland. It was of such friable
rock that it can have been of no use but as a
symbol; perhaps, indeed, it may have been a badge*
of office. Lastly, Merovingian tombs contain hundreds
of small flint celts, the last pious offerings to the
departed. 1
We find hatchets engraved on the megalithic monu-
ments of Brittany, on the walls of the caves of Marne,
and we meet with them again on the other side of the
Atlantic, evidently bearing the same signification, im-
plying respect for them as means of protection. De
Longperier has published a description of a Chaldean
cylinder, on which was represented a priest presenting
his offering to a hatchet lying on a throne, and a ring
was picked up at Mykenae, on the stone of which was
engraved a double-bladed celt. We find the same idea
in many different mythologies. The word Nowter
(God) is translated in Egyptian hieroglyphics by a
sign resembling a celt, and the hatchet of Odin is
engraved on the rocks of Kivrik. On a number of
Gallo-Roman cippi, we find a hatchet beneath which
we read the words, Dis Manibus, and lower down the
dedication, Sub Ascia dedicavit. At all times and
everywhere the hatchet appears as the emblem of
force, and is the object of the respect of the people.
1
In his fruitful excavations of Gallic, Gallo-Roman, and Merovingian tombs,
Moreau collected no less than 31,515 flint celts or hatchets, which had evidently-
been votive offerings. See Album de Caranda :
'
' Fouilles de Sainte Restitute,
de Trugny, d'Armentiere, d'Arcy, de Brenny," etc.
TOMBS. 379
The tradition of its value and importance is handed

down from ancestors to descendants throughout many-
generations.
May we give a religious interpretation to the basins
and cups hollowed out on rocks and erratic blocks and
on the so-called Roches Moutonnees, with other monu-
Fig. hi. —Erratic block from Scania, covered with carvings.

ments that have endured for many centuries (Figs.
Ill and 112) ? Or must we attribute them merely to
passing caprice ? Their number and importance we
think forbid the latter idea. We find such blocks in
Switzerland, in England, France, Italy, Portugal, and
on the frozen shores of the Baltic. They are no less
numerous in India, and they figure in the curious picto-

graphs of the two Americas. There is no doubt that
we have here a common idea, and one it is impossible
not to recognize. How else can we account for the
similarity of arrangement in the cup-shaped sculptures
Fig. 112. —Engraved rock from Massibert (Lozere).

from the tumuli of Schleswig-Holstein and those on
the Indian rocks of Kamaou, or between those of
Algeria and of England ?
In Brittany and in Scotland these cup-like sculp-
tures are found on rocks and menhirs, on the walls of
TOMBS. 381
sepulchral chambers, on stones forming the sides of

Mstvcens, accompanied in many instances with radi-
ated circles, which do not, however, help us to under-
stand them better. In Scandinavia they are known as
Elfen Stenars, or elf stones, and the inhabitants come
and place offerings on them for the Little People.
Accorling to a touching tradition, these little people
are souls awaiting the time of their being clothed once
more in human flesh. In Belgium these strangely
decorated stones are attributed to the JVutons, dwarfs
who are very helpful to mortals. In every country
there is some legend sacred to the sculptured stones.
Such are the only facts we have been able to collect
respecting the religious feeling of prehistoric races.
They are not sufficient to authorize any final conclu-
sion on the subject. At every turn we are compelled
to admit our helplessness. But yesterday this past
without a limit was absolutely unknown to us, and
to-day we are but beginning to be able to obtain a
glimpse into its secrets. We
have been the laborers of
the first hour, it will be for those who come after us
to complete the task we have been able but to begin.
May a genuine love of truth be to them, as we may
justly claim it has been to us, the only guide.
;;
INDEX.
Abbeville, II, 14, 77 Alignments, 188-194; of menhirs in

Abbott, on discoveries on the Dela- Northern India of present day, 222 ;
ware, 39 in Kermario group, 224

Abruzzi, the, 162 Alpes-Maritimes, enceintes of, 286
Acora (Peru), 178 Altamira cave (Santander), 122
Acorns, 151, 158 Alt-Sammit, 216
Acrotiri, island of, prehistoric houses Amber beads, 109 yellow amber from ;
under volcanic ashes, 311 tombs of Switzerland and

Baltic in
Acy, d', on earliest tools and weapons, Franco, 246 in Aurensan Cave;
82, 84 (Bagneres-de-Bigorre), 247 amber ;
/Egean Sea, volcanic eruption in, cup at Hove, 364

308-316 Amelia Island, 142
Africa, Stone age in, 30 ; human America, Mound Builders and Cliff
bones in, 45 ; Lake dwellings of, Dwellers of, 3 copper implements ;
165 from mounds of, 21 antiquity of, ;
Central, pile dwellings in, 145 38 ;

prehistoric races, 39 ; edentate
North, dolmens the work of a and pachydermatous mammals, 39 ;
powerful race, 196; see also "Al- fortifications, earthworks, temples,

geria," " Morocco," and "Tunisia." and sepulchres of, 40 shell heaps ;
South, pottery and worked flints of, 40 stone weapons and pottery
;
in, 34 of Mound Builders, 41 ; cannibalism

Aggetelk (Hungary), 93 in,57 pachyderms of 57 fishing-
; , ;
Ainos, the, 29, 90, 266 tackle in, 63-65 absence of Chel- ;
Alabama, kitchen-middings of, 142 leen implements in caves of, 139

Alaska, Quaternary mammals of, 66 kitchen-middings in, 140-142 ; fish
Algeria, Stone age

32 in, ; dolmens food 143 horses extinct in, on
in, ;
and cromlechs, 33, 180 ; mammoth arrival of Spaniards, 157 tumuli ;
in, 57 ; ancient towers, 171 ; covered in, great numbers of worked

176 ;
avenues, 188 ; a field for research, stones in, 234 ; instances of trepana-
megaliths djedas of, tion in, 267-270 colossal earthen
195 ; of, 196 ;
;
198 ; dolmens with circular open- fortifications of Mound Builders,
ings, 211; rich in stone implements, 296, 297 ;

brick buildings in, 320
practice of trepanation in, similar modes of sepulture to those
234 ;
cup- in Europe, 350 practice of em-

266 ; funeral jars of, 360 ; ;
stones in, 380 balming in, 364 cup-stones in, 380 ;
383
384 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES,
Amiens, n, 14 complete transformation, the mega-

Amphora;, 330 ceros, mammoth, cave-bear, and
Amulets, see " Ornaments." large felidse died out, domestic
Anchors, 77 animals, ox, sheep, goat, and dog
Ancress (Jersey), 216 appear, 86 ; no domestic animals
Ancerty Point, 142 in Scandinavia, 137 earliest found
;
Angami-Nagas, the, of Northern in Lake Stations, 156 ; Lake fauna

India, 222 of Switzerland, 156, 157 ; prog-
Animals of Stone age extinct in ress of domestication, 157 ; mouse,
France, 11 ;
edentate and pachy- rat, cat, and horse rare in pile
dermatous mammals of America, dwellings, 157 Lake village of;
39 ; animals used for food, 47 ;

Nidau, wild animals rare, 157 horse ;
plentiful as in South Africa at extinct in America, 158 ; domestic

present time, 55 ;
Quaternary ani- animals of terremares, 159 wild ;
mals in Europe, 56 ; tiger, elephant, animals very rare, 159 Neolithic ;
rhinoceros, and hippopotamus in animals in megalithic monuments,

British Isles, 56 ;
great number of 222 ; boar, ox, sheep, and goat in
bears, 56, 57 ; mammoth from Troy, horse and dog rare, cat un-
North Europe to Greece, Spain, known, 329 ; hippopotamus still
and Algeria, 57 in Asia from ; known, 331

Altai Mountains to Arctic Ocean, Anise, 315
57 ; America, in Mexico and
in Ankerstein, 77
Kentucky, mastodon in extreme Anlas, of Portugal, 179
North, Sonora and Columbia, 57 ;
Apples at Lagozza, 151 ; in Lake
cervidas in Gourdan Cave and at Stations, Switzerland, 158
Hohlefels incalculable, 57 horses ; Arabia, cromlechs in, 181
at Lunel-Viel and Solutre, 57 ;
Arcelin, on Nile valley deposits, 30
horse-walls, 58 ; no domestic ani- on Boulder clays of Great Brit-
mals, 58 ; from Moustier Cave ain, 130
(Dordogne), mammoth, Rhinoceros on manufacturing centre at
tichorhinus, elk, horse, aurochs, Kalabshee, 240
cave-lion, -hyena, and -bear; Elephas Arctic fox, 253
antiquus and Rhinoceros Merckii Ardkellin Lough, crannoge at, 163
died out, 84 reindeer appears, 85
;
;
Argent (Basses-Alpes), 99
reindeer characteristic of Madeleine Argenteuil, 188
period, 86 ; mastodon, mammoth, Ariege, 92
rhinoceros, and cave-lion at Hohle- Arrayolos (Portugal), 178
fels, 96 ; at Ratisbon, hyenas, bears, Arrows, see " Weapons and Tools."
and lions, 96 ; Ursus spelaus at Art of prehistoric man at Sydney and
Nabrigas Cave, 99 ; seal in cave Easter Island, 36-38 ; staves of
near Perigueux of Quaternary office 113 seals and eels
carved, ;
period, 116 ;
Quaternary animals carved on staff, 116 geometrical ;
extinct in kitchen-middings, 143 ;

designs on 16 numer-
ivory, 1 ;
in Lake Stations, 156 ; in mega- ous engravings on stone and bone,

lithic monuments, 222 118, 119 ; art of cave-men at
of Neolithic period underwent its zenith, 120 ; only found in
INDEX. 385
South France, and at Thayngen Baltic Sea, shores of, cup-stones on,
Cave, 120, 121 found with Qua-
;
379
ternary animals, 122 ; carvings of Baousse-Rousse caves (Mentone, 49,
human figure rare, 122-125 ; colored 105, 108, 135, 345
designs from Pyrenees, 126; carved Barbs, invention of, go
and painted 134 Sweno's
flints, ; Barley, 151, 158, 315
pillar (Scotland), 185 carved and ; Barry Hill, vitrified fort at, 301
engraved dolmens, 207-209 ; colored Barton Mere, Lake Station of, 154
ornamentation at prehistoric house JBasina, 171
at Santorin, 311 ; vases covered Baume-Chaude caves, 249, 258, 275
with arabesques and garlands of Bear, 56, 57, 84, 86, 96, 138
fruit and flowers. 312, 315 ; art in Bear's Point, 142
Troy, 337 Beech, 367
ryan race, 286, 339, 366, 368 Beech-nuts, 158
.sia, Stone age in, 27-30 Bekour-Noz, 179
.sia Minor, gigantic bones found in, Belgium, pile dwellings in, 26 ; can-
5 ; manufacturing centre in Stone nibalism in, 50 ;
great number of
age, 240 bears in caves of, 57 ; harpoons
.ssyria, cromlechs in, 188 from, 65 ; objects made of reindeer
.tavism,349 antler, pottery from, 97 ; pieces
93 ;
.T water, on fortifications at Old of jet and ivory plaques from caves,

Fort (Kentucky), 299 107 ; importance of discoveries in
.umede dolmen, 250 caves of, 233 ; cup-stones in, 381
.urensan Cave, 247 Bellehaye (Normandy), 213
lUrignac Cave, 47, 131 Berbers, the, 196
lUrochs, 47, 84, 122, 132 Bertrand, on diversity of develop-
Lustralia, probable appearance of man ment in human races, 20 on mega- ;
before the continent attained its liths of France, 194 ; on enceintes

present configuration, 35 cromlechs ; of France, 283
in, 181 practice of trepanation in,
;
Betula alba, 150
277 Bienne Lake, 145, 265, 288
LUStria, Lake Stations of, 25, 151-153 Birch, 367
Lvebury, cromlechs of, 182-184, 22 4 Birds, bones of, 24 ; Dinornis of New
Lvening, 213 Zealand, 35 remains of birds rarer
;
Lvenues, covered, 188-194, 197 ; see than of animals, 48 great numbers ;
also " Megalithic Monuments." in caves of France, and at Baousse-

Ivenue des Mureaux, 261 Rousse, 49 moor-fowl, partridge,
;
ivrigny (Seine-et-Marne), 261 wild duck, and domestic fowl in

lymaras, the, of Bolivia and Callao, Gourdan Cave, 49 thrush, duck, ;
357 partridge, and pigeon in Frontal

