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Wear Based Lifetime Estimation of a Clutch Facing using Coupled Field

Analysis

Article  in  International Journal of Automotive and Mechanical Engineering · December 2021

DOI: 10.15282/ijame.18.4.2021.12.0715

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AUTOMOTIVE AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (IJAME)
ISSN: 2229-8649 e-ISSN: 2180-1606
VOL. 18, ISSUE 4, 9292 – 9304
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15282/ijame.18.4.2021.12.0715

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Wear Based Lifetime Estimation of a Clutch Facing using Coupled Field Analysis
A. Kulkarni1, R. Mahale1 and C. Kannan2,*
1Department of Automotive Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore 632014, India
2School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore 632014, India

ARTICLE HISTORY
ABSTRACT – Repetitive use of the clutch, over a period of time, causes the friction material at the Received: 28th June2021
contact surfaces (clutch facing and flywheel/pressure plate) to wear, thus deteriorating its Revised: 11th Oct 2021
performance and usable life. The working life of a rigid clutch is the limiting factor when it comes Accepted: 6th Dec 2021
to extracting maximum performance from a dual mass flywheel system, which is used in a lot of
modern vehicles nowadays to lower fuel consumption and improve ride quality. In this study, we KEYWORDS
investigate the influence of different groove patterns on wear in rigid clutch facings and estimate Rigid clutch;
their life using a comprehensive finite element model. The wear is calculated and analysed for five Groove design;
different groove patterns across two different inorganic materials, namely FTL180 and TF1600- ANSYS-APDL;
Surface wear;
MC2, using Archard’s Adhesive Wear Model. Coupled multi-physics elements are employed in the
Lifetime
analysis to capture the effect of frictional heat generation on wear. We found that the Waffle pattern
offered a decrease of 10.4% in volumetric wear loss, a 5.78% decrease in maximum wear thickness
and an increase of 11.51% in the average working life is used in city like conditions with frequent
engagements. This work sheds light on the impact of groove patterns on clutch facing wear and
opens a new path for the design and development of more resilient rigid clutches.

INTRODUCTION
At present, modern engines generate relatively higher torques when they are operated at low engine speeds. This is
attributed to higher magnitudes of noise and vibrations at lower engine speeds. The dual-mass flywheel (DMF) facilitates
the driving in an operational range that offers optimised fuel consumption with a high level of ride and noise comfort
along with reduced CO2 emissions [1]. In addition, DMF helps attain the operational smoothness much needed for the
modern economic engines. The technological advantages such as fuel savings and emission benefits of this system will
not let the automobile manufacturers discard their presence in future automobiles. Despite several distinct advantages,
higher cost and more complicated assembly of DMF system are main drawbacks. Furthermore, it cannot be rebuilt or
even resurfaced to eliminate hotspots and worn areas, thus necessitating a complete replacement. Most manufacturers
recommended that DMF must be replaced along with the clutch. This, in turn, results in a considerable increase in
replacement cost compared to traditional flywheel and clutch replacement.
The average service life for the majority of DMFs is up to 150000 miles, while the stock/standard clutch facing’s life
is in the range of 60000-100000 miles which is further dependent upon operating conditions, drivers’ usage and regular
maintenance [2]. A key symptom of wear in this system is a clutch slip or a clutch facing failure. The clutch plate should
last as long as the DMF to maximise the system efficiency, but the stock/standard clutch plates failed to do so. The faulty
clutches should be patched as soon as possible to prevent harm to the system. The repetition of the same problem will
lead to consumer dissatisfaction and costlier warranty claims. The high investment cost incurred during the
purchase/replacement of DMF is essentially recovered in approximately a year’s worth of cruising by reducing the fuel
consumption by about 21% [3]. This also implies that there will be a significant reduction in CO2 emissions per km and
thus improving the ecological footprint of the vehicle.
Modern gearboxes incorporating DMF are seeing increased use of rigid clutch discs because of their particularly
designed cushion deflection and cost-effectiveness. For these clutches, the friction materials are made to have a high burst
strength, which stays consistent for an extended working range while still being slip-free and smooth. These particular
composite materials were designed with several specific properties, such as several reinforcing fibres, wear-resistant
binders, and lubricants. Thermoelastic instability (TEI) and thermal buckling may develop during sliding contact between
friction pairs when the operating speed or temperature reaches specific threshold levels [4]. There are hotspots because
the pressure across the friction plate is not consistent. They reduce the life of the friction lining on top of everything else,
further cutting down on the lifetime of the lining. It is vital to know the temperature distribution as well as the highest
temperatures obtained in operation to prevent the clutch failure before the estimated lifespan. These numbers vary based
on different factors, viz., the varying loads, the qualities of the clutch, the clutch plate size, and the degree of air cooling.
A significant proportion of the driving range is covered at the clutch temperatures of 100°C or below, while it may
peak to 400°C under heavy vehicle load, which then results in an exponential increase of wear—a high quality facing
exhibits low wear rate in a broad spectrum of time and over different temperatures. A high clamp load for an average

