Digestion

Introduction
Digestive system hydrolyses large food macromolecules to smaller absorbable molecules (called
digestion) which are absorbed through the gastrointestinal mucosa to:
- Supply body tissues with essential nutrients, water and electrolytes.

Digestion divided into:-

a) Mechanical digestion- reduction in food particle size that increases particle’s surface area for
enzymatic hydrolysis of the particles (usually accomplished by chewing and churning of the
food).
a) Chemical digestion- accomplished by various enzymes along the gastrointestinal tract. The
enzymes reduce large food macromolecules into smaller units through hydrolysis i.e.
application of water molecules to cleave a chemical bond between nutrient molecules.

Functional structure of the digestive system (GIT)

GIT consists of tubular structures that vary in diameter over entire length of the tract. The GIT wall is
formed by
- Inner circular and outer longitudinal sheets of syncytial smooth muscle.
- Contraction of GIT walls propel ingested food along the lumen of the tract (called
peristalsis) where digestion takes place. .

The contractions (also called gut motility) occur as:-

a) Tonic contraction- a sustained, continuous contraction of moderate strength which is always
present as muscle tone.

b) Peristalsis- a wave of smooth muscle contraction that usually propels ingesta from the
esophagus towards the anus but occasionally occurs in the opposite direction as anti-
peristalsis.

Contractions are initiated by:-

- Mechanical stretch of gut walls by ingesta
- Electric stimuli emanating from special, self-depolarizing smooth muscle cells spread out
as loci along entire tract
- parasympathetic stimulation
- other hormone and chemical substances

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 - irritation of gut walls e.g. by microbial toxins
Peristalsis is inhibited by:-
- pain in the GIT
- Sympathetic stimulation (adrenalin)
- Inhibitory hormones produced by various segments of GIT e.g. gastric inhibitory peptide
(GIP) produced by small intestinal epithelium inhibits stomach motility.
Strength and frequency of gut motility are regulated by reflexes emanating within GIT.

Digestion in Monogastric Animals

Animals having a single-chambered stomach are classified as monogastric or non-ruminants (man,

carnivores, pig, fowl etc).

Digestion in the:-

1) Mouth
Prehension
- Food is acquired from the environment into the oral cavity (Prehension) using prehensile
organs (teeth, fore-limbs, lips and tongue). Prehension is followed by
- mastication (chewing) using teeth and jaw movements (caused by contraction of muscles of
mastication- voluntary and reflex) and
- turning of food by the tongue.
- Large food particles are broken down to smaller sizes (also termed comminution) thereby
increasing food particle surface area for enzymatic hydrolysis.
Saliva secreted by parotid, mandibular and sublingual salivary glands is mixed with food during
mastication.
- Saliva contains
a. mucin- a mucopolysaccharide lubricant that lubricates food bolus during swallowing
b. Salivary amylase- hydrolytic enzyme that hydrolyses starch and glycogen into smaller
units, maltose and maltotriose
c. Lysozyme- an enzyme that inactivates microorganisms in ingested food.
d. Sodium Bicarbonate- makes oral environment alkaline, conducive for amylase
activity.

Food particles are held together by mucin and rolled into a bolus by the tongue then swallowed
(termed deglutition- a complicated reflex action involving closure of caudal nasal opening into the
pharynx by epiglottis, forward displacement of larynx so opening to trachea is closed by glottis and
caudal tongue while the tongue presses against palate to propel bolus to caudal oral cavity) by propelling
the bolus over a closed glottis into anterior opening of esophagus. Protein and fat digestion does not
take place in the mouth.

Presence of bolus in esophagus stimulates esophageal peristalsis and bolus is conveyed to stomach
through cardiac sphincter.

2) Stomach

The organ has a cardiac, fundic and pyrolic regions. Functions of the stomach includes:-

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-

- Ingesta storage: stomach walls undergo receptive relaxation to accommodate sizeable

portion of ingested food
- Churning (mixing of ingesta): rhythmic stomach contractions mix ingesta into a uniform,
paste-like chyle.
- Produce gastric secretion containing
o hydrochloric acid (HCl) secreted by oxyntic cells of stomach mucosa which makes
stomach contents acidic.
o Pepsin is secreted as a proenzyme (pepsinogen) by tubular stomach mucosal
glands and activated by HCL into active, proteolytic pepsin within the stomach
lumen. Pepsin hydrolyses protein to smaller peptones for further digestion in the
intestines.
o Rennin- A milk-cuddling enzyme secreted by stomach glands in man and some
animal species. Cuddling facilitates hydrolysis of milk protein (casein) by Pepsin.
- Mucus is secreted by individual mucus cells in stomach epithelium. The mucus lines inner
stomach walls to protect the layer against degradation by HCL and proteolytic enzymes.
- Strong, occasional and spontaneous contractions of the pylorus (“pyrolic pump”) empties
chyme (paste-like, uniformly mixed chyle) into the duodenum.
- Presence of digestive products of protein (particularly when meat is present in stomach)
stimulates secretion of HCL by gastric glands and also secretion of Gastrin by stomach
mucosa; a hormone that increases stomach wall contractions and assists passage of chyme
from stomach to duodenum.