Lztalan (Wisconsin), 320 Cave, goose, swan, and grouse in
LZtecs, the, 18, 42 other caves, 49 birds from kitchen- ;
middings, 60 ; of Scandinavia, 138 ;
ialance-stones, 207 wading birds in Brittany, 140',
ialearic Islands, talayoti of, 165 ;

ostrich eggs at prehistoric workshop
nanetas of, 170 in Algeria, 234 ; wild swan and wild
" "
goose in Troy, 329 also represen- ; Brixham, 48

tations of the owl, 331 a large ; Broca, on hunting implements, 48
bird in sepulchral cave, 351 on resemblance between dolmens
Bize Cave (Narbonne), 10 of Europe, Africa, and America, 225
Black Sea, dolmens near, 179 dol- ; on trepanation, 258, 268, 274,
mens with circular openings, 211 276
Blanchard, on origin of New Zea- Bronze age, the, 19, 148, 258-260,
land, 35 294. 334
Boar, 47, 137, 329 Bronze, the first metal generally used,
'
Boats, 68, 70-76. See also ' Canoes. 64 in terremares, 160 weapons at
; ;
Boetticher, on Hill of Hissarlik, 342 Stonehenge, 184 in megaliths of

;
Bohemia, trepanation in, 265 vitri- ; France, 218 bronze beads, 258
; ;
301
fied forts in, idols,296 bronze in Troy, 334
;
Bone and horn implements, go ; from Bruniquel Cave, 50, 51, 59, 92, in,
sepulchral mounds, 93 351, 354
Bones of animals, 47-49, 55-59 Buccinum, 141
birds, 24, 35, 48, 49, 60, 140, 329 Buckland, Miss, on resemblance
fish, 59, 60. See also " Kitchen- between relics from Cornwall and
middings. Mycenae, 248
human, 36, 45, 49-52, 59, 249-256 Buenos Ayres, earthen dwellings near,
Bos longifrons, from Lake Station at covered with carapace of glyptodon,
Kew, 155 128, 129
Boucher de Perthes, on contem- Burghs of Scotland, 165, 166
poraneity of men with extinct ani- Burgwallen of Germany, 154
mals, 11-15 Burial-Mounds of Oberea, 36 ; of
Bougon dolmen, 262 Otaheite, 36
Bouicheta Cave, 131 Burial of chiefs in dolmens, 258
Boule, on early mining, 242 Burial of dead and cremation, 368-
Bou-Merzoug, 197 374. See also " Sepulture."
Brachycephalic skull, 324 Burmah, 16
Brandenburg, 44 Burtneek, Lake, 139
Brandon (Suffolk), flint quarries at, Bury St. Edmunds, Lake Station near,
237, 241, 242 155
Brazil, 17, 38, 53 Buvards, earliest habitations, 127, 128
Bream, 60 Bytchiskala, 265
Breton dolmens, 215
British Isles, fauna of, in Quaternary Cabul, valley of, 201, 226
times, 56 ; bronze and iron objects Caches, 64, 235
in, 219 Ccesar's Camp, 285
Brittany, dolmens in, 180 ; menhirs Csesar's Table, 185
in, 185 ; alignments in, 194 ;
great Cairns, 180, 220, 302
number of menhirs, 194 ; highest Caledonians, the, 364
development of dolmens in, 214 ;
California, fishing-tackle used in, 63
dolmens, 214, 215; hatchets
relics in Camp des cayeux, 236
engraved on megalithic monuments Camper, on extinction of races, 6
of, 378 Camps. See " Enceintes."
;
INDEX. 38;
Canada, 40, 44 Castione, 160

Canche, 140 Castle Spynie, vitrified fort at, 301,
Cannibalism, of cave-men, 49 ;
prac- 302
tised in Belgium, 50 burnt ; human Castle Wellan, 178
bones in Reggio Cave, 51 human ; Castrum Gredonense, 286
bones fractured in same way as Cat, rare in pile dwellings, 157 ; un-
animals for food, 51 at Montes- ; known in Troy, 329
quieu-Avant.es a hearth covered Catenoy (Oise), camp of, 284, 285
with human bones, 52 gnawed ;
Caucasus, the, 52, 213, 219
human bones from Kent's Hole of Causses, les, 246
Stone age, 52 ; similar finds in Cave-bear, 344 -hyena, 116,
253, ;
Scotland, Portugal, Denmark, the 344 -lion, 96, 116, 253, see also
;
Caucasus, near Jerusalem, in Amer- " Animals"

ica, 52, 53 barbarity of Mexican
; Cave-men, see " Man, prehistoric."
sacrifices, 54 ; evidence of canni- Caves, remains of men and animals in,
balism in Trou d'Argent Cave, 253 at San Ciro (Palermo), 6 at Hoxne ;
Canoes, 69, 71-73, 164 (Suffolk), 9 ; at Nabrizas Cave, 10

Canstadt race, the, 344 near Cracow, 24 near Madrid, 26 ; ;
Carl, on fossil bones, 6 at Santander, 27 near Nahr el ;
Carnac, 193, 194, 205, 219, 223 Kelb, 28 ; Cave of Hercules (Mo-
Caroline Islands, pile dwellings in, 145 rocco), 33 ; of Sureau (Belgium),
Carp, 60 47 of Aurignac (France), 47
; ; at
Cartailhac, on discoveries in Portu- Brixham, 48 at Thayngen, 48 ; ; at
gal, 27 Chaleux, 48 ; at Moustier, 48 ; at

on similarity of implements at Gourdan, 48 ; at Frontal, 49 ; caves
different periods, 88 of France, 49 ; of Baousse-Rousse
on circular openings in dolmens, (Mentone), 49 of the Lesse, 50 of ; ;
214 Reggio, 50 of Lourdes, Gourdan,

;
on contents of dolmen of Grailhe, and Bruniquel, 51; of Montesquieu-

215 Avantes, 52 ; of Kent's Hole (Tor-
on builders of megalithic monu- quay), and Cesareda (Portugal), 52 ;
ments, 224 of the Caucasus, 52 ; of Sentenheim

on early mining, 247 (Alsace), 56 ; of Kiilock, 57 ; of
on trepanation, 263 Lherm, Belgium, Germany, Hun-
on citanias, 292 gary, and Gourdan, 57 at Eyzies, ;
on the swastika, 341 and Nabrigas, 58 of the Vezere, ;
Carved and engraved dolmens, 207-210 59 ;at Madeleine, Eyzies, and

Carved rocks at Sydney and Easter Bruniquel, 59 Madeleine, 60, 65 ; ;
Island, 36 of South of France, Belgium, and

Carvings, see " Art of prehistoric Keyserloch (Germany), 65; at Kent's
man." Hole, and near Settle (Yorkshire),
CASTELFRANCO, on pile dwelling at 66 ; at Hoxne, 83 ; at Marsoulas,
Lagozza, 150 Picard, Eyzies, Laugerie-Basse,

Castellet Cave, 252 Bruniquel, Massat, the Madeleine,
Castellieri of Istria, 172 and Ariege, 92 ; at Kent's Hole,
Castelnuovo de Sotto, 162 93 ; at Aggetelk (Hungary), 93 ;
;
at Gourdan, 95 at Engis, 97 ; ;
Chaleux Cave, 48, 103, 105, 233, 377
Frontal, 99 Argent (Basse-Alpes)
; Chalks Cave (Savoy), 252
and Nabrigas, 99 at Chaleux, ; Chamant, 188
103 ; at Spy, 105 ; at Kent's Hole, Chamber's Island, 269
107 ; of Belgium, Roquemaure, Chamois, 47
107 ; of Baousse-Rousse, 108 ;
CHAMPOLLION, on monuments of
at Eyzies, Schussenreid, Laugerie- Egypt, 2
Basse, and Chaffaud, 11 1 ; at Chantre, on shell heaps in the Cau-
Cottes, 112 ; of Perigord and casus, 140
Charante, 114 ; at Thayngen, on dolmens of South Russia, 179
114 ; of Chaffaud (Vienna) and on ornaments of dolmens in the
Lortet, 118 ; at Marsoulas and Caucasus, 219
Feyjat, 119 ; at Thayngen, 120 at ; Charante, 114
Goyet and Frontal, 121 at Alta- ; Chassey Camp, 95, 283, 284
mira and Cresswell's Crags (Derby- Chateauvieux, vitrified fort at, 303
shire), 122 at Madeleine, 123
; Chauvaux Cave, 255, 345
absence of Chelleen implements Chelleen period, 83, 84, 129
in caves of America, 129 ; caves in Cherry, 158
Wales in Glacial deposits, 130; dis- Chierici, on bones from Reggio
tinction between caves of men and Cave, 50
those of animals, 131 ; height of Chierici, terremare of, 161
caves of Massat, Lherm, Moustier, Chili, 44
Bouicheta, Loubens, Sauthenay, China, 16, 77
Eyzies, and Aurignac, 131 ; ooze Chincas, the, 42
in Montgaudier Cave, 132 ; eight Chouchet of Algeria, 171
different deposits in Placard Cave, Chub, 60
132 ; Neolithic caves hollowed out Chulpas of Bolivia, 357
of limestone, 133 ; carvings in Circular openings in dolmens, 211-
Coizard Cave, 134 household ; 214, 346
gods at Courjonnet Cave, 134 ;
Cissbury, Camp at, 288-291, 378
sepulchral caves, 134, 135, 246, Cilanias, 2g2
250, 370 Cliff-Dwellers, 3, 41
Cayanes, 98 Closmadeuc, on Island of Gavr'innis,
Celebes, pile dwellings in, 145 209
Cella, 355 Clothing of prehistoric man, 103
Celts, the, 161, 195 cloth first woven in Neolithic age,
Ceraunia, 5, 16-18, 34 104 ; coarse hempen cloth from
Cervus megaceros^ 59 Lake Stations, Switzerland, 104
Cesareda (Portugal), 52, 255 Cockleshells, 24, 107
Cetati de pamentu of Roumania, 295, Cod, 60
296 Coins, Gallic, 22 ; coins of later date
Ceylon, cromlechs in, 181 than the monuments in which found,
Chaffaud Cave (Vienna), in, 118 220 ; Roman coins at Mane-er-
Chalacayo (Lima), 268 H'roek, Finistere, Locmariaker, in
Chaldeans, the, mode of sepulture of, Gloucestershire and Derbyshire, 220;
silver coins of Caliphs of Bagdad in
;
INDEX. 389
Coins — Continued. Coracles, 70

Scotch barrows, 221 ; Roman coins Coral, 106, 246
atHastedon (Namur), 281 ; at Pont- Coriander, 315
de-Bonn (Namur), 282 ; coin of Cork float, 68 ; cork plug, 71
Theodosius in cromlech at Blen- Corn, 151, 158, 295
dowo (Poland), 372 Cornwall, 184, 213
Coizard Cave, 134 C6tes-du-Nord, 194
CoLANGES, de, on Sepulture, 350 Cottes Cave, 112
Coline des Mulets, enceintes, 287 Couedic, 208
Colombia, gold ornaments in, 338 Coups de poing, 84
Combs of reindeer-horn, 63 ; combs Courjonnet Cave, 134
from Lake Stations, Switzerland, Covered avenues, 188-194 ; see also
146 bone comb from Lagozza, 150
;
" Megalithic Monuments."
Commerce, or barter, birth of, 244 ;
Cracow, caves near, 24 bone imple-
;
shells taken long distances, 244 ;

ments, flints, and pottery found
also hatchets, daggers,and nuclei, near, 233
246 ; and amber, 246
coral and ; Craig Phcedrick, vitrified cairn at, 302
minerals, 247 rapid development
; Crania, of Lake Stations, Switzerland,
of, in Neolithic times, 247 gold ; 254 ; see also " Trepanation."
cups from Cornwall and Mykenje of Crannoges of Scotland and Ireland,
similar workmanship, 248 ; shells, 162-164
mica, and obsidian in tumuli of Crecy-sur-Morin sepulchre, 261
Ohio, from long distances, 248 ;
Cremation, 218, 219, 324, 342, 366 ;
jade celts and ornaments in Amer- practised all over Europe, 368
ica, 248 gold and obsidian in
;
slowly abandoned, 369 see also ;
island of Santorin, 315 " Sepulture."

Comox (Vancouver Island), 255 Cresswell Crags (Derbyshire), 122
Compans, 188 Crimea, 24, 225
Concise, Lake Station, great number Cro-Magnon caves, 106, 249
of worked stones at, 234 a manu- ; Cromlechs, 180-185 ; in Algeria, 105 ;
facturing 237 red coral

centre, ; still erected in India, 222 ; see also
from Mediterranean at, 246 " Megalithic Monuments."