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR | C. Kannan |  kannan.chidambaram@vit.ac.in 9292

© The Authors 2021. Published by Penerbit UMP. This is an open access article under the CC BY license.
 A. Kulkarni et al. │ International Journal of Automotive and Mechanical Engineering │ Vol. 18, Issue 4 (2021)

clutch size would lead to higher specific facing unit pressure. Under this condition, the clutch facing temperatures rise
quickly enough to deteriorate the base material and reduce its frictional coefficient. The lower thermal conductivity of a
facing material initially causes surface damage. Thus, a clutch facing should be designed to withstand all the high-load
scenarios without significantly reducing component life. Rigid clutch discs in modern transmissions have seen the
increasing use of DMF systems due to their specially tuned cushion deflection and cost-effectiveness [4]. Friction
materials in those clutches are designed to have high burst strength, constant frictional coefficient over a wide operating
range, smooth and slip-free engagement. These requirements are met by employing robust multiphase composites
consisting of the binder resin, reinforcing fibres, solid lubricants, abrasives, wear-resistant space fillers, and other friction
modifiers [4].
Abdullah and Schlattmann [5] used Lagrange and penalty contact algorithms to analyse the engagement period of the
clutches. Their study on contact pressure and penetration using the above algorithms allowed them to demonstrate the
significance of the contact stiffness in-between the frictional contact areas of the clutch components. These points were
accounted for based on their results on variations in contact pressure, penetration, and contact stresses. Vadiraj [6]
conducted a brief investigation on the engagement characteristics and failure analysis of friction pad and pressure plate
materials tested on a test track in a commercial vehicle. This study developed a correlation based on energy dissipated
and frictional wear loss during clutch engagement to determine the clutch facing’s useful working life in terms of the total
number of engagements. The clutch engagements were thoroughly tested in the dynamometer to understand their features
better and predict their useful life in terms of engagements.
Finite element analysis of the temperature distribution around radial, circumferential grooves on a dry friction clutch
disc is presented by Abdullah and Schlattmann [7]. The radial, circumferential grooves were looked at, as well as the
additional friction clutches with and without those grooves. To determine maximum temperature and total heat transported
by convection, a variety of groove area ratios were evaluated. In addition, they discovered that the groove area ratio relates
to the quantity of energy transported by convection. Different groove ratios were expressed in terms of changes in internal
energy over time. To confirm the experimental results, the thermal behaviour of a dry ceramic disc was modelled by
connecting two separate FE models, which each took place in time and space, according to the study by Czel et al. [8].
Thermal modelling like this would be used to modify the clutch components to capture as much thermal energy as possible
and allow for efficient heat flow. Friction material, rotational velocity, and pressure imposed by the pressure plate were
varied to evaluate temperature distribution at a single engagement in a clutch simulation that was carried out by Mouffak
et al. [9]. The thermal and material behaviour of clutch facing was examined using models with zero, four, and eight
grooves. Minimising frictional energy due to convection and conduction was shown to be a crucial component in
improving lifespan.
According to Jabbar et al. [10], frictional heat created between contact surfaces during the slipping has a significant
impact on the thermal behaviour of dry friction clutches. The thermal and thermoelastic assessments of friction clutch
systems were completely reviewed by the authors. Gkinis et al. [11] tested the dry clutches under representative working
conditions that include the interfacial slippage during the engagement, applied contact pressure and generated
temperatures. The test results revealed that the higher coefficient of friction associated with the new lining material
minimises the amount of frictional power loss and interfacial heating generated during the clutch engagement. A single-
plate dry clutch utilised in passenger cars, trucks, and buses was modelled in a 1-D thermal model by Paulraj and co-
author [12]. Through simulation, they estimated the temperature increase on the clutch facing and clutch housing. This
was used to predict clutch life at an early design stage, in conjunction with data provided by the supplier (facing
