lubricants

Article
Study of Lubrication Performance and Churning Loss under
Mixed Lubrication Mode in Gearbox
Lina Wang 1 , Yi Liu 2,3, * , Kailin Zhang 3 , Yuan Yao 3 , Shuai Shao 3 and Kuangzhou He 4

1 Rail Transit College, Chengdu Vocational & Technical College of Industry, Chengdu 610031, China;
13547928891@163.com
2 National Key Laboratory of Vehicular Transmission, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
3 State Key Laboratory of Rail Transit Vehicle System, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China;
zhangkailin@home.swjtu.edu.cn (K.Z.); 13086695153@163.com (Y.Y.); shaoshuai@my.swjtu.edu.cn (S.S.)
4 Simulation Department, Suzhou shonCloud Engineering Software Co., Ltd., Suzhou 215100, China;
kuangzhou.he@shoncloud.com
* Correspondence: swjtu_lyi5153@163.com

Abstract: In order to clarify the effect of mixed lubrication methods on the oil flow and power loss
of the gearbox, this study adopts a high-precision moving particle semi-implicit (MPS) method to
investigate the lubrication of the gearbox under the joint influence of splash lubrication and oil
injection lubrication. The accuracy of the numerical method to calculate the churning torque was
verified by the constructed test rig. The effects of rotational speed, immersion depth, injection volume
rate, and oil injection angle were analyzed and evaluated for lubrication. The results show that better
lubrication can be achieved with relatively small churning torques by using a hybrid lubrication
method. This provides some references for engineering applications of gearboxes.

Keywords: MPS method; jet lubrication; splash lubrication; comprehensive lubrication evaluation;
churning loss

1. Introduction
The rail transportation industry is dedicated to decreasing energy consumption and
Citation: Wang, L.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, K.; continuously enhancing the transmission efficiency of high-speed trains, in line with the
Yao, Y.; Shao, S.; He, K. Study of current trend of energy conservation and emission reduction. In high-power industrial
Lubrication Performance and applications, the power loss of gearboxes is significant. When gears rotate at high speeds,
Churning Loss under Mixed friction occurs in the meshing area, generating a large amount of heat. Using only splash
Lubrication Mode in Gearbox. lubrication [1] may be difficult to meet good gear lubrication conditions and will result
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283. https:// in phenomena such as pitting and galling of the tooth surfaces, which will affect the
doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12080283 service life of the gears. Oil injection lubrication can provide a greater power capacity for
Received: 28 June 2024 gears [2–4]. It is becoming a progressively vital method for decreasing the temperature of
Revised: 24 July 2024 high-velocity or heavy-duty gears. However, the use of oil-injected lubrication alone may
Accepted: 1 August 2024 result in inadequate lubrication in other critical areas. Therefore, it is important to study the
Published: 8 August 2024 lubrication performance and power loss of gearboxes under mixed lubrication methods.
The lubrication and efficiency of gearboxes has been studied by many scholars before
and it is a subject of great interest. Concli and Gorla [5], Concli et al. [6], Mastrone and
Concli [7] used open-source CFD software for different types of gears to study the power
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. loss. Mastrone et al. [8] predicted the oil flow and churning torque of a gearbox using
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
the CFD method and tested it using the particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique. The
This article is an open access article
comparison revealed that the torque, oil distribution, and local flow detail characteristics
distributed under the terms and
were consistent with the tests. Su et al. [9] built a unique test rig to conduct tests of nanofluid
conditions of the Creative Commons
participation in splash lubrication. And, the finite volume method (FVM) was used to
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
track the oil volume fraction on the gear surface, which opened up a new direction for the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
research of nanofluid participation in splash lubrication. Wei et al. [10] simplified a gear as a
4.0/).

Lubricants 2024, 12, 283. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12080283 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/lubricants

Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 2 of 20

disk, and established a unique low-temperature experimental system to study the flow field
and churning torque of splash lubrication. Leprince et al. [11] set up a flow measurement
test rig that can measure the oil flow around gears with splash lubrication. And, based on
the test results, a series of equations were deduced using magnitude analysis. Neurouth
et al. [12] developed a unique test rig to measure stirring losses and aeration effects in
individual gears at different temperatures. A removable wall was inserted into the gearbox
to observe the effects. It was found that inserting the biscuits at the right location could
reduce the stirring loss. Liu et al. [13,14] studied the engineering application and theory
of splash lubrication in gearboxes. Among them, Liu et al. [13] focused on the churning
loss and lubrication performance of gearboxes with splash lubrication under vibration, and
comprehensively evaluated the efficiency and lubrication using dimensionless numbers.
Liu et al. [14] focused on the influence of the guide plate on gear lubrication and the
contribution of the guide plate to the reduction in churning loss. In addition to installing
guide plates outside the gears, jet lubrication is another way to reduce the churning torque.
The use of new fluids or structural optimization is a common means of improving splash
lubrication performance, while jet lubrication is also a way to reduce churning torque and
improve lubrication and cooling performance.
Jet lubrication has begun to receive increasing attention from researchers due to the
excellent cooling and lubricating effects on the engagement zone. Hu et al. [2] established a
numerical model of jet lubrication for spur gears, investigated the process of oil injection
into the meshing zone using the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM), and analyzed the lubri-
cation performance under different working conditions. Keller et al. [15–17] investigated
the impact of jets on gears with oil flow behavior via Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics
(SPH) and LBM. In the simulation process of injection lubrication using the CFD method,
researchers often only consider the oil injection but neglect the oil return, which leads to
incomplete oil circulation. Zhou et al. [18] constructed an experimental setup for jet lubrica-
tion, applied dye to the oil, and examined and studied the flow characteristics of the oil in
high-speed helical gear jet lubrication. In addition, Mirza et al. [19] and Yilmaz et al. [20]
investigated minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) and on-demand drip lubrication to
significantly reduce the amount of oil supplied. MQL and on-demand dip lubrication
methods use less oil supply compared to splash lubrication and injection lubrication, which
results in lower churning losses, but also results in poorer heat dissipation, which in turn
leads to high component temperatures. Researchers have focused more on the theoretical
study of jet lubrication and oil distribution, but less on the engineering application of jet
lubricated gearboxes with power loss.
The rapid development of numerical methods in CFD has led to a significant increase
in the visibility of gearbox lubrication. A combination of numerical computation and
experimentation has become the conventional approach. FVM is the traditional method
for performing CFD analysis of gearboxes. Maccioni et al. [21] performed numerical
simulations of splash lubrication on bearings using open-source software and explored the
aeration phenomenon in conjunction with the PIV method. Concli and Mastrone [22,23]
conducted a comprehensive analysis of the entire system, which encompassed shafts,
gears, and bearings. The study employed a global meshing method with mesh clustering
to examine all rolling bodies involved. Particle methods are considered along with the
emerging numerical methods, including SPH [24], LBM [25], MPS [26], etc. However, while
both LBM and SPH possess distinct traits and capabilities, LBM necessitates a significant
amount of memory and exhibits low computational efficiency. On the other hand, SPH
lacks the ability to accurately describe turbulence and is imprecise in calculating churning
torque. MPS has convenient pre-processing and high computational efficiency and accuracy.
Liu et al. [27] utilized the MPS method to investigate the splash lubrication of a rail vehicle
gearbox. This approach allowed for the visualization of the intricate internal structure of
the gearbox and facilitated the optimization of the gearbox’s design. Deng et al. [28,29]
The lubrication of worm gearing was studied by combining numerical and experimental
methods, and parameter optimization was carried out via the Taguchi method. Although
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 3 of 20

some discussion is made on lubrication in gearboxes, quantitative lubrication indexes are

usually missing in previous studies.
This work examines the lubrication and churning losses of gearboxes using numerical
approaches, specifically focusing on mixed lubrication techniques. The MPS method with
high efficiency and accuracy is used for calculation and verified by experimental compar-
ison. The effects of parameters such as rotational speed, oil immersion depth, injection
speed, and injection angle on the effectiveness of hybrid lubrication are investigated. Fur-
ther, the hybrid lubrication effect was evaluated according to the described lubrication
condition evaluation method. This research provides the prospect of hybrid lubrication in
heavy-duty, high-speed gearboxes.