CoNDER, on megaliths in Syria, 199 Crypts, 189, 190, 205
Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, 188, 212 Cueva de Mengal (Malaga), 189
Congreve, on megalithic monuments CuviER, on antiquity of man, 12
in India, 29 Cypress, 367
Commana (Finistere), 207 Cyprina Islandica, 108
Constance, Lake of, 148 I
Cyprus, cromlechs in, 186
Constantine, 353
Copiapo (Chili), 255 Dab, 60
Copper, an age of, 21 Hungary, ; in Dahomey, pile dwellings in, 145
2 5> °5 prehistoric stations between
I
Dallas (Illinois), 269
Almeria and Carthagena of Copper Dampont (Dieppe), 262
age, 294 Danubian Provinces, early civilization
Copper mines, Lake Superior, 64 in, 25
rings, 358 ; copper saw, 314 Delaware, the, alluvial deposits of, 39
;
Denmark, kitchen-middings of, 24 ;

Earliest habitations, 127, 128, 135
cannibalism in, 52 ; cromlechs in, Earthern ramparts at Willem and
180 ; covered avenues in and tombs Houlem, 282, 283
of, 188 ; rich in flint implements, Earthworks in America, 40 ; in North
234 ; trepanation in, 266 ; vitrified America, 296-300
forts of, 301 Easter Island, bust statues, engraved
Dessignac, 189 rocks, and human bones in, 36-38
Devezes, 258 Edentate mammals of America, 39
Dinornis, 35 Eels, 116
Discs, 107 ; of lava, 314 ; see also Egyptian monuments, 21 ; worked
"Whorls." flints in, 31 ; cromlechs in, 188
Djedas, of Algeria, 198 Elephant, 47, 56, 156
Dog, 86, 137, 156, 329 Elephas antiquus, 84
Dol Varchant, 208 El/en Stenars, 381
Dolgado, on bones of the dead Elk, 84
colored red, 348 Embalming, 364
Dolmens, rites in honor of, 18 ; in Enceintes, 195, 197, 198, 224 ; a gen-
India, 30, 33 ; human bones in, 52 ;
eral term for camps and fortifica-
types of implements in, 88 ;

general tions,280 Neolithic examples at
;
description of, 177-180 ; in Algeria, Hastedon (Namur), 280, 281 at ;
195-198 ; in Syria, 199 in India, ; Pont-de-Bonn (Namur), 282 in ;
2Co dolmens all

; tombs, 202 most ; Limburg and Liege, 282, 233
numerous in France, 204 carved ; numerous in France, 283 in the ;
and engraved, 207 superstitious ; Vosges Mountains and at Rosmeur

origin of, 212 ;
pierced with circular (Finistere), 283 at Chassey (Saone-
;
openings, 211-214 ; human and in- et-Loire), 284 at Catenoy (Oise),

;
dustrial remains in, 214-221 ; variety 285 Castrum Gredonense, a Neo-

;
of construction, 226 ; used for burial lithic station, 286 ;

pile dwellings
of chiefs, 258 ; circular openings in, and terremares fortified, 287 ; for-
346 ; tombs, 355 see also " Mega- ; tifications of Great Britain, 288 ;
lithic Monuments.'' camp at Cissbury, 288-291 ; German

Domestic animals, 49, 58, 86, 156-159 fortifications, 291 ; at Potzrow and
Donegal, 163, 164 Zahnow on piles, 292 ; mounds
Dolichocephalic skulls, 262, 265, 272, between Thorn and the Baltic, 292 ;
324 citanias in Portugal, 292 ; fortified

Du Chatellier, on enceinte at Ros- town at Mouinho-da-Moura, 292 ;
meur, 283 prehistoric stations of Stone, Copper,

Duck, 49, 138 and Bronze ages, 294 cetati de ;
Ducros, on Palaeolithic origin of pamentuof Roumania, 295, 296

Solutreen remains, 349 colossal earthworks of America,
Dugdale, on flint hatchets, 7 296 ; Mound-Builders, 297 ; Fort
Dupont, discoveries by, 94, 97, 345 Hill, 297 ; Newark, 298, 299 ; Lib-
Durfort Cave, 87, 88 erty (Ohio), 299 ; unique intrench-
Duruthy Cave (Sordes), 345 ments at Old Fort (Kentucky), at
Dyke of Zeedyck, 282 Juigalpa (Nicaragua), 300
Dykes in England, 288 vitrified forts, 300 ; in Scotland,
INDEX. 391
Enceintes — Continued. Ff.raud, on megaliths of Algeria, 197

Bohemia, France, Denmark, and Fergusson, on megalithic architec-
Norway, 301 ; the most celebrated ture, 203
at Barry Hill and Castle Spynie Ferns, 151
(Invernesshire), Top-O-Noth (Aber- Feyjet (Dordogne), 119
deen), 301 ; vitrified cairns in Ork- Finistere, 188, 202, 207, 210, 218,
ney Islands, Craig Phcedrick and 220, 283
Ord Hill of Kissock (Moray Firth), FlNLAY, researches in Greece by, 27
302, 303 ; forts at Chateauvieux, Finns, the, 195
303 and Ribandelle, 304 probably
; ;
Fire, prehistoric use of, proved, 101 ;
not prehistoric, 305 processes of ; used in mining, 241 ; surprising

vitrification, 305-308 ; vitrified skill in management of, 306
walls at Hissarlik, 320 ; sarcophagi Fish, skeletons of, and shells of
or enceintes near Constantine, 353 oysters and cockles in kitchen-
Engis Cave, 97, 98 middings, 24 shell heaps in Ameri-
;
England, pile-dwellings in, 26 ; har- ca, 40 fresh-water and marine fish

:
poons in, 65 ; canoe in Devonshire, used as food, 59 in French caves ;
71 ; tools of Chelleen type in, 83 ;

bones of the jack, carp, bream,
absence of Palaeolithic pottery in, chub, trout, and tench, 60 ; from
100 ; ancient pottery in North of, Lake Stations, Switzerland, remains
142 ; Lake Stations in, 155 ; tumuli of mollusca, turtle, and goldfish, 60 ;
enclose tombs, 175 ; alignments of, Scandinavians caught mackerel,

lead to cromlechs, 183 ; alignments, dab, and herring, 60 ; in kitchen-
193 crypts, 205

; ; circular openings midding near the Oka (Nijni-Nov-
in dolmens, 213 ; contents of, 217 ; gorod) remains of salt-water mol-
discontinued in, 223 ; antiquity of, lusca, 139 ; similar remains all over
224 cup-stones in, 379
; Europe, 140; shell heap, St. Simon's
Engraving, see Art of prehistoric ' '
Island (Georgia), of oyster shells,
man." 141 ; many others similar, 142, 143
Entre-Roches (Angouleme), 263 Fishing-tackle, the earliest hooks of
Erdeven, 194 bone or wood, 60 ; of teeth of ani-
Esquimaux, the, 22, 50 mals, 61 ; flint fish-hooks, 62 ; also
Essenam, 188 of horn and boars' tusks, 62 ;
Esthonians, the, 195 stone hooks rare in America, 63 ;
Europe, Stone age in, 9-14, 24—27 ;

bone the most ancient there, 63 a ;
animal life in, 56 ; fish food in, fish-hook manufactory on Santa

143 ; iron rare in prehistoric times Cruz Island, shells used by Cali-
of, 219 ; cremation practised all fornians, 63 bronze hooks, 64 a
; ;
over, 368 few of copper in America, gold

Evans, on shell heaps in England, 140 hooks more numerous in New
EyziesCave, 58, 59, 92, ill, 131 Granada, 64, 65
harpoons of bone in France,
Faidherbe, on division of Africa, 30 Belgium, Germany, England,
on dolmens of Algeria, 180 Switzerland, and Scandinavia, 65,
Feasts of death, 375 66 in Alaska, one found beside most
;
Feder-See, 68 ancient mammals of America, 66

;;
Fishing-nets of hemp from Lake Sta- 295 ; stores of millet in cetaH de

tions of Switzerland, 67, 68 ; weights pamentu of Roumania, 296 ; barley,
of stone,and floats of wood and cork millet, lentils, peas, coriander, and
from Lake Stations of the Stone anise in island of Santorin, 315 ;
age, 68 fish, mollusca and cereals chief food

Flax, at Lagozza, 151 in Troy, 329
" Weapons and Tools.''
Flints, see Fort Hill, 297, 298
Floquet, on dolmens as tombs, 202 Fortifications, see " Enceintes.''
Florida, kitchen-middings in, 142 Trajan, 295
Fosse's de
Flute, in, 112 Foundry of Larnaud, 64

Fondi di Cabane of Italy, 162 Fowl, domestic, 49
Fondouce, on megaliths as the pro- Fox, 47
duce of progressive civilization, Fraas, on pottery found with remains
225 by various races, but all of
; of giant mammals, 96
one type, 227 France, caves of, 49 ; harpoons found
Fontabert Cave, 132 in, 65 ; caves of, 90 ; in caves of
Food of prehistoric man chiefly meat, South of, needles with eyes, barbed
47 ; bones split open by cave-men, arrows, and stilettos of deer antler,
48 large
; mammals preferred, 92 ; ornaments of bright colored
rodents also eaten, 48 ; bones of shells in caves of, 107 ; carved and
birds rarer, 48 ; remains of birds in engraved stones and bones of, 120 ;
Gourdan Cave, 49 ; fifty-one species Lake Stations of, 155, 156 few ;
of birds in caves of France, and cromlechs in, 180 ; megaliths in,

great numbers at Baousse-Rousse, 194 ; crypts in, 205 ; dolmens with
49 ; brains and marrow dainties, circular openings, 211-213 ; con-
'
49 (see ' Cannibalism ") ; horseflesh tents of dolmens, 216, 217 ;

gold
favorite diet at Solutre, 58 ; in ornaments in, 217 ; megaliths dis-
caves of Vezere, Madeleine, Eyzies, continued, 223; antiquity of, 224;
and Bruniquel bones of the jack, prehistoric workshops of, 238
carp, bream, chub, trout, and tench, implements of rocks foreign to the
60 ; Lake Stations (Switzerland), country, 246 ; trepanation in, 258-
all kinds of 60 salt-water fish
fish, ; 264 ; enceintes in, 280-283 I
vitrified
from kitchen-middings, 60 mam- ; forts in, 301 ; cup-stones in, 379
mals, birds, and fish from kitchen- Frere, on worked flints, 8, 9
middings, 138 ; fish food in Brittany, Friedel, on Ankerstein, 77
140 ; in England and America, 143 ;
Frontal Cave, 49, 98, 121, 244, 354,
Lagozza a vegetarian settlement, 375
151 ; domestic animals in Lake Funen, island of, 64
Stations, 156 stag and ox most ; Funeral rites, 53 similar in all coun- ;
numerous, 157 corn, millet, peas, ; tries, 228 trepanation a rite, 269,
;
nuts, plums, and other fruit from 270 ;

possible rites, 345, 346 ; bones
pile dwellings, 158 from Cortaillod ; of adults colored red, 347-349
barley, cherry-stones, acorns, and funeral customs and feasts, 375 ;
beech-nuts, 158 ; water-chestnuts, see also " Cremation" and " Sepul-
from Laybach, 158 ; stores of ture."
grain in fortified camps of Spain, vases, 220, 295, 360
INDEX. 393
Fusaloles, 160, 322, 324, 326, 339 ; Goldfish, 60

see also " Whorls." Goose, 49, 138, 329
Gourdan Cave, 48, 51, 57, 95, 251
Galgals of Brittany, 180 Goyet Cave (Belgium), ici, 114, 121
Galles, on hatchets from dolmens of Grain, stores of, 158, 295
Brittany, 214 Grand Pressigny, 235, 246, 296
Game played with knuckle bones, 328 Great Britain, age of deposits in caves
Gang Graben, of Denmark, 188 of, 130 highest development of
;
Gangraben, of Germany, 355 cromlechs in, 182 fortifications in,

;
Garenne de Verneuil (Marne), 354 288

Gaudry, on hatchets from the Grez, 233, 286
Somme, 15 Grindstone for crushing grain, 51, 296
Gavr'innis, Isle of, igo, 205, 209 Grottes-des-Fe'es ',
191
Gendron Cave, 345, 347 Grouse, 49
Germany, remains of bears in caves Guanches, the, 364
of, 57 harpoons found in, 65
;
;
Gubernaculum, 77
pottery in caves of, 96 ; fortifica- Guerin mound (Paris), 260
tions in, 291 ; burial and cremation Guisseny tumulus (Finistere), 259,
in, 372 272
Giant mammals, see " Animals."
Gibraltar, 255 Hallstadt (Bohemia), necropolis of,
Gironde, department of, subterranean 362, 372
storing-places for grain, 158 Hallstadtian period, 373
Glacial epoch in England, 71, 130, Hamy, on scarcity of human remains
131 in Palaeolithic caves and mounds,
Glass bowls, 169 231
Glutton, 253 on wounds in bones, 249
Glyptodon, 39, 128 Hare, 47, 48
Goat, 47, 86, 156, 217, 329 Harpoons, 65-67
Gods, 134, 322 Hartmannsweiller Kopf (Alsace) en--
Gold buckle at Aspatria (Cumberland), ceinte of, 301
220 Hastedon (Namur), 280, 281
dolmen at Finistere,
chains in Hatchet, the, a sacred symbol, 378 ;
and Leys dolmen (Inverness), 218 see also " Ceraunia"

cups from Cornwall, Mycense, Hatchets, see " Weapons and Tools."
and Troy, 248, 337 Havelse, 137
diadem from Troy, 337 Haxthausen, on kurganes, of Russia,
fish-hooks, 64-66 195
necklaces and other gold orna- Hearths, 101, 136, 284, 349
ments from New Grange (Ireland) Heidenmaucr of Saint Odila (Her-
and dolmens of France, 218 meskiel), 291
ornaments at Ojcow, 25 in ; HEILBIG, on terremarecolli, 161
great variety from Troy, 337, 338 Hellstone (Dorsetshire), 178
plate, and gold olives from dol- Helvetians, proto-, 149
mens of France, 217 Hemp used for fishing-nets, 67 ; for
rings at Santorin, 314 coarsely-woven cloth, 104
Hercules, caves of, 33 Ireland, pile dwellings in, 26 ; a stone