temperature vs facing wear ratio). In both rapid and routine vehicle testing, clutch life/wear can be predicted using clutch
facing temperature.
Bao et al. [13] determined that three different groove-shaped friction pairs wear at various rates based on their
calculations. To acquire the actual wear quantity and evaluate the accuracy and validity of the mathematical model, the
SAE#2 testing equipment was used. There was a significant difference in wear between the three types of grooved discs
with waffle grooves and those with three-way parallel grooves. Two-way parallel grooves design was ascertained as the
best, and the wear from one-time contact can better reflect changes in friction pair dynamics.
The most common problems that cause clutch slippage are worn friction material and inadequate friction or clamp
load. To minimise these problems, clutch facings should withstand high loads and any severe events without
compromising any significant decrease in a lifetime. Due to more powerful engines with smaller installation space
requirements, these engines, in turn, increase power density for the clutch facings. The researcher’s control strategies lead
to conflicting objectives such as small facing wear, small friction losses, the minimum time needed for the engagement,
and regulation of the slip acceleration at the lock-up point for reducing the undesirable driveline oscillation [14]. A multi-
faceted study analysing the dynamic performance of a clutch such as the one presented in this paper is not yet available
online in a detailed form. Research on empirical relations for variation of contact surface wear, wear thickness, and other
clutch design parameters are lacking in the literature. The present literature does not clarify the function of the specific
groove design on the friction properties of the dry clutch and a large majority of current studies focused on the chemical
composition, wear properties and friction of materials used mostly in a wet clutch. Extensive research has not yet been
carried out on the dry clutch and comparative material.
Wear in plastic contact primarily takes place via two modes: abrasive wear and adhesive wear. In a clutch system
[25], wear is predominant due to the presence of high contact pressures. In 1953, Holm and Archard [26] developed a
simple and useful wear equation that models the slow progressive wear of the abrasive grains grinding against a softer
material as a function of the normal load, the real area of contact, and the sliding distance. It proposes that the asperities

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on the contact surface are spherical. During sliding, a certain fraction of these asperities deforms plastically under high
local contact pressures and fractures. The differential form of Archard’s Wear equation is especially helpful for
calculating wear at local nodes provided contact pressure is known, thus making it easy to implement in FEA. In the
majority of the papers, there is no wear effect considered in the transient analysis to get combined results. But clutch wear
is an influential factor for the performance of the automotive clutch. Collective interactions between contact pressure,
temperature, and wear need to be considered in the problem. Consequently, an analysis of the Archard wear model is also
used to obtain the optimal findings for analysis. Here, wear is analytically studied in clutch facing with varying groove
patterns. We compare the results across two inorganic materials developed by Friction Technology Limited (FTL-180)
and ThermoFiber (TF 16000-MC2) and show similar trends in properties based on Archard’s interpretation within a range
of applied load. We finally provide possible explanations for why this is the case and potential improvements to the
proposed models.
A lot of studies have been conducted to investigate the issues concerning the relationship of dynamics, contact
phenomena, and accompanying tribological processes observed in multiple friction contacts in transmissions, bearings,
clutches, brakes, and so on. The studies performed on the systems with frictional contact have resulted in numerous
mathematical models to predict the dynamic behaviour of the components. The literature survey performed by the authors
made them conclude that wear mechanisms are often neglected in those mathematical models, the ecological impact and
working life of the components have hitherto not been undertaken. Based on the literature gaps found, the objectives of
the present study have been formulated. The objectives of the present study would be (i) to identify the optimal groove
pattern for clutch facing, which minimises the temperature and wear under full engagement (ii) analyse and compare the
performance of inorganic materials used in modern clutches (iii) graphical representative trends between the dynamic
behaviour of the clutch and the various design parameters.