2. MPS Methodology
2.1. Governing Equations
The motion of incompressible fluids is determined by solving the continuity and
Navier–Stokes equations [30].
Dρ
=0 (1)
Dt
Du ∇p
=− + ν ∇2 u + g (2)
Dt ρ

2.2. Kernel Function Model

The governing equations of fluid motion in MPS can be solved on the basis of inter-
particle interactions. And, the interaction of discrete particles is mainly determined by the
kernel function, which is expressed as follows [30]:

 re − 1 0 ≤ rij < re


ωij = |rij |
(3)
0 rij ≥ re ,

where re is the radius of the area affected by each particle. rij is the distance vector between
the ith particle and the jth particle, which is given by rij = |rj − ri |.
Further, calculate the particle number density (PND):
2
0 ∑ j̸=i ωij rij
n = (4)
∑ j̸=i ωij

2.3. Particle Interaction Models

The way in which differential operators are transformed into particle expressions in
MPS is called the particle model, whose gradient and Laplace models are as follows:
" #
d ϕj − ϕi
⟨∇ϕ⟩i = 0 ∑



2
r j − ri ω rij (5)
n j ̸ =i rij

and the Laplace operator is

D E 2d
∇2 ϕ ∑



= 0 0
ϕj − ϕi ω rij . (6)
i n λ j ̸ =i

The particle number density (PND) is the total of the weighting functions in the
supporting region, and as all particles have the same mass, it may be expressed as

ni = n0 = ∑ ω rij


(7)
j ̸ =i
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 4 of 20

2.4. Boundary Conditions

No-slip wall and free-surface boundaries are frequent MPS boundary conditions.
Whether particle i is a free surface particle depends on the liquid surface particle density
being smaller than n0 :
⟨n⟩i∗ < βn0 (8)
where β is the free-surface recognition parameter, and the value of β in this numerical
calculation is 0.97 [31].

2.5. Numerical Fitting of Churning Losses

In gearboxes, the direct contact of all rotating parts with the oil overcomes the fluid
resistance to do work, which results in power loss. To calculate churning losses, it is
necessary to quantify the process of churning losses in numerical terms.
For the splash lubrication gear box, churning loss is mainly composed of 3 parts: gear
teeth directly promoting the main stream (tangential flow) energy loss; the flow continuity
and volume suction effect of the formation of the secondary flow (radial flow) energy loss;
and the energy loss due to squeezing and pumping during gear meshing [32,33]. In the case
of oil-injected lubricated gearboxes, the power losses that occur when the gearbox is not
under load can be divided into three categories: impulse power losses, squeezing power
losses in the meshing zone, and wind resistance power losses [24]. At low rotational speeds,
the power loss due to wind resistance is minimal and can be disregarded. During the
simulation of the flow pattern in the gearbox, the fluid force is applied to the gear surface
by interpolation. The fluid force monitored on the surface of the gear pair is extracted.
The churning resistance moment is the result of multiplying the reaction force by the force
arm [13].
In the numerical simulation of a gearbox, the power loss generated by the gears can
be expressed as
T·Ω
P= (9)
9550
where T is the churning resistance torque generated by the gear, and Ω is the rotation speed.

3. Model and Parameterization

3.1. Model
The main structure of the gearbox of the rolling stock studied in this paper includes
the following: the case, gear pair, bearings, and other accessories. The schematic diagram of
the structure is shown in Figure 1. The main purpose of this paper is to study the churning
loss and lubrication performance of gears under mixed lubrication. The shaft end cover,
shaft bushing, and output shaft have little impact on oil flow; hence, they are neglected.
Table 1 lists the gear parameters.

Table 1. Parameters of gear pair.

Parameter Value Parameter Value

pressure angle 20◦ pinion face width 72 mm
transmission ratio 81/29 wheel face width 66 mm
normal module 6.75 mm center distance 380 mm
helix angle 15.5◦

This gearbox operates at high speeds where proper lubrication performance may be
difficult to achieve with splash lubrication alone. The linear speed of the gears meets the
conditions for the use of injection lubrication. To study the performance of oil injection
lubrication under vibration conditions, injection holes are provided above the mesh zone.
The oil injected from one of the holes comes from the lubricant at the bottom of the case
and does not add to the total mass of oil in the case. When the injection volume rate is
0 L/min, the gearbox is splash lubricated only. In the initial stage of gearbox operation, the
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 5 of 20

lubricant is distributed at the bottom of the case. The rotation of the gear pair churns the oil
to splash into the mesh zone, bearings, and other critical areas to perform lubrication and
cooling. Monitoring surfaces are set up at the oil inlet and oil return holes on both5 sides
Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 21
of the driven gear to record the amount of oil supplied to the bearings and the amount of
oil returned.

Figure 1. Exploded
Figure Exploded view
viewofofthe
thestudied
studiedgearbox.
gearbox.1—output
1—output shaft; 2—wheel;
shaft; 3—upper
2—wheel; case; case;
3—upper 4—wheel
4—
wheel sidering;
side seal seal ring; 5—output
5—output shaftshaft wheel
wheel sideside bearing;
bearing; 6—output
6—output shaft
shaft wheel
wheel side
side bearing
bearing retain-
retaining
ing ring;
ring; 7—output
7—output shaft
shaft wheel
wheel sideside retaining
retaining ring
ring side
side seal
seal ring;
ring; 8—output
8—output shaft
shaft wheel
wheel side
side bush-
bushing;
ing; 9—input shaft pinion side end cover; 10—input shaft pinion side bushing; 11—input
9—input shaft pinion side end cover; 10—input shaft pinion side bushing; 11—input shaft pinion shaft pin-
ion side bearing; 12—input shaft pinion side bearing retaining ring; 13—pinion side seal
side bearing; 12—input shaft pinion side bearing retaining ring; 13—pinion side seal ring; 14—pinion;ring; 14—
pinion; 15—lower case.
15—lower case.

Table 1. Parameters of gear pair.

3.2. Configuration of the Simulation
TheParameter
gearbox is equipped Value with lubricating oilParameter
of grade 80 W–140 W. Value Density and
pressure angle 20° pinion
kinematic viscosity are significant markers of the lubricating face widthoil in this 72 mm
investigation;
transmission
Table 2 displays ratio
the lubricating 81/29
oil’s properties. wheel Dueface
towidth 66 mm
the effect of temperature on
lubricant
normal physical
module properties,6.75the density
mm and viscosity at different oil temperatures
center distance 380 mm are
calculated
helixusing
anglethe standard AGMA 15.5° 925 A03 [34] expressions for the relevant physical
parameters under 40 ◦ C and 90 ◦ C.
This gearbox operates at high speeds where proper lubrication performance may be
lg[lg(ν + 0.7alone.
difficult to achieve with splash lubrication )] = AThe − BlgT
linear speed of the gears meets the (10)
conditions for the use of injection lg[lg(lubrication.
ν40 + 0.7)] −To lg[study
lg(ν100the performance
+ 0.7 )] of oil injection
lubrication under vibration B= conditions, injection holes are provided above the mesh zone. (11)
lg373.15 − lg313.15
The oil injected from one of the holes comes from the lubricant at the bottom of the case
and does not add to the total = lg[lg
A mass of(νoil + 0.7
40 in +B×
the)]case. 1g313.5
When the injection volume rate is 0
L/min, the gearbox is splash lubricated only. In
where T is the absolute temperature, K; A and B are constantsthe initial stage of gearbox
that canoperation,
be computedthe
lubricant
numerically;is distributed
and ν40 and at νthe bottom of the case. The rotation of the gear pair churns the ◦
100 are the kinematic viscosities, cst, at oil temperatures of 40 C
oil
andto100
splash into the mesh zone, bearings, and other critical areas to perform lubrication
◦ C, respectively.
and cooling. Monitoring surfaces are set up at the oil inlet and oil return holes on both
sides
Table of the drivenofgear
2. Parameters oil. to record the amount of oil supplied to the bearings and the
amount of oil returned.
Parameter Value
3.2. Configuration of the at
Density 20 ◦ C/(kg/m)3
Simulation 870
Kinematic viscosity at 40 ◦ C/(cst) 310Density and kin-
The gearbox is equipped with◦lubricating oil of grade 80 W–140 W.
Kinematic viscosity at 90 C/(cst) 72
ematic viscosity are significant markers of the lubricating oil in this investigation; Table 2
displays the lubricating oil’s properties. Due to the effect of temperature on lubricant
physical properties, the density and viscosity at different oil temperatures are calculated
using the standard AGMA 925 A03 [34] expressions for the relevant physical parameters
under 40 °C and 90 °C.
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 6 of 20