Herodotus, on pile dwellings, 145 hammer in head of a Cervus mega-
Herring, 60 ceros, 58 ; bronze fish-hooks, 64 ;
Hindoo Koosh Mountains, 201 boats from bogs, 70 crannoges in,

;
Hippopotamus, 9, II, 56, 86, 156, 331 162-164 ! round towers of, 167 ;
Hissarlik, Hill of, 317-338 cromlechs of, 184, 185 ; crypts in,
Hoare, on earliest habitations, 127 205 ;

and rings, bone
iron knives
on remains of funeral feasts, 375 and glass and
needles, copper pins,
Hohlefels, 57, 96 amber beads in Cairn of Dowth,
Holderness (Yorkshire) Lake Station, 120 great number of bone imple-
;
154 ments in cairn near Lough Crew,

Holed stones, 213 120 ; rich in flint implements, 324
Homicidal struggles, commencement Irish cipher writing on megalithic
of, 59 monuments, 222, 341
Hordeum hexastichum, 151 Iron age, 19, 377
Horses, 47, 58, 132, 157, 158, 329 found at Carnac, and in Mega-
Horse-walls, 58 liths of England and Scotland,
Hove, 364 219 ; rarer than bronze in Europe
Hoxne, 9, 83, 237 and America, 219 ; iron knives,
Human sacrifices, 51, 54, 376 220
Hungary peopled in Neolithic times, Istria, 165, 172
25 ; bears in caves of, 57 ; bone IsSEL, on sepulture in Italy, 346
daggers and amulets, 93 ; Lake Italy, flint weapons in, 26 ;
pottery in,
Stations of, 151 97 ; Lake Stations of, 104, 149-
Hiinengraber of Germany, 179, 191 151 ; terremares of, 159-162 ; great
Hunting implements, 48 number of truddlri in, 171 crom- ;
Hyena, 84, 96, 116, 344 lechs in, 180 ; bones of the dead
colored red in Neolithic times, 347,
Iberians, the, 286, 361, 364 348 funeral pits in, 356
; cup- ;
Iceland, 45 stones in, 379

Idols, 296, 322
Incas, the, 366 Jack, 60
India, Stone age in, 29 ; Chelleen Jade, hatchets and hammers, 81 ;
toolsand weapons in, 83 great ;

from pile dwellings, 146 celts and ;
number of megaliths in, and legends ornaments in America, 248

connected with them, 200, 201 ; Japan, use of stone implements in,
dolmens with circular openings, 22, 29 ; dolmens in, 179 ; trepana-
2ir-2i3; megalithic monuments tion in, 266 ; sepulture in decorated
still erected in, 222 ; cup-stones in, vases, 362
379 Japanese, the, 17

Industrial arts, progress in, 86 Java, pile dwellings, 145
centres, see " Workshops." Javelins, 87
Inscriptions, cuneiform, 2 Jellalabad, 201
in old Irish cipher on megaliths, Jersey, contents of dolmens in, 216
222, 341 Jet, 107, 109
Insects, 367 Jeuilly, 263
;
Joigny, 127 Lake Geneva, 145

Joly, on contemporaneity of man Maggiore, 149
with cave-bear, 10 Salpi, 149
on human bones, pottery, and Stations of Austria and Hun
skeleton of Ursus spelreus in '
gary, 25 ; of Switzerland, 25 ;
Nabrigas cave, gg Belgium, 26 ; fish in stations ii
Jouannet, on stone weapons near Switzerland,60 bone fish-hook ;
Perigord, g at Wangen, Mooseedorf, and St

Juigalpa (Nicaragua), 300 Aubin, 62 bronze hooks in Switzer
;
Jura Mountains, pile dwellings in, 155 land, 64 Lake

Stations of Switzer
;
land from Stone age to time o

Kabyles, the, ig6, 277 Romans, 67 ; fishing in, 68 ; boat
KcCrnena baba, 195 in, 74 ; first discovered, 200 ; sta
Kent's Hole (Torquay) 52, 66, 93, tions in Switzerland, 145 pili
;
105, 107 dwellings still used, 145 of Swit ;
Kern, 301 zerland of three periods, 145 gen ;
Kew, 155 eral description, 146-149 ; loca

Keyserloch, 65 names for, 147 ;
great numbers a
Khassias, the, 222 Wangen and at Robenhausen, 148
Kherson, 181 stations of Italy, 149 at Lagozza
;
Kistvaens, 175, 220, 381 150 ; a vegetarian station, 151 ; o

Kitchen-middings, in Denmark, 24 Austria and Hungary, 151 ; nea:
in Florida, 53 ; in Scandinavia, 54 ; Laybach, 152 ; construction o
in Long Island, 63 ; on Atlantic Lake Stations of Pomerania, 153
and Pacific Coasts, 94 ; in Scandi- station in Scotland, 154 in Eng ;
navia, 136, 138 ; in France, 139 ; land at Holderness, Thetford, Bar-

at Canche, 140 ; in America, 140- ton Mere, near Bury St. Edmunds,
143 Quaternary animals
;
disap- near Kew, and in London, 154, 155
peared in, and similarity of, in in France at Vatan, the Jura Moun-
Europe and America, 143 tains,Pyrenean valleys, and in the
Kit's Cotty House, 213 department of Landes, 155 ir ;
Klementz, on Valley of the Yenesei, Bourget Lake, Saint-Dos, and Lake

28 Paladru, more recent stations, 156
Killoch, 57 Lake fauna, 156; in Lake village
Kurganes, the, 181, 195, 348 of Nidau domestic animals more
general and wild animals rarer,
La Justice (near Paris), 188 157 Lake dwellings probable ir
;
La Marmora, on age of nurhags, 169 Asia and Africa, 165 amber from ;
La Mouline (Charante), 201 Baltic in Lake dwellings of Switzer-

La Muela de Cherte (Maeztrago), 294 land, 246 village of Lake Bienne ol
;
La Perouse, on sculptures of Easter Stone age fortified, 288 ; sepulchral

Island, 36 chest Lake Station of Auverniei
Lagozza, 94, 104, 150 (Switzerland), 360
Lake Bienne, 145, 265, 288 Zurich, 144
Burtneek, 139 Lares fenates, 134, 377 ; see also,
•
Constance, 145, 148 "Idols."
; ;
396 Prehistoric peoples.
Larnaud, 64 Lozere, 88, 99, 215, 218, 246, 257, 258,

Laugerie-Basse, 92, in 369, 370
Laybach, 151-153 Lubbock, on prehistoric sculpture, 38
Lechevalier, on site of Troy, 318 on worked flints from Chili and
Leeks of Brittany, 185 New Zealand, 44
Lenormant, on use of specchie, 171 on absence in England of Palaeo-
Lentils, 315 lithic pottery, 100
Les Causses, 369 on settlement at Havelse, 137
Lesse, caves of the, 50 on burghs of Scotland, 165, 166
Lestridiou (Finistere), 192 on ancient fortifications of Great
Lewis, on fortifications at Old Fort Britain, 288
(Kentucky), 299 Lund, on scarcity of human bones in
Lherm Cave (Belgium), 57, 131 caves of Brazil, 231

L'Homme Mart Cave, 250, 258, 272, on crania pierced by a tool, 255
273, 354. 375 • Museum of, 62
Liberty (Ohio), 299 University of, 59
Liege, caves, jo Lyeli., on flints from bed of Somme,
enceintes, 283 14
Limburg, 282 on shell heaps of Georgia, 141
Limpets, 108
Lion, 84, 96, 156 Mackerel, 60
Little People, 381 Madeleine Cave, 59, 60, 65, 85, 92, 93,
Littorina littorea, 136 123
Livingstone, on South Africa, 31, 55 period or type, 85, 132, 351
Livres de beurre, 246 Madisonville (Ohio), 255
Lizieres, 262 Madras, 201
Loaves of bread, 159 Madrid, caves near, 26
Loch Stemster (Westmoreland), 182 Magnolia, 367
Locmariaker (Brittany), 185 Mahudel, on worked stones, 7
Lombardy, Lake Stations of, 149 Malabar, iron used in, 219 mode of ;
terremares of, 159 sepulture in, 361

London, 7, 155 Mammals, see " Animals.' -
Long Barrows, 190 at Moustoir- ; Mammoth, 57, 84, 86, 96, 253, 344, 377
Carnac, 205 West Kenret, 216
; ;
Mamoas, or maminhas, of Portugal,
nearly all buried in long barrows 175
had met with a violent death, 254 ;
Man, prehistoric, 7 flints found ;
at
bones and flints in, 346 remains ; Hoxne, 8, 9 contemporaneity

;
of
of funeral feasts in, 375 man with extinct mammals doubted,
Long Meg and her daughters, 182 7-13 ; established by Boucher de
Long-Nick Branch, 142 Perthes, and confirmed by Falconer
LoNGPERIER, on ancient vases, 316 and others, 14, 15 diversity of de-
;
on hatchets as sacred symbols, velopment in human races, 20 ; im-

378 plements similar to prehistoric still
Lortet, 118 used by uncivilized races, 22, 23

Loubens Cave, 131 extreme North peopled, 24 kitchen- ;
Lourdes Caves, 51 middings in Denmark, 24 ; discov*

— ;;
INDEX. 397
Man, prehistoric Continued. ment of skill and ingenuity, 82, 83 ;

eries inPoland, Russia, and Austria Chelleen period, 83, 84 Mousterien ;
confirm the great antiquity of man, period, 84 J Solutreen period, 85 ;
25 ; in Hungary of Neolithic times, Madeleine period, 85

Lake Stations of extinct races, 25 ;
in Neolithic period abandoned a
pile dwellings in France, Italy, nomad for a sedentary life, ceased
Germany, Ireland, England, and to be a hunter, became an agricul-
Belgium, 26 ; signs of man in South turistand shepherd, 86 metals still ;
of Europe, 26, 27 ; Stone age in unknown, but stone polished, 86 ;
Europe, 27 ; in Siberia and Pales- handles to tools, 88 use of bone ;
tine, 28 ; in Japan, Egypt, Isle of and horn, 90 needles with eyes ;
Melas, and India, 29, 30 ; worked and barbed arrows, 92 unexpected ;
flints in North and South Africa, civilization of Neolithic times, 94

30-34 ruins in the Transvaal, 35
; ;
earthenware spoons, 94 vases, 98 ; ;
man appeared in all countries about use of fire proved by baked pottery,
the same time, 35 worked flints ; 101 ; family hearths, Lake 101 ;
with bones of Dinornis in New hemp,

Stations of Italy, cultivated
Zealand, 35 megalith and trilithon ; 104 at Wangen and Robenhausen
;
at Tonga-Taboo, pyramid in Ota- coarsely woven cloth, 104 in Peri- ;
heite, 36 bust statues and tools of

; gord caves needles too fine to sew
obsidian in Easter Island, 36-38 ;
skins, 104 ; tatooing, 104, 105 ; use
man contemporary with edentate of ornaments of teeth or jet, 106 ;
and pachydermatous mammals in shells, ivory, amber, crystal, coral,
America, 39 and human bones, 106-1 10; whistles

huge earthworks of, throughout and flutes, in, 112 carved and ;
North America, 40 ; Mound- engraved bone for staves of office,

Builders, 41 ;
pueblos, 41 ; Cliff 113-116 hilt of dagger and other
;
Dwellers, 41 ; succeeded by Toltecs, objects, 116, 118 art of cave-men ;
Aztecs, Chibcas, and Peruvians, 42 ;

at its zenith, 120 ; engraving on
in every part of the world, worked wood, 123 ; colored designs, 126
flints and megalithic monuments, in caves of Great Britain before
43-45 ;
gradual development of Glacial epoch, 130 ;
progress in
man, 46 Neolithic times, 133 huts of clay, ;
food of, chiefly animal, 47 ; the and tents of skins, 135 intelligence ;
horse, 47 ; large mammals and of primeval man, 136

rodents, 48 ; birds rarer, 48, 49 ;
of Scandinavia renounced no-
cannibalism, 49-53 fish food, 59, ; madic life, 138 ; metals unknown to
60 ancient Scandinavians deep-sea