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3) Small intestines (Duodenum, jejunum and ileum)

Duodenum

Presence of acidic contents in duodenum causes production of-

a) Secretin- A hormone produced by duodenal epithelium which is transported through
blood to the stomach. Secretin inhibits stomach motility thus regulating emptying of
chyme to duodenum. Secretin stimulates secretion of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) by
pancrease; the ions neutralize HCL making the contents alkaline.
b) Fats in food stimulates duodenal epithelium to produce the hormone Cholecystokinin (also
called pancreozymin or CCK) which is conveyed by blood to the gall bladder where the
hormone causes gall bladder wall contractions to empty bile into duodenal lumen at the
Major duodenal papilla. Bile salts (taurocholic and glycocholic acids) saponify (emulsify)
fats globules into small droplets- increasing surface area for enzymatic digestion. Bile
also contains pigments (biliverdin and bilirubin), cholesterol and mucin.
c) Pancreatic juice is secreted into the duodenum through pancreatic duct at the major
papilla (papillae of vater). Pancreatic enzymes are produced by exocrine part of the gland
and hydrolyses most food macromolecules to smaller units that are, sometimes, absorbable
molecules. The enzymes include:-
o Pancreatic amylase that hydrolyses starch and other long chain polysaccharides
to glucose.
o Pancreatic lipase that hydrolyses saponified triglycerides into monoglycerides,
free fatty acids and glycerol.
o Pancreatic proteases that hydrolyse dietary protein. The proteases are produced as
inactive proenzymes to protect pancrease from enzymatic degradation. The
enzymes include:-
 Trypsinogen, activated by HCL to trypsin (which further autocatalyses
activation of more trypsinogen). Trypsin is the major pancreatic protease
and hydrolyses peptide bonds at sites having aromatic amino acids
(tryptophan, phenylalanine and tyrosine).
 Chymotrypsinogen, a proenzyme activated by trpsin to chymotrypsin that
hydrolyses peptide bonds at points bearing aromatic amino acids.

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  Procarboxypeptidase, activated by trypsin to carboxypeptidase cleaves
amino acids from carboxyl terminal of a polypeptide chain to liberate free
amino acids- i.e. completes protein digestion.

Duodenum
Duodenal mucosal epithelial cells produce enzymes that complete digestion of disaccharides and
short-chain polypeptides:-
- Maltase: hydrolyses maltose to 2 glucose molecules
- Sucrase: hydrolyses sucrose to a glucose and fructose monomer
- Lactase: hydrolyses lactose to glucose and galactose molecules
- Aminopeptidase: cleaves amino acids from amino terminal of a polypeptide.

Nutrient Absorption

Uptake of products of digestion from intestinal lumen into the blood and lymphatic fluid within the
intestinal walls takes place primarily at jejunum and ileum (small intestines). Small intestinal
absorptive surface area is increased by presence of folds of the mucosa and further by presence of
numerous villi- fingerlike projections from epithelium towards intestinal lumen.

Absorption of nutrients occur by:-

a) Simple diffusion- when concentration of nutrients is higher in intestinal contents than in villi
lymph or blood. Diffusion is a slow process playing limited role in absorption.
b) Carrier mediated transport (co-transport): This occurs as-
- Facilitated diffusion e.g. glucose absorption is facilitated by active transport of sodium
from cytoplasm of epithelial cells through basolateral cell boarders into interstitial fluid
by Na-K pump.

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 c) Pinocytosis- for absorption of large molecules e.g. fatty acids into epithelial cells. In the
cytoplasm, the free fatty acids, mono and diglycerides are synthesized back to triglycerides
by condensing them to glycerol (absorbed from gastrointestinal lumen or synthesized de-novo).
The triglycerides enter central lacteal and aggregate to tiny droplets, chylomicrons, that
enters blood circulation through the thoracic duct (that drains into superior vena just before
emptying into right atrium).
d) Amino acids and small peptides enter epithelial cells (facilitated by Na-K ATPase) where all
peptides are broken to amino acids (a.a) that enter hepatic-portal blood circulation to the
liver where:-
- a.a are used for protein synthesis
- a.a are deaminated (removal of amino group) forming urea (is excreted) and carbon
skeletons (used for energy metabolism)
- a.a are transported to other tissues and used for protein synthesis e.g. growth and repair of
body tissues.
e) Carbohydrate monomers enter portal circulation to the liver and are then:-
- Synthesized into large carbohydrate molecules for storage- glycogen.
- Metabolized to synthesize energy (ATP) through glycolysis and krebs cycle. Excess
Acetyl-CoA is synthesized into triglycerides in liver.
- Synthesized into special molecules e.g. glucose used in milk synthesis.

4) Functions of large intestines

Epithelium of large intestines is devoid of villi and folds but is rich in mucus glands; mucus acts as a
lubricant. Water and some mineral salts are absorbed through the walls through poorly understood
mechanisms. Aldosterone enhances Na+ absorption followed by osmotic water absorption. Resident
microorganisms synthesize vitamin K; important in hemostasis.
Undigested matter is propelled by peristalsis to the rectum and defecated through anus by defecation
reflex.