In the simulation process, choosing the right time step is essential. Smaller time
steps may cause a very low computational efficiency, while larger time steps may cause
computational dispersion. The time step is determined based on the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy (CFL) condition.
!
cmax l0 1 di l02
∆t = min ∆tin , , (12)
umax 2 v + vmax

where l0 is the particle diameter, umax is the maximum particle velocity, di is the diffusion
coefficient, v is the fluid kinematic viscosity, vmax is its maximum value, and cmax is the
Coulomb coefficient, which is 0.2 in this study. ∆tin is the initial time step, cumax l0
max
is to
d l2
ensure that ∆t satisfies the CFL condition, and v+vi max 0
is to ensure the stability of the
viscosity calculation.
The particle radius, which is an important solution parameter related to the computa-
tional speed and accuracy, is set to 1.0 mm in this study. The total number of particles in the
computational domain is 447,210. The results of the particle independence validation are
shown in Table 3. From Table 3, it can be seen that the difference in the stirring torque of
the gears under different particle diameters is not higher than 6.1%. Therefore, the model
with a particle diameter of 1.0 mm is selected for simulation. The fluid surface tension is
set to 0.072 N/m, and the wall contact angle is set to 20◦ .

Table 3. Results of particle independence verification.

Particle Diameter (mm) Number of Particles Churning Loss (W)

0.5 3,836,720 138
0.8 1,036,720 132
1.0 447,210 140

In this numerical simulation, only the bottom oil sump supplies oil when splash
lubrication is used. When mixed lubrication with splash lubrication and oil injection
lubrication is used, in addition to the oil supply from the bottom pool, the nozzle on the
top of the meshing area injects oil. At the same time, the oil return pump located at the
bottom of the pool starts working to keep the total oil volume of the pool balanced.

3.3. Evaluation of Gearbox Lubrication

The lubrication effectiveness of the gearbox can be discussed in terms of the oil
distribution on the bearing and gear surfaces as well as the oil distribution inside the box.
When the gearbox works, under the mixed lubrication mode, the internal fluid is
mainly divided into the oil in the pool, the oil involved in bearing lubrication, and the oil in
the approximately uniformly distributed oil–air mixture inside the box. The total volume
of the fluid domain inside the case is denoted as V, and the initial oil volume is denoted as
V oil . The area between the bottom surface of the box and the initial oil level is the bottom
area of the box. The lubricant oil content in each grid below the initial oil level is obtained
by a customized function, and the oil volume Vci in the tank is obtained by integrating over
the bottom region of the case.
The net oil inlet mass of the bearing region at moment t = I is computed.

qbi = q1i − q2i (13)

where q1i denotes the bearing mass flow rate at the moment of time t = I, the oil return mass
of the bearing region is q2i . The average oil volume fraction is αi .
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 7 of 20

The oil concentration in the bearing regions is

i
Qbi = ∑ qbt (14)
t =0

The bearing region is assumed to have a fluid composition consisting of 40% volume
of continuous fluids [35].
αei = 40% (15)
Therefore, the amount of lubricating oil in the bearing area is

Qbi
Vbi = (16)
αei · ρ

The instantaneous lubrication effectiveness of the bearing is

Vbi
ηbi = (17)
V

The effective oil concentration, written as cei , refers to the volume proportion of oil
in the oil mixture within the case, assuming a nearly uniform distribution and without
taking into account the local accumulation of lubricating oil. The portion of the oil volume
referred to as the effective oil volume is written as Vei . The calculation of the effective oil
concentration is as follows:
Vei = Voil − Vbi − Vci (18)
Vei
cei = (19)
V

4. Results and Discussion

To investigate the impact of rotational speed, oil immersion depth, oil jet volume
rate, and injection angle on lubrication and churning loss in a mobile gearbox operating
under mixed lubrication, various experimental conditions were created. These conditions
involved four different rotational speeds, three different oil immersion depths, four oil
spray volume rates, and four oil spray angles.

4.1. Influence of Rotational Speed

The flow field of the splash-lubricated gearbox at different rotational speeds is shown
in Figure 2. As the rotational speed increases, the flow in the flow channel and meshing
zone supplying oil to the bearing increases significantly, and the oil distribution in the case
becomes more uniform. However, when the rotational speed reaches 3000 rpm, the oil in
the bottom pool moves to the right and no longer covers the entire bottom of the case. At
this point, splash lubrication alone is no longer sufficient to provide sufficient oil.
Figure 3a illustrates the lubrication efficiency of the bearing, the concentration of
effective lubricant, and the flow rate of oil in the engagement zone during the stabilization
of the flow field. These values are averaged with respect to the change in rotational speed.
From the picture, it is evident that when the rotational speed increases, the lubrication
effectiveness of the bearing, the concentration of effective lubricant, and the rate of oil flow
in the meshing zone all rise in a roughly linear manner. The reason for this is because
the higher rotational speed results in a greater agitation of the oil by the gear. The flow
rate into the bearing area from the flow channel at the top of the case increases, and the
bearing lubrication efficiency increases; the amount of oil delivered to the meshing area also
increases; the disorder of the oil inside the case increases, and the amount of oil distributed
approximately uniformly inside the case in the form of oil–air mixtures increases, and
the effective lubricant concentration increases. When the rotational speed is 1000 rpm
 volume rates, and four oil spray angles.

4.1. Influence of Rotational Speed

The flow field of the splash-lubricated gearbox at different rotational speeds is shown
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 in Figure 2. As the rotational speed increases, the flow in the flow channel and meshing 8 of 20
zone supplying oil to the bearing increases significantly, and the oil distribution in the
case becomes more uniform. However, when the rotational speed reaches 3000 rpm, the
oil in4000
and the rpm,
bottom
thepool moves
effective to the right
lubricant and no longer
concentration covers
is 0.74% the entire
and 6.02%, bottom ofThe
respectively. the
case. At this of
significance point, splash lubrication
the rotating alone is no
speed in enhancing longer
the sufficient
lubrication to provide
index sufficient oil.
is evident.

Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21

evident that the increase in speed will lead to intense turbulence in the gearbox, causing
Figure
Figure 2. The splash
2.
a significant lubrication
lubrication
increase flowlosses.
flow
in no-load field of
field of the
the gearbox
gearbox with
with different
different speeds.
speeds.