; them, 138 ; man of kitchen-middings
fishermen, Co, 69 fixed abodes, 144 ;
proto- Helvetians
early use of boats by, 69-76 ;
well-developed men, 149 pastoral ;
gradual use of oars, mast, rudder, life, 157 agriculturists, 158

; terre- ;
and anchor, 76, 77, see also

" Fish- marecollioi Italy agriculturists, 159
ing-tackle," and " Boats." of uncertain origin, 160, 161 emi- ;
first weapon of a knotty branch, gration of races, 161 ; crannoges in
79 instinct taught, 80, 81

;
most ; Ireland, 162 ; huts in Ireland under
ancient tools, 81 gradual develop- peat 164 ; construction of crannoges
;
— ; ;
Man, prehistoric Continued. eases, 271 ; long continuance of

in Scotland, 164 ; of Stone age, 164 ;
practice, 272
probably occupied by successive first made weapons, then fortifi-
generations, 165 burghs of Scot- ;

cations, 279 ; Neolithic enceintes,
land, 165 ; Picts' houses, 166 nur- ; 280-286 ; of Portugal, 293 ; and of
hags of Sardinia, 167, 168 talayoti ; Spain, of Stone, Copper, and Bronze
of Minorca, 170 nanetas of Balearic ; ages, 294 ; inhabited by agricultur-
Isles, 170 ; truddhi and specchie of ists, 295 ; coarse pottery, grind-
Italy, 171 ; castellieri of Istria, 172 ;
stones for crushing grain and bronze
progress of civilization, 172 idols from cetati de patnentu of
builders of megalithic monu- Roumania, 296 strongholds of ;
ments, 174 ; human bones at Stone- Mound-Builders of America, 297 ;
henge, 184 ; at Moen, 191 ; at intelligence shown in choice of

Mureaux, 192 ; vanished races of sites, 297 ; fortifications a proof of
Yenesei, 195 ;
powerful races in combined action, 308
North Africa, 196 ; skeletons at La at Santorin (jEgean Sea), 310 ;
Mouline, 201 Maupas, 202 ; at two gold rings and a little copper
earliest inhabitants of tombs re- the only metals found, 314 ; ad-
moved, 203 ; intelligent workmen, vanced civilization, 315 ; solidly
206 ; skulls at Vaureal, 216 ; rich built houses, and other signs of,
offerings in tombs, 217, 218 ;
prog- 315 ; one human skull, 316 ;
gradual
ress in industrial arts, 220 ; in archi- progress, 317 ; Hill of Hissarlik a
tecture, 225 ; similarity of aspira- witness of, 319 ; hunting a favorite
tions and powers in all men, 225 ;
pastime, 329 ;
pottery of infinite
no certain knowledge of the build- variety, decoration inferior, 330
ers of megalithic monuments, 227- figure of hippopotamus, and busts of
230 women with heads of owls, 331 the ;
bones worked flints

of, scarce, swastika, sacred symbol of Aryan
very abundant, 231-235 growth of ;
race, found in all parts of the world,
populations in Palaeolithic times, 339-34 1 proves identity of original
;
231-235 the extreme North more

; at Spy (Namur)
skeletons of,
populous then than now, 236 more ; with implements of Mousterien
civilized than Lake dwellings, and type, and Quaternary fauna, 344 ;
megalithic monuments of South, two in Chauvaux Cave, 345 in ;
236 ; all the continents peopled, Gendron Cave seventeen skeletons,

civilization almost identical, 240 ;
in Duruthy Cave thirty, with Palaeo-
signs of division of labor, 240 ; of lithic implements, and at Baousse'-
long travel, 244-248 daily life of ; Rousse, 345 ; dead buried in caves
Stone age, 248 struggle for ex- ; still inhabited, 346 openings in ;
istence, 249 ; skulls and bones with dolmens used for throwing in bones,
scars and flint points still in them, when separated from flesh, 346 ;
249-256 ; early attempts at surgery, successive inhumations in dolmens,

252 ; skill in, and nursing, 256, 347 bones of adults colored red in
;
257 ; trepanation, 257-278 ; a pos- Neolithic Italy, 347 ; in Portugal,

sible funeraL rite, 269 ; still prac- Russia, Poland, and North America,
tised, 270 ; as a treatment of dis- 348, 349 ; earliest tombs on the
—
INDEX. 399
Man, prehistoric Continued. Megalithic Monuments— Continued.
hearth, 350 ; modes of sepulture of Mykense, of New Grange (Ireland)
Neolithic age, 351-354 ; caves and Arrayolos (Portugal), Hellstone
tombs closed, 355 ; urns from Italy (Dorsetshire),Castle Wellan (Ire-
imitating human 355 dwellings, ;
land),and Acora (Peru), 178 of ;
forty skeletons at Tours-sur-Marne, Bekour-Noz, in the Kouban basin,

of transition period between Stone and coasts of Black Sea, of Stone
and Bronze age, 355, 356 ; five age, 179 in Yezo (Japan) and
;
human bodies in good preservation Puerto Deseado (Patagonia), 179 ;
at Floyd (Iowa) of very low grade, general description of, 180

358 (see also " Sepulture ") ; crema- cromlechs common in Algeria,
tion first practised, 366 ; continued Sweden, Denmark, 180 ; few in
side by side with burial, 368, 374 ;
France and Italy, 180 ; at Tyre, in
feasts at funerals, 375; human sacri- Persia, Arabia, and between Mour-
fices at funerals, 376 ; signs of be- zouk and Ghat, 181 of Anajapoura ;
lief in immortality, 376 ; sacred (Ceylon), at Peshawur, in Peru, and

symbols, bones of extinct animals, Australia, 181; at Myzora (Morocco),
and hatchets, 377, 378 ; cup-sculp- 181 ; highest development of, in
379 legends sacred
tures, ; to, 381 Great Britain, 182 ; at Salkeld
Mane-Lud dolmen, 204 (Cumberland),Loch Stemster (Caith-
Mantega'zza, on trepanation in Peru, 267 ness), Long Meg and her daughters
Marconnieres dolmen, 370 (Westmoreland), 182 ; of Avebury,
Marne, caves, 246-259 182, 183 ; of Stonehenge, 183, 184 ;
funeral pits, 355 of Ireland, of Cornwall, at Upland

megalithic monuments, 378 (Gloucestershire), 185
Marsoulas Cave, 92, 119 menhirsof Brittany, 185; Sweno's
Marzobotta, 360 pillar (Scotland), in memory of vic-
Massat, 92, 131 tories, 185, 186 ; in France, Cyprus,
Mastodon, 39, 57, 96 and Yucatan, 186 in Egypt, As- ;
Masts, 77 and Mexico, 188

syria, Persia,
Maupas, 201, 202 alignments, or covered avenues,,
Mayenfisch, von, on pile dwellings, called essenam by Arabs, 1 88 ; often
148 built beneath masses of earth, such
Mecklenburg, megalithic monuments near Paris, the Gang Graben of Den-
in, 191 ; crypts in, 205 ; contents mark similar, 188 ; covered avenues
of dolmens, 216 at tumulus of Dessignac, 189 at ;
Megaceros, 86 Cueva de Mengal (Malaga), at crypt

Megalithic Monuments, in India, 29 ;
at Pastora (Seville), at Gavr'innis,
in Algeria, 32 ; in Tonga-Taboo, and the Long Barrows at West
35, 36 ; in all countries, 44, 45 Kennet, Littleton, Nempnitt, and
witnesses of the remote past, 74 ;
Uley, 189, 190 ; sepulchral chamber
tumuli of England enclose a kist- of oval shape in island of Moen,
vaen, 175 mamoas of Portugal,
; igo, 191 ; megaliths of Mecklen-
175; tumuli in Poland, 175; Edwin- burg of two kinds, 191 ; the Grotte
Harness Mound (Ohio), 176 desFe'esot Provence, 191 ; Neolithic
dolmens, 77 ; of Persia, near covered avenue of Mureaux, 192
— ;
Megalithic Monuments Continued. gold ornaments found in France,

different forms and modes of Scotland, and Ireland, 217, 218 ;
megalithic monuments found in bronze in France and Algeria, 218 ;
juxtaposition, as at Mane-Lud and iron rare in Europe and America,

at Lestridion (Finistere), 192 ; in 219 stone,
; bronze, and iron at
England and Moab alignments lead Carnac and Rocher, 219 bronze ;
to cromlechs, 193 one of most ; and iron in British Isles, 219 iron ;
important monuments at Carnac, sword inlaid with silver in cist at

193 ; in Brittany, 194 Aspatria (Cumberland), 220 ; in
number of, incalculable, 194 ; in cairn of Dowth (Ireland) iron
France, 194 the Orkney Islands,
; knives and rings and copper pins, 220
north of Scania, and in Otranto, to do honor to the dead, 221 ;
195 ; kurganes in Russia, 195 ;

only bones of Neolithic animals in
Algeria a field for research, 195- them, 221 ; erected from Stone age
Ig8 ; djedas of, 198 ; monuments of to present day, 222 ; discontinued
Tunisia, 198 ; tumuli in Syria, 198 ;
in France and England in 8th or
great numbers in Moab, 199 ; meg- gth century, in Scotland and Scan-
aliths in India, 200 ; legends con- dinavia later, 223 ; not mentioned
nected with them, 201 ; numerous by Roman historians of Britain,
at Jellalabad,Nagpore, valley of Gaul, or Germany, or by early
Cabul, and in Madras Presidency. French writers, 224 ;
proofs of an-
201 tiquity in France and England, 224
tombs or in honor of
are either difficulty of ascertaining by
the dead, 201 at Mugen, the ; whom 224 megalithic zones,
built, ;
Cabeco d'Aruda (Portugal), at 225 226

, dolmens vary in construc-
;
Monastier (Lozere), the Mas de tion, 226 all of one general type,
;
l'Aveugle (Garde), and La Mouline 227 ; use of circular openings in,

(Charante), skeletons found, 201 ; 346 Port-Blanc
; dolmen, 347 ;
at Maupas crypts of Neolithic age, megaliths near Constantine, 353

20 1 , 202 ; in Morbihan bodies and dolmen of Maconnieres, 370 of ;
cists, 202 ; cremation in Finistere, Mont St. Michel and Tumiac, 371
202 ; all dolmens tombs, 202, 203 ;
Meilgaard, 137
crypts in Mecklenburg, England, Menhirs, 18, 180-188, 197, 199, 222 ;
Wales, Ireland, Orkney Islands, see also " Megalithic Monuments."

and France, 205 ; long barrow of Mentone, 345, 347
Moustoir-Carnac, 205 ; difficulties Merovingian tombs, 22, 264, 272 f
of construction, 206, 207 ; balanced 349. 378
stones of Martine and Castle Wellan, Mesaticephalic skull, 265
207 granite dolmens carved and
;
Metallurgy, 161, 294, 315, 334
engraved, 207-209 orientation of ; Metals unknown to prehistoric Scan-
megaliths, 210 ; dolmens with dinavians, 138, 143
circular openings, 211-13 Meudon, 188
of Brittany, relics in, 214, 215 ;
Mexicans, the, 22
contents of other dolmens of France, Mexico, earthworks in, 41 ; barbarity
Mecklenburg, and Jersey, 216 of ; of sacrifices in, 54 ;
polished flints
England, Spain, and Algeria, 217 ;

in, 87 ; cromlechs in, 188
INDEX. 401
Michigan, 248 Morbihan, 180, 194, 202, 209, 210,

Midjana, megaliths at, 197 212, 213, 215, 260, 347
Millet, 158, 296, 315 Moreau, 369
Milne-Edwards, on birds in French Morges, Lake, 148
caves, 49 Morocco, cromlechs in, 180
Minano, pile dwellings of, 145 Mortars, for crushing grain, 34 ; for
Minerals foreign to the country in grinding paint, 105, 106
which found, 247 Mortillet, on inhumation at Solutre,
Miners and mining, 28, 241, 242, 290 350
Moab, alignments in, 193 menhirs ; Mother Grundy's Parlor, 122
in,199 Mouinho-da-Moura, 292
Mobile, 143 Mound-Builders, 3, 41, 297-299, 320
Moen, island of, 190, 191 Mouse, 157
Mollusca, in pile-dwellings of Switzer- Moussa (Shetland), 166
land, 60 ; fish-hooks of Mytilus Mousterien period, 84, 132, 344
Californicus and Haliotis in Cali- Moustier Cave, 48, 83, 84, 131
fornia, 63 ; in caves of France, Moustoir-Carnac, 205
fossil and recent
107 shells, ; Mur de Barrez, flint quarries, 241, 242
Cyprina Islandica in French cave, Mureaux, 192
and Nassa nerila at Baousse-Rousse, Mussels, 136
108 ; salt-water shells at Oka Mya, 141
(Russia), scallops, oysters, limpets, Mykena;, 90, 178, 248, 338, 378
and pectens in Brittany, 139, 140 ;
Mytilus Californicus, 63
shells at mouth of the Somme, 140 ;
oyster shells at St. Simon's Island, Nabrigas Cave (Lozere), 10, 58, 99
141 ; in mound John River,
near St. Nces dolmen, 266
Mya, Venus, Pecten, Buccinum, Nagpore, 201
and Natica, 141 ;
pearl oyster shells Nanetas of Balearic Islands, 170
at Chaleux,Frontal, and Nuton Nassa, 108
caves, at Thayngen, and in Italy, Natal, 34
244 arctic marine mollusca in
; Natica, 141
caves of Cro-Magnon, Madeleine, Navigation, 69, 70
Bize, and Solutre, 244 fossil shells ; Neanderthal skull, 359
of cretaceous strata, South of Necklaces, see "Ornaments."
France, 244 specimens from Isle
;
Needles of bone, with eyes, 90 ; in
of Wight Laugerie-Basse, 244

at ;
Lake Stations, 145, 146
pearl oysters of Indian Ocean in Nelaton, on trepanation, 268
South of France, 244 Neolithic period, 20, 31 ;
giant animals
Monastier (Lozere), 201 died out, and domestic animals
Montaiglon, DE, on vitrification, 307 appeared, 86 ; man adopted seden-
Montesquieu-Avantes Cave, 52 tary life, 86 ; weapons of, in Mous-
Montgaudier Cave, 132 tier Cave, and rounded stones, 88 ;
Monuments, see " Megalithic Monu- pile dwelling of, 90 ; civilization of,
ments." 94 ; clothing in, 104 ; megaliths of,
Moor-fowl, 49, 138 191, 202, 222 ; rapid development

Mooseedorf, 64, 145 of commerce in, 247 ; trepanation
— ;
;;
Neolithic period Continued. Orkney Islands, dolmens in, 180 j
in, 257-259, 261 ; sepulchres of, megaliths in, 195 ; crypts in, 205
261, 262 ; modes of sepulture in, vitrified forts in, 302
351, 356 Ornaments, from Wirzchow Cave,
Merita, 108, 109 amulets and fish cut in ivory, 25 ;
Neuchatel Lake, 145 fringed cloth from Lake Stations of

Nevada, 39 Italy, 104 fine needles for (pos-
;
Newark ("America), 298, 299 sible) embroidery, 104 love of ;
New Grange (Ireland), 178, 205, 218 ornaments a natural instinct, 106
New Guinea, pile dwellings of, 145 cave-men wore fossil coral, beads
New Zealand a portion of a submerged of clay, teeth, tusks, fish-bones,
continent, 35 ; Stone age in, 35 ;
and belemnites as amulets, 106
worked flints from, 44 necklace of bears' and lions' teeth,
Nicaragua, jade celts and ornaments 106 ; ivory plaques with three holes
in, 248 from Cro-Magnon, 106 ; delicate
Nile valley, implements of flint and oval discs from Kent's Hole, 107 ;
porphyry in, 30 slices of jet and ivory plaques from

Nogent-les-Vierges, 250 Belgian caves, 107 ; bright colored
NordenskiOld, on stone weapons of shells from French caves, necklace
the Tchoutchis, 22 of threehundred, 107 shells brought ;
on women of, 103 from a distance, 108 necklaces of ;
on shell heaps at Cape North, nerites and limpets in Scotland,

140 shells used to fasten clothes, 108 ;
Nokdmann, on bones from cave near at Baousse-Rousse a necklace,

Odessa, 56 bracelet,amulet, garter, and net
Normandy, enceintes in, 283 forhead of nerite shells, 108, 109 ;
North, the, peopled in most remote beads of jet, crystal, gray schist,
times, 24 ; abundant life in, 367 amber, and hyaline quartz, also
Northumberland, megaliths in, 209 polished balls of calx, 109 ; neck-
Norway, boat in tumulus in, 72 ; vit- laces of human teeth, 109 ;
pendants
rified forts in, 301 of human bone, no; staves of
Nuclei, 28, 246, 281 office of antlers engraved, 113-116 ;
Nurhags, of Sardinia, 165 ; construc- staff with geometrical designs found

tion of, 167, 168 ;
great antiquity with Quaternary fauna, 116 ; beads
and uncertain origin of, 169 tombs ; and other ornaments in sepulchral
side by side with them of uncertain caves, 135 dolmens carved and
;
date, 170 engraved, 207-210 amber beads ;
Nuts, 151, 158 and necklace of calai'te, and ivory

ring from dolmens of Brittany,
Oars, 77 214 glass beads and amber bowls,
;
Ogham, 222, 341 215 ; beads of blue glass, enamel,

Ogris, the, 195 and amber, 215 ;
gold ornaments
Ohio, mounds of, 269, 357, 358 in France, Scotland, and Ireland,
Old Fort (Kentucky), 299, 300 217, 218 ; in the Caucasus, blue
Oleron, Isle of, 218, 232 glass beads and bronze rings, 219 ;
Ord Hill of Kissock, 302, 303 at Aspatria, gold buckle, 220 ; in

—
INDEX. 4°3
Ornaments Continued. Pallas, on kurganes of Russia, 195

Posen, silver and gold ornaments, Papaver somniferum, 151
220 stone and bronze beads in
; Paris, covered avenues near, 188 ;
Lozere caves, 258 gold ornaments ;

environs of, rich in deposits, 233
in great variety inTroy, 337, 338 ;
Park Cwn (Wales), 205
similar ornaments at Mykense, near Parma, terremares in, 159
Bologna, in Lake dwellings, and in Partridge, 49
Colombia, 338 necklace of bits of; Pastora (Seville), 190
limestone from Neolithic funeral Patagonia, dolmens in, 179
pit at Tours-sur-Marne, 356 copper ;
Pears, 158
rings and shell beads in mound in Pearse, on tumulus at Nagpore, 177
Ohio, 358 ; amber cup in rough Peas, 158, 315
plank coffin at Hove, 364 Pecten, 140, 141
Orry's Grave (Isle of Man), 213 Pedras fittas of Sardinia, 195
Ors (Isle of Oleron), 218, 232 Penguin, 138
Ossuaries, 347, 354 Penka, on Northern origin of Euro-
Osteitis and caries, possible treatment pean civilization, 366
of, 271 Perigord Caves, 9, 104, 114, 246
Ostrich, 234 Persia, dolmens in, 178 ; cromlechs
Otaheite, 36 in, 181, 188
Otranto, 171, 195 Peru, cromlechs in, 181 ; trepanation
Otter, 138 in, 267 ; sepulchre in, 341 ; em-
Ouvaroff, on Siberia, 28 balmed bodies in, 364
on bone spear, 66 Peruvians, the, 42
on excavations at Oka (Russia), Pesons de fuseau, 160
138 Petit-Morin Caves, 134, 135, 251,
Ovibos moschatus, 121 354
Owl, 331 Pfahlbauten, Palafittes, 147
Ox, 86, 156, 157, 217, 329 Phoca granlandica, 116
Oyes Cave, 251 Piacenza, 159
Oyster, 24, 136, 290 Picard Cave, 92
Picts' houses, or Weems, 166
Pachydermatous mammals of North Pig, 156, 217
America, 39 Pigeon, 4<J
Palaeolithic period, 20 ; caves of, in Pigorin, on mode of sepulture, 346

Poland, 24 ; worked flints of, 31 ;
Pile dwellings, 26, 144, 145, 147-149,
chipped flints of, 87 ; an ornamented 153, 159, 163. 287

bone implement of,94 pottery ;
Pinus picea, 150
unknown in, 100 ; Scandinavia not Pinus sylvestris, 150
peopled in, 137 finds of human
;
Pitt-Rivers, on ancient fortifications
bones in, 231, 232 valley of the ;

of Sussex, 288
Seine inhabited in, 233 ; workshop Placard Cave, 105, 107, 132.
of, 237 ; trepanation in, 263 ; see Plouhennec, tumulus of, 346
1 '
Otis fprnarw nprinH anrl
'
Plnurouses. 202
;
Poland, caves of, 24 tumuli in, 175

; ;
jars of coarse pottery filled with
trepanation in, 266 burial and;
bones at Caithness, 372
cremation in, 372 Potzrow, 292
Pomel, on man and the cave-bear, 10 Pouchet, on hatchets from the
Pomerania, Lake stations of, 153 Somme, 15
Pommerol, on rounded stones, 88 Prestwich, on flints from the
Pont-de-Bonn (Namur), 282 Somme, 14
Poplar, 367 Prevot, on vitrification, 307
Poppy, Indian, 151, 158 Proust, on megaliths of France,
Porpoise, 138 195
Portugal, caves in, 52 ; mamoas of, Pruniere, on human bones bearing
175 ; dolmens in, 178 ; antas in, scars, 250
179 ; citanias in, 292 ; cup-stones on skill of Neolithic bone-setters,
in, 379 257
Posen, tumuli in, 220 on trepanation, 257, 258
Pottery, hand-made, 34 from cliff ;
on implied belief in future life,
dwellings, 41, at French Exhibi- 275

tion, 1878, 44; of Neolithic period, —— on operation on the forehead,
51 ; spoon of black earthenware, 277
94 ; others of brown, 95 ;
pottery of on Neolithic station at Grez,
great variety, 96-101 ; most ancient 286
found in England, 142 ; almost on sepulture of cave-men, 369
identical in Europe and America, and gold
Prussia, funeral vases, silver
143 ; of Lake dwellings of Switzer- ornaments, and tumuli in, 220

land, 146 ; earthenware spindle- burial and cremation in, 372
whorls, 150 ; little figures and Pulligny, de, on enceintes of Nor-
black vases, 153 ; terra-cotta ware, mandy, 283
156 ;
fusa'ioles in terremares, 160; Pyrenean valleys, Lake Stations of,
vases with handles and ornaments 155
from fondi, 162 vases from dol- ; Pyrenees, the, 126
mens, 215 ornamented pottery;
from Alt-Sammit 216 ; Neolithic Quaternary period, deposits of, 10 ;
vases, 216 ; fragments of pottery at of the Somme, 15 ; in South Africa,

West Kennet, with tusks of extinct 34 ; animal life in, 56 ; mammals
boars, 217 ;
glass beads in Ireland, of, 66 ;huge animals of, 80 flint ;
220 ; funeral vases in Posen, and tools and weapons of, 90 pottery ;
Prussia, 220 potteryhand-madeand

;
unknown in, 101 ;
great cold of,
mixed with crushed shells, 285 frag- ; 116 ; animals of, 116, 122; depos-
ments at Cissbury, 290 terra-cotta ; its of, 130 ; floods of, 131 ; animals
vases at Santorin, 312-314 ; coarse of, extinct, 143, 156, 222 ; existence
pottery from colonies at Hissarlik of man in, 234 ; trepanation in,
" "
succeeding the Trojan, 324 supe- ; 263 ; see also Palaeolithic period
rior in first town, 325 ornamented ; and " Stone age."
with flowers and fruit, 326 ; vases QuATREFAGES, de, on Quaternary
of great size, 330 ;
jars, basins, and deposits of the Somme, 15
amphora used as funeral urns, 362 ;
on prehistoric races, 45
;
INDEX. 405
QuATREFAGES, DE, on kitchen-mid- RoUGfi, DE, on monuments of Egypt,
dings facing south, 137 2
on fortification on the Nive, 285, Roumania, earthworks in, 294-296
286 Round towers of Ireland, 167
Rounded stones of granite or sand-
Races, prehistoric, 42, 45 stone, 88
Raspberry, 158 Rovesche, 373
Rat, 157 Ruches de Cremation, 371
Reggio, 162 Rudders, 77
Reinach, on sepulture, 350 Ruins in the Transvaal, 35
Reindeer, 47, 84, 85, 86, 132, 344 Run-Aour (Finistere), 188
Reindeer period, 27, 35, 50, 63, 111, Rundyssers, 180
"3, 377 Runes, 291
Religious rites in which flint knives Russia, dwellings above flood line in,
were used, 17, 18 condemned by 137 kitchen-middings in,
; ; 138
church, 18, 19 ; used by sorcerers kurganes of, 195 valla; in, 295
in England, 19 ; barbarity of sacri-
ficesin Mexico, 54 respect for the ; Sacred symbols, 339, 377
dead, 217 ; offerings in tombs, 216- Sahara, desertof, 30-32
21 8 ;
portions cut from the skull Saint-Acheul, 83, 233
after death, a rite, 274 ; see also St. Affrique dolmen, 263
" Sepulture." St. Andrew (Winnipeg), a manufac-
Resille, 108, 135 turing centre, 240
Rhinoceros, 56, 96, 156 St. John River, 141
incisivus, 11 Saint-Martin-la-Riviere, 262
Merckii, 84 Saint-Pierre-en-Chatre, 64
tichorhinus, 84, 116, 344 St. Quentin, 263
RlALLE, DE, on monuments of Tunisia, St. Simon's Island, 141
198 Salkeld (Cumberland), 182
Ribandelle, 304 Salzbourg, 290
Riesenbetten, 191 San Ciro Cave (Palermo), 6
Rivatella, 162 San Margarethan, 378
Robenhausen, 148 Santa Cruz, island of, 63
Rochebertier, 124 Santandar Caves, 27