Figure 3a illustrates the lubrication efficiency of the bearing, the concentration of ef-
fective lubricant, and the flow rate of oil in the engagement zone during the stabilization
of the flow field. These values are averaged with respect to the change in rotational speed.
From the picture, it is evident that when the rotational speed increases, the lubrication
effectiveness of the bearing, the concentration of effective lubricant, and the rate of oil flow
in the meshing zone all rise in a roughly linear manner. The reason for this is because the
higher rotational speed results in a greater agitation of the oil by the gear. The flow rate
into the bearing area from the flow channel at the top of the case increases, and the bearing
lubrication efficiency increases; the amount of oil delivered to the meshing area also in-
creases; the disorder of the oil inside the case increases, and the amount of oil distributed
approximately uniformly inside the case in the form of oil–air mixtures increases, and the
effective lubricant concentration increases. When the rotational speed is 1000 rpm and
4000(a)rpm, the effective lubricant concentration is 0.74% (b)
and 6.02%, respectively. The sig-
nificance of the rotating speed in enhancing the lubrication index is evident.
Figure
Figure 3. Lubrication
The
3. Lubrication
average values and churning
and churning
of churningloss results
loss results
losses atat different
at different speeds.
different speeds. (a)
speeds(a)areLubrication index; (b)
given in Figure
Lubrication index; (b) churn-
3b.churn-
From
ing loss.
Figure
ing loss.3b, it is evident that the churning loss escalates as the rotational speed increases in
the case of splash lubrication of the gearbox. At 1000 rpm, the percentage of pinion loss is
Figure 4 shows the pattern of change
losses in
at the meanspeeds
value of time-averaged coverage of
only The
1.8%. average
At 2000 values
rpm, ofthechurning
pinion churning different
loss percentage are given in
increases Figure
abruptly 3b. From
to 20.5%.
gear
Figure and bearing rollers at different speeds. The coverage shows the probability of contact
As the 3b,speedit isincreases
evident that the churning
further, the pinion loss escalates
churning as percentage
loss the rotational speed increases
increases slowly and in
between
the case ofthe surface
splash of the gearbox
lubrication of the and the oil
gearbox. At versus
1000 the the
rpm, areapercentage
of oil adherence.
of pinionThe gear
loss is
saturates. At 4000 rpm, the pinion churning loss is 23.2%. This is due to the fact that at low
coverage
only 1.8%. had
At a significant
2000 rpm, the rise of 264%,
pinion churningwhileloss the bearing roller
percentage coverage
increases sawtoan20.5%.
abruptly even
speeds the pinion gear is exposed to less oil and is therefore subjected to less resistance.
greaterspeed
As increase of 355% as the the
rotational
piniontospeed climbed from 1000 rpm to 4000 rpm.and The
As the
the speed increases
increases,further,
the oil resistance churning
the pinion loss percentage
gear increases.increases slowly
The churning losses
oil coverage
saturates. At on
4000the gearthe
rpm, and bearing
pinion surfaces
churning experienced
loss is 23.2%. a substantial
This is due to increase
the fact in at
that area.
low
are 78.0 W and 4788.8 W when the speeds are 1000 rpm and 4000 rpm, respectively. It is
speeds the pinion gear is exposed to less oil and is therefore subjected to less resistance.
As the speed increases, the oil resistance to the pinion gear increases. The churning losses
are 78.0 W and 4788.8 W when the speeds are 1000 rpm and 4000 rpm, respectively. It is
evident that the increase in speed will lead to intense turbulence in the gearbox, causing a
significant increase in no-load losses.
Figure 4 shows the pattern of change in the mean value of time-averaged coverage of
gear and bearing rollers at different speeds. The coverage shows the probability of contact
between the surface of the gearbox and the oil versus the area of oil adherence. The gear
coverage had a significant rise of 264%, while the bearing roller coverage saw an even
greater increase of 355% as the rotational speed climbed from 1000 rpm to 4000 rpm. The
oil coverage on the gear and bearing surfaces experienced a substantial increase in area.

Figure 4. Coverage rate at different rotational speeds.

4.2. Influence of Immersion Depth

Figure 5a shows the variation rule of the average values of the three lubrication indi-
 Figure 4 shows the pattern of change in the mean value of time-averaged coverage of
gear and bearing rollers at different speeds. The coverage shows the probability of contact
between the surface of the gearbox and the oil versus the area of oil adherence. The gear
coverage had a significant rise of 264%, while the bearing roller coverage saw an even
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 greater increase of 355% as the rotational speed climbed from 1000 rpm to 4000 rpm. The
9 of 20
oil coverage on the gear and bearing surfaces experienced a substantial increase in area.

Figure4.
Figure 4. Coverage
Coverage rate
rate at
at different
differentrotational
rotationalspeeds.
speeds.

4.2.
4.2. Influence
Influence of of Immersion
Immersion DepthDepth
Figure 5a shows the
Figure 5a shows the variation variationrule ruleofof thethe average
average values
values of three
of the the three lubrication
lubrication indi-
Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21
indicators
cators with the immersion depth after the flow field is stabilized. From the picture, itit is
with the immersion depth after the flow field is stabilized. From the picture, is
evident that as the depth of oil immersion increases, the oil flow
evident that as the depth of oil immersion increases, the oil flow rate in the engagement rate in the engagement
region
region shows
shows aa nearly
nearly linear
linear increase.
increase. This
This leads
leads to
to anan improvement
improvement in in the
the lubrication
lubrication
efficiency
The of the
average bearing
values and
of an increase
churning in
losses the
forconcentration
different of effective
immersion
efficiency of the bearing and an increase in the concentration of effective lubricant. lubricant.
depths are given When
Whenin
the immersion
Figure 5b. Figure depth
5b is
shows 1.0 h and
that 3.0
the h,
totalthe effective
churning lubricant
loss increasesconcentration
the immersion depth is 1.0 h and 3.0 h, the effective lubricant concentration is 1.77% andlinearly withis 1.77%
increase and
in
4.09%,
oil respectively.
immersion depthIt can beofseen thatlubrication
the improvement of the lubrication index by oil
4.09%, respectively. Itincan
case be seensplash
that the improvement of gearbox. From
of the the figure,
lubrication indexit can
by be
oil
quantity
found thatis obvious.
the churningWhen loss the
of immersion
the pinion depth
does notis 1.0
change h, the oil distribution
significantly with the inside the
increase
quantity is obvious. When the immersion depth is 1.0 h, the oil distribution inside the
gearbox
in immersionis more uniform,
depth and the and there is nodecreases.
percentage lack of lubricant in the key parts.
gearbox is more uniform, and there is no lack of lubricant in the key parts.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Lubrication
Lubrication and
and churning
churning loss
loss results
results at
at different
different immersion
immersion depth.
depth. (a)
(a) Lubrication
Lubrication index;
index;
(b) churning loss.
(b) churning loss.

Figure 6 shows
The average the variation
values patterns
of churning lossesof for
the different
mean values of the time-averaged
immersion depths are given cover-
in
age of gears
Figure and bearing
5b. Figure 5b shows rollers at different
that the immersion
total churning depths. During
loss increases linearlythe process
with of in-
increase in
creasing the immersion
oil immersion depth in depth
case offrom 1.0 hlubrication
splash to 3.0 h, the
ofcoverage
gearbox.ofFrom
gearsthe
increased
figure, by 32.5%
it can be
and
foundthethat
coverage of bearing
the churning lossrollers
of theincreased
pinion does by not
24.0%. The area
change covered by
significantly withoilthe
on increase
the gear
and bearing surfaces increased.
in immersion depth and the percentage decreases.
Figure 6 shows the variation patterns of the mean values of the time-averaged coverage
of gears and bearing rollers at different immersion depths. During the process of increasing
the immersion depth from 1.0 h to 3.0 h, the coverage of gears increased by 32.5% and the
coverage of bearing rollers increased by 24.0%. The area covered by oil on the gear and
bearing surfaces increased.
 Figure 6 shows the variation patterns of the mean values of the time-averaged cover-
age of gears and bearing rollers at different immersion depths. During the process of in-
creasing the immersion depth from 1.0 h to 3.0 h, the coverage of gears increased by 32.5%
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 and the coverage of bearing rollers increased by 24.0%. The area covered by oil on the
10 gear
of 20
and bearing surfaces increased.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Coverage
Coverage rate
rate at
at different
different immersion
immersion depth.
depth.

effect of oil
In general, the effect oil immersion
immersion depth on the
the splash
splash lubrication
lubrication flow field is
linear and easily predictable.
predictable.