Roches Moutonne'es 379 ,
Santhenay Cave, 131, 134
Rodents, 48 Santorin, Island of, 134, 308-316
Rodmarden, 213 Saporta, de, on Northern origin of
Roe-deer, 217 European civilization, 366
Roknia (Algeria), 266 nurhags of, 165
Sardinia,
Rondelles, 258, 259, 262, 263, 266, Saturnia (Italy), 178
274, 275 Sauvagere, on megaliths of France,
Roquemaure Cave, 107 224
Rosa, anfondi, 162 Saw-bladed knives, 29
Rosmeur (Finistere), 283 Scandinavia, worked flints in, 44 j
Rossi, de, on Palaeolithic workshop at human bones 45 in, ; deep-sea fish
Ponte-Molle, 237 in kitchen-middings of, 60 ; har-

;
Scandinavia — Continued. Sepulchral chambers, or crypts, 188-

poons in, 66 ; attempts at naviga- 192, 205, 261, 262
tion in, 69 ;
polished flints in, 87 ;
mounds in America, 93, 357,
not peopled in Palaeolithic times, no 374; sec also "Megalithic Monu-
domestic animals, 137 orientation ; ments" and " Tombs"
of houses in, 137 nomadic life in, ; Sepulchre, Neolithic, at Crecy-sur-
138 ; dead buried in crouching posi- Morin, 261 ; and at Dampont
tion, 351 burial and cremation in,
; (Dieppe), 262
372 ; Elfen Stenars of, 381 Sepulture, similarity of, at Solutre
Sceptre, Hi and in Merovingian times, 360
Schaafhausen, vitrified ramparts at, stone chests 360 for sepulture,
301 earthenware jars used by ancient
Schlaken Walle, 30I Iberians, Chaldeans, W. coast of
SCHLTEMANN, on Hill of Hissarlik Malabar, in Thracia, and at Troy,
and Troy, 317-339, 342 361 ; similar custom in Peru, Mex-
Schmerling, researches of, near ico, and on shores of the Missis-
Liege, 10 sippi, 362 ; trunks of trees used as
discovery of pottery and Mous- coffins at Apremont, Hallstadt, in
terien flints in Engis Cave, 97 the cairns of Scania, at Gristhorpe,
on scarcity of human bones in and Hove, 362, 364 ancient Cale- ;
Belgian caves, 231 donians sewed up their dead in

Schussenreid Cave, Hi, 148 skins, 364 embalming in Tene-
;
Science, prehistoric, starting-point of, riffe, Egypt, and Peru, 364 burial ;
4 and cremation proceeded side by

Scotland, bronze fish-hooks
in, 64 ;
side all over Europe, 368-378
pirogue from ancient bed of the burial customs, 373, 374 ; mounds
Clyde, 70 shell necklaces found
; of Ohio and crema-
Illinois,
374 ;
in, 108 ; Lake stations of, 154 ;

tion still practised by savages of
crannoges of, 164 ; burghs of, 165, Alaska, California, and Florida,
166 ; Picts' houses of, 166 ; dol- with other strange customs, 374 ;
mens in, 180 ;

gold ornaments feasts of death, 375 ; human sacri-
found in, 217 ; iron in monuments fices in honor of dead, 376 belief ;
of,219 megalithic monuments dis-

; in immortality by cave-men, 376 ;
continued in, 223 vitrified forts in, ; bones of extinct animals venerated
301-303 ; burial and cremation in, in succeeding epochs, 377 flint ;
372 ; cup-sculptures on menhirs in, hatchets intentionally broken in

380 tombs Bronze age, 377
of
Seal, 116, 138 Settle (Yorkshire), 66
Sentenheim Cave, 56 Sheep, 86, 156, 217, 329
Sepollure dei Giganti. of Sardinia, 170 Shell-heaps of America, 40, 140 at ;
Sepulchral caves, found in, objects St. Simon's Island (Georgia), near
J 34> T 35i 2 4° human remains in

> St. John River, 141, and in Florida
V Homme Mort Cave, and a cave and Alabama, 142 in California ;
at Nogent-les-Vierges, 250 ; in- and at Mobile, 143 at Hill of His- ;
humation in caves of Roquet and sarlik, 322, 329 see also " Kitchen-
;
L' Homme Mort, 370 middings."

' ;
INDEX. 407
Shells of Mytilus Californicus and Stonehenge, 183, 185, 254

Haliotes made into fish-hooks, 63 ;
Store-houses for grain, 158, 295
necklaces of Nassa and Nerita, 108 ;
Sureau Cave (Belgium), 47
pendants of scales of unio shells, Surgery, early attempts at, 252, 256,
no; see also " Mollusca," and 271, see also " Trepanation."
' '
' Shell-heaps Swan, 49, 329

Siberia, flints in, 28 ; Stone age in, Swastika, 339-341
28 ; mammoth in, 57 ;
prehistoric Sweden, bronze fish-hooks in, 64
civilization of,
236 cromlechs in, 180 ; alignments in,
Silver ornaments, 220 ; vase, 337 188 ; dolmens with circular open-
Solutre'Cave, 57, 58, 85, 98, 108, 112, ings in, 211
232, 244, 34'J, 35o, 360 Sweno's pillar (Scotland), 185
Solutreen period, 85, 87, 132 Switzerland, Lake Stations of, remains
Somme, the, bones and flints found of fish in, 60 ; bronze fish-hooks,
near, 11, 14 kitchen-midding at
; 64 harpoons at Concise, 65
; of ;
mouth of, 140 Stone and Bronze ages, 67, 68 ;
Sordes Cave, 87, 106, 249, 345 boats used in, 68, 69, 74 ; discovery
Spain, pottery in, 97 circular open- ; of, 144 ; of three periods, 145 ;
ings in dolmens in, 211; prehistoric construction of, 147-149

stations in, 294 Lake fauna of, 156, 157 ; forti-
Spiennes, 241, 242 fied village in, 287, 288 ; cup-stones

Spindle-whorls, 28, 150, see also in. 379
" Fusaioles" and " Whorls." Sydney, 36
SPRING, on human bones at Chauvaux, Syria, tumuli in, 198
49
Spy Cave (Namur), 97, 105, 343, 344 Talayoti of Balearic Islands, 165, 170
Squier, on fortifications at Old Fort Tantama marca of Peru, 355
(Kentucky), 299 Tatooing in early times, 104 ; red
Stag, 47, 137, 156, 157 chalk, red iron ore, and a fine red
Staves of office, 111-116 powder, also a pebble used to grind

Stazzona of Corsico, 179 it,found in France, 105 fragments ;
Steenstrup, on kitchen-middings,i35 of ochre, manganese, red chalk, and

Stendos of Sweden, 179 black lead frequent, also hollowed
Stone age, 19 not a fixed period, 23
; ;
stones in which to crush them, 106 ;
in Western Europe, 27 ; in Pales- an engraving of a tatooed man, on

tine, 28 ; in Algeria, 32 ; in Tunisia, a bone, 106
cannibalism in, 51 human Taylor, on megaliths of India, 200
33 ; ;
bones of, 52 ; Lake stations of, 68 ;

Tchoudes, the, 195
boats of, 71 ; ornaments of, 109 ;

Temples, rock hewn, 2 ; in America,
staves of office, 113, 116; art of, 40, 42 ; at Hissarlik, 320, 324
126 Lake dwellings of, 147, 149
; ;
Tench, 60
monuments of, 169 mode of life ;
Terremares, of Italy, construction of,
in, 248 ;
places of refuge in, 279 ; 159 ; bronze objects found in them,
successive Stone ages, 294, see also 160 ;
fusaioles, uncertain use of,
" Neolithic period," and "Quater- 160 ; at Castione terremares in arti-

ficially hollowed basins, 160 ; un-
nary period."
; ;
Terremares — Continued. Tombs of transition period between

certain origin of terremarecotti 160 , Stone and Bronze ages, 356; others
terremares at Toszig in Hungary, of later date in Italy, 356 ;
Aymaras
161 ; fortified terremares, 286 of Bolivia buried beneath megalithic
Thayngen Cave (Belgium), 48, 107, monuments resembling dolmens, or
114, 120, 233, 244 in chulpas, 357 ; mounds of Ohio
Therasia, Island of, prehistoric houses cover sepulchres, 357, 358 remark- ;
under volcanic ashes and tufa, able discovery at Floyd (Iowa), 358
310 inhumation, 370 ; first traces of
Thetford, Lake Station, 154 cremation, 370, 371 ; beneath cairn
Thrush, 49 at Caithness large jars, at Blendowo
Thunder-stones, 17, 34, see also " Ce. (Poland) an urn filled with burnt
raunia.'' bones, 372 ; necropolis of Hallstadt
Thuot, on vitrification, 307 (Bohemia) of Bronze age, 373
Thurmam, on burials in long barrows, Topinard, on trepanation, 272
254 Top-O-Hoth (Aberdeen), 302
Tiger, 56 Torquay, 14
Toltecs, the, 42 Toszig (Hungary), 161
Tombs, in Sardinia, 170 ; kurganes of TOURNAL, researches by, near Nar-
Russia, 195 ; megalithic monuments bonne, 10
either tombs or in honor of the dead, Tours-sur-Marne, 355
201 ; dolmens tombs, 202, 203,
all Trepanation, early practice of, dis-
246 ; burial of chiefs in dolmens, covered, 257 ; examples, 258-268 ;
258 tombs at Trtipschutz (Poland),

; a funeral rite, 269, 270 North ;
266 at Spy (Namur), 344

; at ; American instances posthumous,
Chauvaux, Gendron, and Duruthy, 270 ;
possible reason for practice as
345 ; at Baousse'-Rousse, 345, 346 ;
treatment of diseases, 271; examples
in Italy, Sicily, Belgium, the Pyre- from early Neolithic to Merovingian
nees, and in Brittany, and Long times, 272 ; subjects operated on
Barrows of England, 346 Port- ; young, 273 ; a religious rite, 274,
Blanc dolmen (Morbihan) and 275 modes of operation, 276
;
Grand Compans (Luzarches), 347 ;

spoken of by ancient historians,
cave of Stone age near Rome, 347 ; 277 still practised, 277
;
sepulchre at349 at Solutre, ; Triticum vulgare antiquarum, 151

Schwann (Mecklenburg), Oxevalla vulgare hibernum, 151
(East Gothland), Vence Cave (Alpes- Trou d'Argent Cave (Basses-Alpes),
Maritimes), 351 dolmens of Avey- ; 253
ron, 351 tombs at Mane-Lud,
; Trout, 60
Luzarches, Cape Blanc-Nez, and Troy, 134, 317-320, 324-338, 361
Equehen, 352 Cravanche Cave; Troyon, on crannoges of Scotland, 164
(Belfort), 353 at Aurignac, Bruni-
; Truddhi and specchie, of Otranto, 171
que'., Frontal Cave, and caves of Tumuli, 45, 175, 176, 188, lg7, 198,
L' Homme Mort, 354 ; Tantama 201-203, 2 95> see also " Tombs."
Marca, of Peru, 354 ; funeral pits Tunisia, workshops of, 33 ; megalithic
of bottle shape at Touos-sur-Marne, monuments in, 198
355 Turtle, 60, 138
;
INDEX. 409
Turtle Mound, near Smyrna (America), Vence Cave (Alpes-Maritimes), 351
142 Venezuela, 145
Tygelso (Scandinavia), 255 Venus, 141
Vezere Cave, 59, 134
Ujfalvy, researches by, in Siberia, Vilanova, 360
27 Villevenard Cave, 251
Uley (Gloucestershire), 190, 205, 254 Villers-Saint-Sepulchre (Oise), 212
Upland, 185 Virchow, on kitchen-midding at
Ursus spelaus, 48, 59, 99 Lake Burtneek, 139
on age of Lake stations, 154
Valla of Roumania, 295 on trepanation, 266
Varano, terremare of, i5i on vitrified forts, 301
Vaureal, 250 on Hill of Hissarlik, 319
Vegetable products used in Lake on Bronze age in Troy, 334
dwellings, comb of yew wood, pile Vitrified forts, see "Enceintes."
dwellings at Lagozza made of silver Vivarais Cave, 252
birch, pines, and larch, 150 ; prob- Volcanic eruption in Êgean Sea, 308
ably a vegetarian settlement, no Vosges Mountains, enceinte on, 283
remains of animals, but two kinds
of corn, mosses, ferns, flax, the Wading birds, 140
Indian poppy, acorns, nuts, and Wales, caves in, 130 ; crypts in, 205
apples, 151; in Swiss Lake Stations, WANKEL, on deposit at Prerau
corn, millet, peas, poppy-heads, (Olmutz), 253
nuts, plums, raspberries, and dried on trepanation, 265, 272
apples and pears, 158 ; from Cor- Water-chestnuts, 158
taillod, barley, cherry-stones, acorns, Watsch, 373
and beech-nuts, 158 ; at Laybach, Weapons and tools of earliest man,
water-chestnuts, 158; from, some 4 ; rock hatchets from Capri, 5 ;
places loaves of bread, 159 ; corn, human origin of worked-stones

beans, vines, and various fruits recognized, 6, 7 ; worked flints at
cultivated by dwellers in terremares, Hoxne (Suffolk), 9 ; stone weapons
160 ; stores of grain in fortified in Perigord, 9 worked flints near ;
camps of Spain, 295 stores of ; Narbonne, 10 near Liege, and ;
millet in celati de pamentu of Rou- Abbeville, and at Amiens, at n ;
mania, 296 ; in island of Santorin Torquay, and from the Somme, 14,
barley, millet, lentils, peas, cori- 15 ; universally believed to be of
ander, and anise, 315; wheat known supernatural origin, 15-17 ; stone
in Troy, 329 ; lignites of Iceland weapons still used, 22 thousands ;
formed of tulip, plantain, and nut- of worked flints in France, 23

trees,366 in Spitzberg the beech,
; crescent-shaped flints in Crimea,
poplar, magnolia, plum, sequoia, 24 ; implements of schist and slate
and numerous coniferous trees, 167 ;
in Russia and Finland, 24 ; in
in Banks, Grinnell, and Francis kitchen-middings of Denmark,
Joseph's Lands the cypress, poplar, knives and hatchets of stone, horn,
silver-pine, and birch, in every and bone, 24 ; in Wirzchow Cave
stage of growth, 367 amulets, fish cut in ivory, and four
;
4io PREHISTORIC PEOPLES.
Weapons- — Continued.
1
polished weapons and tools, 86 >
thousand stone objects, 25 ; flint fine specimens from Scandinavia,

tools and bone spatulse at Ojcow, in Brittany, and Mexico, 87 rounded ;
many Lake stations none but stone stones the weapons peculiar to
implements, 25 ; flint weapons in Neolithic period, 88 ; flint arrows
Italy, 26 in Portugal, 27
; ; worked go a bow from
triangular, or oval, ;
bones in Spain, 27 ; serpentine pile Robenhausen, and

dwelling,
hatchets and wedges from Siberia, one from Lutz, 90 bone and horn ;
27, 28 hammers, hatchets, pestles,

;
implements, 90 invention of barbs,
;
and spindle-whorls from Ural Moun- 90 bevelled arrow, 92

; possible ;
tains, flints from Nahr el Kelb, use of poison, 92 needles with ;
Lebanon, and Sinai, 28 flint ; eyes, barbed arrows, bodkins, and

weapons from Japan, 29 worked ; amulets of bone, 92, 93 numbers ;
agates, ancient javelin heads, in of bone implements at San Fran-

basalt and quartz, from Godavery, cisco, Madisonville (Ohio), and in
saw-bladed knives from Isle of kitchen-middings of Atlantic and
Melas, and stone implements from Pacific coasts, 93, 94 ;
processes of
Northwest India, 29 cave-men simple, Neolithic prog-
Stone age in Africa, 30 ; series ress, 94 earthenware spoons in
;
of stoneweapons and implements Germany and Italy, 94 ; narrow

in Boulak Museum, 31 no bones ; spoons of bone and horn, 95 ; in
with flints of Lower Egypt, 31 ;
Spain Neolithic implements of
worked stones in Algeria, 32 stone ; dorite and serpentine, 97 ; work-
objects and workshops in Tunisia, shops with highly polished hatchets,
and worked flints in Morocco, 33 ; 97
stone hatchets in Southern Africa, in sepulchral caves, 135 ; tools
roughly-hewn flints, arrow-heads, with horn handles from Swiss Lake
mortars for crushing grain, at Natal, Stations, 146 ;
polished stone imple-
stone weapons of Cliff Dwellers, 41; ments, arrows with transverse cut-
in all countries, worked flints, 43, ting edges, earthenware spindle-
44 whorls, and bone combs from
construction and materials of, Lagozza, 150 ; lozenge-shaped
hatchets, wedges, and hammers of worked flints from fondi, 162 ; un-
jade, fibrolite, and basalt, sharp- polished flints and quartz wedge
pointed and cutting tools of quartz, from hut in Donegal, 164 ; at Moen
jaspar, agate, and obsidian, 81 ;
tomb a flint hatchet, balls of amber,
Moustier flints almond-shaped and and vases, 191 ; tools of quartzite,
pointed, 83 ; Chelleen type abun- granite, schist, and diorite in align-
dant in France and England, found ments of Brittany, 194 polishing ;
in Italy, Spain, Algeria, Hindostan, stone and cup-stones from megaliths

and America, 83, 84 Mousterien ; of France, 194 ; hatchets of quartz-
epoch more varied forms, 84 Solu- ; ite, fibrolite, diorite, nephrite, and
treen period stalked arrow-head, jadeitefrom Brittany, 214 ; hatchets
and more elegant forms, 85 ; Made- and celts of foreign stone, 2r5
leine period great variety of shapes polished stone weapons from West
and materials, 85 ; Neolithic period Gothland, 217 ; iron sword, inlaid
—
INDEX. 411
Weapons Continued, grindstones for crushing grain, 296 ;
with silver, fragments of shield and from Santorin (yEgean Sea) troughs
battle axe, and iron bridle-bit from for crushed grain, lava discs used in
Aspatria (Cumberland), 220 ; in weaving, lava weights, flint arrow-
Ireland, iron knives and rings, head and saw, obsidian arrows and
copper pins, and a great number of knives, and small copper saw, 314 ;
bone implements, 220 hatchets ; stone implements from 3d, 4th, and
vary in different districts, 227 5th colonies of Hill of Hissarlik,
1
immense numbers of, 231 ; at 322 stone and bronze implements
;
Solutre 4,000 flints, at Ors 8,000 from Troy, 324 celts and saws of ;
objects,232 in Thayngen Cave

; rock, with handles of wood or bone,
12,000 chipped stones, in caves of awls and pins of bone and ivory,
Belgium 80,000, at Grez 60,000 326 ; hematite and diorite projec-
worked stones, and arrows of every tiles, 334 Bronze age in Troy,
;
known type, 233 ; environs of Paris spits and nails of copper, 335 ;
rich in deposits, 233 ; also Ireland, metal shields, vases, and dishes,
Denmark, Algeria, and America, 336 ;
fusaioles, construction of, 339
234 flints
; of Grand -Pressigny, — — from
•
funeral pits at Tours-sur-
235 ; bronze hatchets,
caches, 235 ; Marne, 355, 356 ; celts and hatchets
daggers, and bridle-bits from Siberia, as amulets, 377 ; flint hatchets in-
236 ; from Concise knives, stilettos, tentionally broken a funeral rite,
arrow-heads, and chisels of boars' 377 !
votive hatchets beneath dol-
tusks, 237 ; at St. Julien-du-Saut mens, 378 ; hatchets engraved on
stone implements of every epoch, megaliths, 378
238 (see "Workshops"); polishers Weaving, 314
at Loing (Nemours), 238 mining
; Webster, on sepulchral mound at
implements, 241, 243 ; in France Floyd (Iowa), 358
implements of rock foreign lo the Weisgerber, on Algerian megaliths,
localities, 246 ; hatchets and nuclei 197
from Pressigny le Grand, in bed of West Kennet, igo, 216, 217, 254
the Seine, in Brittany on banks of Whistles, 112
the Meuse, and in Scotland, 246 ;
Whittlesey (America), 299
pick-hammers from Lake of Bienne, Whorles of flint, 28 of earthenware, ;
tl "
255 beautiful darts and polished
; 150 ; see also Fusaioles
boars' tusks from Lozere Cave, 258 ;
Wiltshire, dolmens with circular open-
hatchets of coralline limestone, jade, ings, 213
fibrolite, and serpentine, flint knives, Wirzchow Cave, 25
arrows feathered or stalked, from Wolf, 47
Saint-Martin-la-Riviere, 262 ; mar- Wooden picks, 290
row spoon and button-from Lake Workshops of Stone age in Tunisia,
Station, Switzerland, 288 weapons ; 33 ; at Argecilla, 96, 97 ; in Al-
of Mousterien type at Cissbury, also geria, 197 at Wargla (Algeria),
;
wooden picks, 290 ; similar picks in 234 ; at Grand- Pressigny, 235 ; on

copper mines of Asturias, salt mines shores of the Bay of Kiel, and in
of Salzburg, and petroleum well, other places, 236 ; at Spiennes,
United States, 290 from Roumania ; Hoxne, Brandon, Bellaria, and
—
Workshops Continued. Written characters at Cissbury, 291
Rome, 236, 237 Concise a manu-
; Wurmbrand, on Lake Stations of
facturing centre, 237 ; manufacto- Austria and Hungary, 151
ries of France, 238 ; of Algeria, Wylde, on Irish crannoges, 163
Asia Minor, and America, 240 at ;
flint quarries at Spiennes, Brandon, Yenesei, the, 195, 236 ; valleys of, 28
and Mur Barrez, 241-243 ; of Neo- Yezo (Japan), dolmens of, 1 79
lithic date, 244 ; camp at Cissbury, Yucatan, cromlechs of, 186 ; temples
290 ; in Spain workshops of metal- of, 341
lurgists, 295
Worsaae, on age of shell heaps of Zahnow (Posen), 292
America, 143 Zeedyck, 282
I
;i,n iiiii linn in in
lltllli||||l|]l!iiil
llililliilliili!
i
,i
!
:i!
III 1
II fill ill I
lliih'
iiii
. !;!!"!:ii|ji!i;-,ii!l
|!:i
IE I
I i!i
WP i
i I
li « lllll"l
'
I lit I lllllll II II

Cu 31924029914714

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cu 31924029914714

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cu 31924029914714

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

\W>'

The original of this book is in

the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in

WORKS BY MARQUIS DE NADAILLAC.

held the regions in which these remains are found." Nation.

The Customs and Monuments of Prehistoric Peoples. By

Use of Fire, Clothing, Ornaments Early Artistic Efforts

Caves, Kitchen-Middings, Lake Stations, " Terremares," Cran-

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, Publishers,

THE MARQUIS DE NADAILLAC

WITH 113 ILLUSTRATIONS

NANCY BELL (N. D'Anvers)

Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by

The present volume has been translated, with the

isknown on the subject of which it treats, and covers

Nancy Bell (N. D'Anveks).

II. Food, Cannibalism, Mammals, Fish, Hunt-

Use of Fire, Clothing, Ornaments

" Terremares," Crannoges, Burghs

V. Megalithic Monuments . . . -174

from the Martinet cave (Lot-et-Garonne).

5. Harpoon of stag-horn from St. Aubin.

14. Ancient Scandinavian boat found beneath a tumulus

( A lake pirogue found in the Lake of Neuchatel.

18. Scraper from the Delaware valley. [

ao. Worked flints from the Lafaye and Plantade shelters

signs or drawings. 9. Whistle. 10. One end of a

bow (?). 11. Arrow-head. (From the Vaehe,

29. X Stiletto made of the end of a human radius.

30. Whistle from the Massenat collection . . 112

34. Staff of office in reindeer antler, with a horsed 115

35. Staff of officefound at Montgaudier . . .117

43. Reindeer grazing, from the Thayngen cave . . 122

50. Objects discovered in the peat-bogs of Laybach,

59. The great broken menhir of Locmariaker with

60. Covered avenue of Dissignac (Loire-Inf erieure),view

Dolmen at Pallicondah, near Madras (India)

69. Dolmen with opening (India) 211

70. Dolmen near Trie (Oise) 212

73. Section of a flint mine

79. Fragment of human humerus pierced at the elbow-

Trepanned Peruvian skull

83. Trepanned prehistoric skull 274

89. Vase ending in the snout of an animal, found on the

93. Vase found beneath the ruins of Troy. )

94. Terra-cotta vase found with the treasure of Priam

THE STONE AGE : ITS DURATION AND ITS PLACE IN

The nineteen tli century, now nearing its close, has

of Arabia, and the Hindoo Koosh or Pamir mountains,

have rapidly sprung into being, and even the

but a small portion of the work on which the present

was the advance of the English and Russian forces

book the French expedition to Tonquin may be con-

fore their construction North America was inhabited

tained to after long and arduous groping. Who were

whatever point of view he is considered, man must of

it is hopeless to attempt to solve by human means or

ence We will deal with facts alone we will accept

no theories, and we must, alas, often fail to come to any