4.3.
4.3. Influence
Influence of
of Injection
Injection Speed
Speed
The hybrid lubrication simulationisisrun
The hybrid lubrication simulation runatat2000
2000 rpmrpm active
active gear
gear speed,
speed, 1.0 1.0
h oilh im-
oil
Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 ◦of 21
immersion depth, 5 L/min, 10 L/min, 15 L/min oil injection volume
mersion depth, 5 L/min, 10 L/min, 15 L/min oil injection volume rate, and 10° oil injection rate, and 10 oil
injection angle. The numerical simulation results for an oil injection volume
angle. The numerical simulation results for an oil injection volume rate of 5 L/min are rate of 5 L/min
are
shownshown in Figure
in Figure 7. On7. one
On one hand,
hand, Figure
Figure 6 shows
6 shows thatthat the splash
the splash lubrication
lubrication flowflow
fieldfield
fills
fills the entire
the entire fluidfluid domain,
domain, and and
therethere is enough
is enough oil atoilcritical
at critical locations
locations suchsuch as gear
as the the gear
cir-
circumference,
cumference, bearingbearing area,and
area, andmeshing
meshingarea.area.On
Onthetheother
otherhand,
hand,the
theoil
oil injected
injected from the
injection holes directly enters the meshing zone to lubricate lubricate andand cool
cool the
the position.
position. After
the pumping action in the engagement zone, a part of the oil flows to the bottom of the
case, which will participate in the splash lubrication together with the oil accumulated at
the bottom of the pool, while the other part is distributed in the cavity of the case on the
pinion side.

Figure 7. Diagram of flow streamline distribution for hybrid lubrication.

lubrication.

The splash
splashlubrication
lubricationflow
flowfield
fieldisisignored,
ignored,and only
and thethe
only change
changerule of the
rule oil oil
of the injection
injec-
flow field under different oil injection volume rates is tracked, as shown in
tion flow field under different oil injection volume rates is tracked, as shown in FigureFigure 8. As the8.
oil
As injection volumevolume
the oil injection rate increases, the oilthe
rate increases, distribution belowbelow
oil distribution and toand
theto
right of theofgear
the right the
becomes uniform.
gear becomes The sprayed
uniform. oil acts oil
The sprayed directly
acts on the meshing
directly on the area, and the
meshing oil and
area, around
the the
oil
pinion
aroundincreases
the pinionwith the increase
increases in the
with the spray in
increase volume rate.volume rate.
the spray
 The splash lubrication flow field is ignored, and only the change rule of the oil injec-
tion flow field under different oil injection volume rates is tracked, as shown in Figure 8.
As the oil injection volume rate increases, the oil distribution below and to the right of the
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 gear becomes uniform. The sprayed oil acts directly on the meshing area, and the 11 ofoil
20
around the pinion increases with the increase in the spray volume rate.
Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21

cant concentration and the flow rate in the engagement zone are lower than the corre-
sponding values at 4000 rpm. There is also a huge difference between the churning loss of
943.1 W at an injection volume rate of 15 L/min and 4788.8 W at a speed of 4000 rpm.
A comparison is made with Figure 5. The effective lubricant concentration at an in-
jection volume rate of 15 L/min is similar to that at an immersion depth of 3.0 h, while the
effective lubricant concentration and the flow rate in the engagement zone are higher than
the corresponding values at an immersion depth of 3.0 h. The effective lubricant concen-
tration and the flow rate in the engagement zone are higher than the corresponding values
at an immersion depth of 3.0 h. The churning loss of 943.1 W at an injection volume rate
of 15 L/min and 1358.9 W at an immersion depth of 3.0 h also differed significantly.
It can be seen that hybrid lubrication with simultaneous injection and splash lubrica-
tion improves lubrication performance in a relatively gentle and efficient manner compared
to single splash lubrication. Increasing the speed allows more oil to splash and improves the
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Flow
lubrication Flow field of
of the
performance,
field the injection
injection lubricated
but it also gearbox
results gearbox
lubricated in at different
different
significant
at churninginjection volume
losses,
injection rates. a lot of
generating
volume rates.
heat and causing a temperature rise. Continuous high speed operation may affect gear life.
Figurethe
Figure
Increasing 9a,b
9a,b show
show the
immersion the variation
variation
depth rule
ruleofofthe
and increasing theaverage
the average
injectionvalues
values of of
lubricationthethe
three lubrication
three
both in-
lubrication
essentially pro-
dexes
indexes andand churning
churning loss
losswith
with the
the oil
oilinjection
injection volume
volume rate
rate after
after the
the
vide more oil to the gears. However, unlike direct lubrication of the mesh zone by the oil flow
flow field
field is
is stabilized.
stabilized.
As can
As
from can beoil
be
the seen
seen from the
from
injection, the figures, the
figures,
increasing the average
the average
lubricationvalues
values of the three
performance three lubrication
bylubrication indicators
increasing indicators
the and
and
oil immer-
churning
churning
sion loss
depthloss increase
increase
is clearly with
lesswith the increase
the increase
efficient in the
and alsoinresults injection
the injection volume
in morevolume
churning rate.
rate.
losses.
A comparison is made with Figure 3. The lubrication efficiency of the bearings at an
injection volume rate of 15 L/min is similar to that at 4000 rpm, while the effective lubri-

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Lubrication
Lubrication and
and churning
churning loss
loss results
results at
at different
different injection
injection speeds.
speeds. (a)
(a) Lubrication
Lubrication index;
index;
(b) churning loss.
(b) churning loss.

Figure 10 shows
A comparison is the
made variation pattern
with Figure of the
3. The mean values
lubrication of time-averaged
efficiency coverage
of the bearings at an
of gears and
injection bearing
volume rate rollers at different
of 15 L/min injection
is similar to thatvolume
at 4000rates
rpm, using
while hybrid lubrication.
the effective In
lubricant
the process of and
concentration increasing
the flow the oilin
rate injection volume rate
the engagement zone from 0 L/min
are lower to 15
than theL/min, the cov-
corresponding
erage
valuesofatgears increases
4000 rpm. There byis77.1%
also aand
hugethe coveragebetween
difference of bearing
therollers increases
churning loss ofby 103.9%.
943.1 W at
The enhancement
an injection volume ofrate
the area
of 15covered
L/min andby oil for gears
4788.8 W at and bearings
a speed byrpm.
of 4000 the hybrid lubrica-
tion method is obvious.
A comparison is made with Figure 5. The effective lubricant concentration at an
injection volume rate of 15 L/min is similar to that at an immersion depth of 3.0 h, while
the effective lubricant concentration and the flow rate in the engagement zone are higher
than the corresponding values at an immersion depth of 3.0 h. The effective lubricant
concentration and the flow rate in the engagement zone are higher than the corresponding
values at an immersion depth of 3.0 h. The churning loss of 943.1 W at an injection volume
rate of 15 L/min and 1358.9 W at an immersion depth of 3.0 h also differed significantly.
It can be seen that hybrid lubrication with simultaneous injection and splash lubrica-
tion improves lubrication performance in a relatively gentle and efficient manner compared
to single splash lubrication. Increasing the speed allows more oil to splash and improves
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 12 of 20

the lubrication performance, but it also results in significant churning losses, generating a
lot of heat and causing a temperature rise. Continuous high speed operation may affect
gear life. Increasing the immersion depth and increasing the injection lubrication both
essentially provide more oil to the gears. However, unlike direct lubrication of the mesh
zone by the oil from the oil injection, increasing the lubrication performance by increasing
the oil immersion depth is clearly less efficient and also results in more churning losses.
Figure 10 shows the variation pattern of the mean values of time-averaged coverage of
gears and bearing rollers at different injection volume rates using hybrid lubrication. In the
process of increasing the oil injection volume rate from 0 L/min to 15 L/min, the coverage
Lubricants 2024,
2024, 12,
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER of gears increases by 77.1% and the coverage of bearing rollers increases by 103.9%.
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW The
13 of
of 21
Lubricants 13 21
enhancement of the area covered by oil for gears and bearings by the hybrid lubrication
method is obvious.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Coverage
Coverage rate
rate at
at different
different injection
different injection speed.
speed.

4.4. Influence
4.4. Influence
4.4. Influence of of Injection
of Injection Angle
Injection Angle
Angle
The
The oil
The oil injection
oil injection flow
injection flow field
flow field under
field under different
under different injection
different injection angles
injection angles is
angles is shown
is shown in
shown in Figure
in Figure 11.
Figure 11. It
11. It
It
can be seen that when the injection angle is 0 ◦ , the oil distribution in the case is the most
can be seen that when the injection angle
can be seen that when the injection angle is◦ 0°, the is 0°, the oil distribution in the case is the
oil distribution in the case is the most most
uniform. And, the
uniform. And,
uniform. the oil
oil injection
injection angle
angle is
is 10
is 10
10 °, 20 ◦°,°,, 30
°,, 20
20 30 ◦°° when
30 when the
when the oil
the oil injection
oil injection lubrication
injection lubrication
lubrication
flow
flow field
field is
is similar,
similar, only
only in
in the
thelocal
localdifference.
flow field is similar, only in the local difference.difference.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Flow
Flow field
field of
of jet
jet lubricated
lubricated gearbox
gearbox under
under different
different spray
spray angles.
angles.
different spray angles.

Figure 12a
Figure 12a shows
shows the the variation
variation rule
rule ofof the
the mean
mean values
values ofof the
the three
three lubrication
lubrication indi-
lubrication indi-
indi-
cators with
cators with the
the injection
injection angle
angle after
after the
the flow
flow field
field isis stabilized.
stabilized. Wang
Wang et et al.
al. [36]
[36] proposed
proposed
aa method
method to to incline
incline the
the oiloil nozzle
nozzle toward
toward the the pinion
pinion can can to
to increase
increase thethe flow
flow rate
rate in
in the
the
engagement
engagement zone.
engagement zone. This This is also
Thisisisalsoalso proved
proved
proved by
byby the simulation
thethe simulation
simulation results as
results
results shown
as shown
as shown in Figure 9a.
in Figure
in Figure The
9a.
9a. The
flowflow
The
flow rate in
rate in the
ratethe engagement
inengagement
the engagement zone can
zone can be
zone becanimproved
be improved
improved by increasing
by increasing the incline
by increasing
the incline angle appro-
the incline
angle appro-
angle
priately.And,
priately. And, the
the change
change in in the
the spray
spray angle
angle hashas aa limited
limited effect
effect onon the
the real-time
real-time lubrication
lubrication
efficiency of the bearing and the effective lubricant concentration.
efficiency of the bearing and the effective lubricant concentration. Meanwhile, Figure Meanwhile, Figure 12b
12b
shows that a certain tilt angle can obtain a larger impact depth, which
shows that a certain tilt angle can obtain a larger impact depth, which also leads to a larger also leads to a larger
churning loss.
churning loss.
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 13 of 20

appropriately. And, the change in the spray angle has a limited effect on the real-time
lubrication efficiency of the bearing and the effective lubricant concentration. Meanwhile,
Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 leads
Figure 12b shows that a certain tilt angle can obtain a larger impact depth, which also of 21
Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21
to a larger churning loss.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Lubrication and churning loss results at different injection angles. (a) Lubrication index;
Lubrication and churning
Figure 12. Lubrication churning loss
loss results at different
different injection angles. (a)
(a) Lubrication
Lubrication index;
index;
(b) churning loss.
(b) churning loss.

Figure
Figure 13
13 shows
shows the
the variation
variation patterns
patterns of of the
the mean
mean values
values of
of the
the hourly
hourly coverage
coverage of
of
gears and bearing rollers at different injection angles. There is no significant change in the
different injection angles. There is no significant change in the
gears and bearing rollers at different
coverage of the gears and a slight decrease in the coverage of the bearing rollers when the
coverage of the gears and a slight decrease in the coverage of the bearing rollers when the
oil
oil injection
injection angle
angle is increased from 0° ◦ to 30°.
◦
oil injection angle is
is increased
increased from
from 00° to
to 30
30°..

Figure 13. Coverage rate at different

different injection angle.
Figure 13. Coverage rate at different injection angle.

4.5. Comprehensive
4.5. Comprehensive Lubrication
Lubrication Evaluation
Evaluation
4.5. Comprehensive Lubrication Evaluation
A comprehensive
A comprehensive evaluation of efficiency efficiency and lubrication can be made in terms terms ofof the
the
A comprehensive evaluation of efficiency and lubrication can be made in terms of the
following: lubrication
following: lubrication effectiveness
effectivenessin incritical
criticalareas,
areas,sealing
sealingperformance,
performance,and andpower
powerloss.
loss.
following: lubrication effectiveness in critical areas, sealing performance, and power loss.
The lubrication
lubrication performance
performanceand andefficiency
efficiency of of
bearing lubrication
bearing are are
lubrication directly proportional
directly propor-
The lubrication performance and efficiency of bearing lubrication are directly propor-
to the to
tional oilthe
flowoilrate
flowinrate
the in
engagement
the engagementzone. zone.
On theOn other hand,hand,
the other the sealing performance
the sealing perfor-
tional to the oil flow rate in the engagement zone. On the other hand, the sealing perfor-
is inversely proportional to the effective oil concentration, and efficiency
mance is inversely proportional to the effective oil concentration, and efficiency is in- is inversely
mance is inversely proportional to the effective oil concentration, and efficiency is in-
proportional
versely to churning
proportional loss. Theloss.
to churning numerical simulation
The numerical results were
simulation linearly
results werescaled to
linearly
versely proportional to churning loss. The numerical simulation results were linearly
provide dimensionless values for assessing the lubrication performance.
scaled to provide dimensionless values for assessing the lubrication performance. The di- The dimensionless
scaled to provide dimensionless values for assessing the lubrication performance. The di-
numbers range
mensionless from 0 range
numbers to 1, with
from a value
0 to 1,of 1 indicating
with a value ofoptimal performance
1 indicating optimalofperformance
the gearbox
mensionless numbers range from 0 to 1, with a value of 1 indicating optimal performance
and
of a value
the gearbox of 0andindicating
a value theof 0poorest performance.
indicating the poorest The lubricating indicators
performance. that exhibit
The lubricating indi-
of the gearbox and a value of 0 indicating the poorest performance. The lubricating indi-
cators that exhibit a positive correlation with the overall evaluation are determined using
cators that exhibit a positive correlation with the overall evaluation are determined using
Equation (19), whereas those that show a negative correlation are determined using Equa-
Equation (19), whereas those that show a negative correlation are determined using Equa-
tion (20):
tion (20):
X−X
X nom1 = X − X min (20)
X nom1 = X − Xmin (20)
X max − X min
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 14 of 20

a positive correlation with the overall evaluation are determined using Equation (19),
whereas
Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW those that show a negative correlation are determined using Equation (20):
15 of 21

X − Xmin
Xnom1 = (20)
Xmax − Xmin
X max − X
X nom 2 = Xmax −X (21)
Xnom2 = X max − X min (21)
X max −X min

The integrated
integrated lubrication
lubricationperformance
performancefor foreach
each condition
condition is obtained by by
is obtained summing
summing the
fourfour
the dimensionless
dimensionless numbers for each
numbers condition,
for each as shown
condition, in Figure
as shown 14. From
in Figure 14. Figure 14a–d,
From Figure
at a speed
14a–d, of 2000ofrpm,
at a speed 2000 with
rpm, awith
volume rate of
a volume oilofinjection
rate of 5 of
oil injection L/min andand
5 L/min an an
angle of
angle
oil injection of 0 ◦ , the sum of six dimensionless lubrication evaluation indices reaches its
of oil injection of 0°, the sum of six dimensionless lubrication evaluation indices reaches
maximum
its maximum value
valueof 2.17, 2.15,
of 2.17, and
2.15, 3.11,
and respectively.
3.11, respectively.Consequently,
Consequently, the the
gearbox exhibits
gearbox the
exhibits
bestbest
the comprehensive
comprehensive lubrication performance.
lubrication For theFor
performance. mixed
the lubrication mode, the
mixed lubrication sprayed
mode, the
oil improves
sprayed the lubrication
oil improves performance
the lubrication on the one
performance on hand,
the onebut on the
hand, butother hand,
on the otherithand,
leads
to the deterioration of transmission efficiency and sealing performance.
it leads to the deterioration of transmission efficiency and sealing performance.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 14. Comprehensive
Figure 14. Comprehensiveevaluation.
evaluation.(a)
(a)Different
Differentrotational
rotational speed;
speed; (b)(b) different
different depth
depth of immer-
of immersion;
sion; (c) different injection speed; (d) different injection angle.
(c) different injection speed; (d) different injection angle.

The
The operation
operation parameters
parameters on on the
the gear
gear box lubrication indicators
box lubrication indicators have
have an important
an important
impact
impact on the influence of the coefficient
coefficient Yee calculated
calculated asas Equation
Equation (21);
(21); the
the results
results are
shown
shown in Figure 15. From
From thethe figure,
figure, itit can
can be
be seen
seen that
that the
the degree
degree of influence
influence on the
lubrication indicators are
are arranged
arrangedin indescending
descendingorder.order.The
Theeffective
effective lubricant
lubricant concen-
concentra-
tration: rotation speed > oil injection volume rate > oil immersion depth > oil
tion: rotation speed > oil injection volume rate > oil immersion depth > oil injection angle; injection
angle; engagement
engagement zone
zone oil flowoilrate:
flowrotation
rate: rotation
speed >speed > oil injection
oil injection volumevolume rate
rate > oil > oil im-
immersion
mersion depth > oil injection angle; bearing lubrication efficiency: rotation speed > oil in-
jection volume rate > oil immersion depth > oil injection angle; churning loss: rotation
speed > oil immersion depth > oil injection depth > oil injection angle; loss of churning:
rotation speed > oil immersion depth > oil injection volume rate > oil injection depth > oil
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 15 of 20
Lubricants 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 21

depth > oil injection angle; bearing lubrication efficiency: rotation speed > oil injection
volume
injectionrate > oilChurning
angle. immersion depth
loss: > oilspeed
rotation injection angle;
> oil churning
injection volumeloss: rotation
rate speed >
> oil injection
oil immersion
angle. depth > oil injection depth > oil injection angle; loss of churning: rotation
speed > oil immersion depth > oil injection volume rate > oil injection depth > oil injection
Y − Ymin
angle. Churning loss: rotation speed > oil injection volume rate > oil injection angle.
Ye = max (22)
Y
Ymax −minYmin
Ye = (22)
Ymin

15. Quantitative analysis of the impacts of various operational parameters.

Figure 15. parameters.

From
From the
thepresented
presenteddiscussion,
discussion,ititisisevident
evidentthat rotational
that speed
rotational is the
speed most
is the significant
most signifi-
factor
cant factor influencing the lubrication performance and regularity loss of the gearbox. An
influencing the lubrication performance and regularity loss of the gearbox. An
elevated
elevated rotational
rotationalspeed
speedmarkedly
markedly enhances
enhances thethe
lubrication performance,
lubrication performance,yet concurrently
yet concur-
results in a considerable
rently results power loss.
in a considerable This,
power in turn,
loss. This,gives rise gives
in turn, to an increase
rise to anin increase
heat generation,
in heat
which may ultimately lead to a reduction in the gearbox’s operational
generation, which may ultimately lead to a reduction in the gearbox’s operational reliabilityrelia-
and
mechanical performance.
bility and mechanical performance.
The
The hybrid lubrication method,
hybrid lubrication method, which
which employs
employs aa combination
combination of of oil
oil injection
injection lubri-
lubri-
cation
cation and splash lubrication, represents a potential solution to this contradiction. The
and splash lubrication, represents a potential solution to this contradiction. The
implementation
implementation of of splash
splash lubrication
lubrication in in conjunction
conjunction with
with oil
oil injection
injection above
above thethe meshing
meshing
zone
zone results
results in
in notable
notable lubrication
lubrication performance
performance at at lower
lower speeds
speeds while
while simultaneously
simultaneously
minimizing power loss. Hybrid lubrication represents an effective lubrication method for
minimizing power loss. Hybrid lubrication represents an effective lubrication method for
gearboxes operating at high speeds and under heavy loads.
gearboxes operating at high speeds and under heavy loads.
5. Experimental Verification
5. Experimental Verification
Figure 16 displays the mechanical arrangement of the FZG no-load power loss test apparatus.
Figure
The 16 displays
accuracy of the the mechanical
numerical method arrangement of the
for calculating theFZG no-load power
oil distribution was loss test
verified
apparatus.
by the flow field test with guide plate gears conducted by Hildebrand et al. [37], and the
The accuracy
accuracy of thethe
of calculating numerical method
power loss was for calculating
verified the oil distribution
by comparing the churning wasmoment
verified
by the flow field test with guide plate gears conducted by Hildebrand
results obtained from the FZG test rig test conducted by Liu et al. [38]. The mechanicalet al. [37], and the
accuracy
layout of calculating
of the FZG no-load thepower
powerloss
losstest
wasrigverified
used forbythecomparing
two tests the churning
is shown moment
in Figure 16.
results obtained from the FZG test rig test conducted by Liu et al. [38].
The test gearbox has a width of 260 mm, a height of 171 mm, and a depth of 56 mm. The mechanical
layout
The of the
speed FZGelectric
of the no-load power
engine is loss test rig used
transmitted to thefor
testthe two tests
gearbox is shown
through in Figure 16.
the intermediate
gearbox and pinion shaft. The test gears are of the FZG type C-PT, comprising surface-
carburized steel (16MnCr5E). The dimensions of the pinion and large gears are presented
in Table 4 for reference.
Lubricants 2024,
Lubricants 2024, 12,
12, 283
x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21
16 of 20

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Mechanical
Mechanical design
design of
of FZG
FZG no-load
no-load power
power loss
loss test
test equipment.
equipment.

TableThe testgear
4. Test gearbox has a width of 260 mm, a height of 171 mm, and a depth of 56 mm.
size parameters.
The speed of the electric engine is transmitted to the test gearbox through the intermediate
Gear a in mm gearboxz and pinionmn shaft.
in mmThe test α in deg are of xthe
gears in mm
FZG type C-PT,b comprising
da insurface-
mm
Pinion carburized
16 steel (16MnCr5E). The dimensions of the pinion and large gears are presented
0.182 82.5
91.5 4.5 20 14
Wheel in Table
24 4 for reference. 0.171 118.4

Table 4. Test gear size parameters.

The lubricant used for the test was FVA3 mineral oil with the parameters shown in
Gear
Table 5. a in mm z mn in mm α in deg x in mm b da in mm
Pinion 16 0.182 82.5
91.5
Table 5. Physical parameters of FVA3. 4.5 20 14
Wheel 24 0.171 118.4
Parameter Value
The lubricant used for◦ the test was FVA3 mineral oil with the parameters shown in
Density at 40 C/(kg/m3 ) 864
Table 5. ◦
Kinematic viscosity at 40 C/(cst) 95
Kinematic viscosity at 100 ◦ C/(cst) 10.7
Table 5. Physical parameters of FVA3.

To maintain the optimalParameter temperature of the oil sump, a temperatureValue sensor was
integrated into the sump Density at 40 °C/(kg/m
to continuously 3)
monitor and regulate the temperature 864 within a
range of ±2 K. ToKinematic
enhance the visibility
viscosity of °C/(cst)
at 40 the display, a dye was introduced 95 to impart a
red hue to the oil.Kinematic
The test was conducted
viscosity at 100using a high-speed camera to document
°C/(cst) 10.7 the oil
flow dynamics, as illustrated in Figure 14.
The velocity the
To maintain of the electric
optimal motor is sent
temperature to the
of the oiltest
sump,gearbox through the
a temperature intermediate
sensor was inte-
gearbox and the pinion shaft. The no-load losses caused by the
grated into the sump to continuously monitor and regulate the temperature withintest gearbox are measured
a range
using a To
of ±2 K. torque meter
enhance theattached
visibilitytoofthe
thepinion
display, shaft.
a dyeThe
wasno-load losses
introduced consist aofred
to impart losses
hue
resulting from gear friction, as well as losses caused by four bearings
to the oil. The test was conducted using a high-speed camera to document the oil flow and two seals. Needle
roller bearings
dynamics, were chosen
as illustrated to decrease
in Figure 14. the amount of energy lost in the bearings. The
torqueThemeter has aofmeasurement
velocity rangeisof
the electric motor 10 to
sent Nmtheand
testagearbox
measurement
through error
the that does not
intermediate
exceed ± 0.1%. To maintain the temperature of the oil sump within
gearbox and the pinion shaft. The no-load losses caused by the test gearbox are measuredthe specified range,
ausing
temperature sensor was placed inside the sump to monitor and manage
a torque meter attached to the pinion shaft. The no-load losses consist of losses re- it within a
tolerance of ± 2 K. A high-speed camera was used to monitor the temperature
sulting from gear friction, as well as losses caused by four bearings and two seals. Needle of the oil
sump. Furthermore, a high-speed camera was employed to record the oil flow dynamics. To
roller bearings were chosen to decrease the amount of energy lost in the bearings. The
enhance the display contrast, a dye is introduced to give the oil a red or green appearance.
torque meter has a measurement range of 10 Nm and a measurement error that does not
Figure 17 shows the simulation [14] and experiment [37] results of the flow field. When
exceed ±0.1%. To maintain the temperature of the oil sump within the specified range, a
the velocity of the gears, vt , reaches 2.1 m/s, the oil that is agitated by the gears comes
temperature sensor was placed inside the sump to monitor and manage it within a toler-
together in a diagonal position above the area where they mesh. The intersection point of
ance of ±2 K. A high-speed camera was used to monitor the temperature of the oil sump.
the simulation results is consistent with the overall flow field and the experimental results.
Furthermore, a high-speed camera was employed to record the oil flow dynamics. To en-
vt = 7.0 m/s, and the flow disorder in the inner side of the guide plate increases. In addition,
hance the display contrast, a dye is introduced to give the oil a red or green appearance.
a small amount of continuous-like oil is hollowed out to the outside of the guide plate. At
 Figure 17 shows the simulation [14] and experiment [37] results of the flow field.
When the velocity of the gears, vtt, reaches 2.1 m/s, the oil that is agitated by the gears
comes together in a diagonal position above the area where they mesh. The intersection
point of the simulation results is consistent with the overall flow field and the experi-
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 mental results. vtt = 7.0 m/s, and the flow disorder in the inner side of the guide plate in-
17 of 20
creases. In addition, a small amount of continuous-like oil is hollowed out to the outside
of the guide plate. At a speed of 10.0 m/s, the volume of oil above the engagement zone
aincreases, making
speed of 10.0 m/s,the trajectory
the volume of of oil
oil above
dropping back to the bottom
the engagement down themaking
zone increases, shaft more
the
apparent and causing an increase in the amount of oil escaping to the oil
trajectory of oil dropping back to the bottom down the shaft more apparent and causingreservoir region.
an
Despite in
increase thethe
augmentation
amount of oilin rotational
escaping velocity,
to the the fluid
oil reservoir levelDespite
region. in the the
oil augmentation
reservoir area
consistently
in remains the
rotational velocity, tranquil. Therefore,
fluid level in the the numericalarea
oil reservoir method can simulate
consistently remainsthetranquil.
oil flow
better.
Therefore, the numerical method can simulate the oil flow better.

Figure 17.
Figure17. Comparative
17. Comparative analysis
Comparative analysis of
analysisof oil
ofoil flow
oilflow dispersion
flowdispersion in
dispersionin experimental
inexperimental and
experimentaland simulation
andsimulation scenarios.
simulationscenarios.
scenarios.
Figure

Further,the
Further, thechurning
churninglosses
lossesare arevalidated.
validated. The The no-load
no-load losses
losses resulting
resulting from
from the
the test
test
gearbox were quantified through the use of a torque meter on the
gearbox were quantified through the use of a torque meter on the pinion shaft, as detailed pinion shaft, as detailed
byLiu
by Liuetetal.
al.[38].
[38].The
Theno-load
no-loadlosses
lossesincluded
included thethe losses
losses associated
associated withwith
thethe
geargear system,
system, as
as well
well as those
as those attributable
attributable to theto bearings
the bearingsand and
seals.seals.
The The
torque torque
meter meter
has ahas a measure-
measurement
ment range
range of 10and
of 10 Nm, Nm, and
the the associated
associated measurement
measurement error iserror is less±than
less than 0.1%.±0.1%.
In order
In order to to measure
measure the the churning
churning torque
torque of of the
the gears,
gears, two
two different
different tests were per-
formed. The
formed. The first
first run
run was
was performed
performed with with immersion
immersion oil oil lubrication,
lubrication,whilewhilethethe second
secondrun run
wasperformed
was performedwith withthe
thegears
gearsrotating
rotatingin inan
anempty
emptytank tankwithout
withoutoil. oil. The
The churning
churning torque
torque
of
of the
thegear
gearwaswasdetermined
determinedby bysubtracting
subtractingthe theresults
results ofof
thethesecond
second testtest
from
fromthethe
results of
results
the firstfirst
of the test,test,
as shown in Figure
as shown 18. Figure
in Figure 18 shows
18. Figure the validation
18 shows of the numerical
the validation method
of the numerical
for churning
method power at different
for churning power atspeeds.
different Figure 15 exhibits
speeds. Figure a15maximum
exhibits aerror of 8.44%
maximum and of
error a
minimum
8.44% anderror of 3.48%,error
a minimum withof the3.48%,
valueswith
andthetrends displaying
values and trends significant proximity.
displaying The
significant
aforementioned
proximity. The findings demonstrate
aforementioned that demonstrate
findings the numericalthat analytical technique
the numerical employed
analytical in
tech-
this study exhibits excellent suitability and precision in computing
nique employed in this study exhibits excellent suitability and precision in computing both oil distribution
and
bothpower loss.
oil distribution and power loss.

Figure 18. Experiment and simulate churning loss at different circumferential speeds [38].

6. Conclusions
This study examines the effectiveness and lubricating capabilities of gearboxes when
both splash lubrication and oil injection lubrication are used simultaneously. The accuracy
of this churning torque calculation is verified by the experiment, and the following main
conclusions are drawn.
Lubricants 2024, 12, 283 18 of 20

(1) Mixed lubrication improves lubrication performance more consistently and efficiently
than single splash lubrication. Increasing the speed allows more oil to be splashed into
the critical areas of the gearbox, but the resulting churning losses are also significant.
(2) The oil stirring moment, bearing oil supply, and bearing lubrication efficiency all
rise as the gear speed, oil immersion depth, and oil injection volume rate increase.
Increasing the amplitude results in an increase in the peak value of each curve. As
the frequency increases, the number of peaks on each curve also increases. However,
there is no discernible pattern regarding the size of the peaks.
(3) The lubrication performance and efficiency of the gearboxes were evaluated compre-
hensively by four lubrication indexes. In this study, the rotational speed has been
identified as the factor with the most significant impact on the lubrication condition
and efficiency of the gearbox. The optimal lubrication condition was observed at a
rotational speed of 2000 rpm, an injection volume rate of 5 L/min, and an injection
angle of 0◦ .
This study demonstrates the promising application of hybrid lubrication in heavy-
duty, high-speed gearboxes. In the subsequent study, the flow pattern of active lubrication
and hybrid lubrication of gears and the churning loss of gears at low temperatures will be
investigated based on the low-temperature test rig at the State Key Laboratory of Vehicle
Transmission, Beijing Institute of Technology.

Author Contributions: L.W.: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, data curation, writing—

original draft preparation. Y.L.: software, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, visualization,
writing—original draft preparation. K.Z.: supervision. S.S.: conceptualization, methodology. Y.Y.:
methodology, funding acquisition. K.H.: software, validation. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant
number 52372403 and U2268211] and the Natural Science Foundation of Sichuan Province [grant
Numbers 2022NSFSC0034 and 2022NSFSC1901].
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: Author Kuangzhou He was employed by the company Suzhou shonCloud
Engineering Software Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict
of interest.

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