DESIGN APPROACH
The clutch lining is one of the highly stressed power transmission elements, which is riveted to the clutch disc and
produces an initial slipping. This is then followed by an adhesive friction mechanism in combination with the clutch
pressure plate and flywheel. If the torsional vibrations in the powertrain are minimised by utilising a DMF, the clutch
discs can be used with or without a torsional damper. To meet the highest criteria for comfort, often, the combination of
DMF and clutch disc with a single-stage torsion damper is used. The most cost-effective option is rigid clutch discs or
clutch discs with offset correction for lower requirements. These discs have specially tuned cushion deflection and are
used for vehicles with a DMF. Due to their lighter weight and simpler geometry, they provide smooth build-up of torque
when starting and ensure safer torque transmission through partial compensation of the temperature deformation of the
flywheel and pressure plate. The following points are key goals to design a clutch facing for required application: (i)
lifetime, and operational robustness, (ii) lower weight and cost, (iii) increased torque capacity and lower torsional
vibrations, (iv) lower slip rate, and (v) efficient cooling and thermal stability. Figure 1 shows the dimensions of the clutch
assembly being investigated.

Figure 1. Dimensions and features of the clutch geometry.

The regulations of Indian Standards (IS 3649) for the clutch facing design are adopted for the design variants
investigated in this research. The specified standard covers the requirements of an automotive clutch facing for single
plate and multi-plate applications under dry conditions [15]. The operational robustness of a clutch facing is proportional
to its temperature robustness [16]. Mouffak and Bouchetara determined that at the end of the slip time, increasing the
number of friction surfaces of the disc linings greatly reduces the temperature level and thus reduces thermal stress [9].
The clutch torque capacity is directly proportional to the clamping load, frictional coefficient of the material, mean
effective radius of the clutch facing, and no. of clutch discs (as required). Thus, a clutch with a lower mean effective

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radius results in lower clamping force due to smaller diaphragm springs. These two factors do not significantly reduce
the torque capacity, but adding an extra clutch disc doubles the torque capacity. Higher clamping loads can induce higher
pressure loads on crankshaft thrust bearings. Also, an increase in repeated engagements led to higher surface wear which
can result in loss of life. The wear behaviour of a clutch facing is strongly dependent on its temperature, friction power,
and clamp force. The temperature variation during the vehicle operation influences the cushion spring compression
behaviour due to frictional heat generation of the clutch facings with the flywheel and pressure plate surfaces during the
engagement phase. The facings are subjected to a wide range of centrifugal forces and temperatures during operation.
Thus, the clutch facing should have the higher structural integrity to operate under all conditions. Brust speed and tensile
strength are important in maintaining structural stability, but irregular higher temperatures affect the facing strength. The
clutch facing must possess high material strength to withstand thermal stresses even after its thermal limit, thus ensuring
better thermal stability. The design parameters of the clutch are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Clutch design parameters.
Parameters Value
Number of friction surfaces 2
Service factor (b) 1.4
Mean radius of friction disc (mm) 89
Clutch friction plate outer radius (mm) 115
Clutch friction plate inner radius (mm) 65
Thickness of clutch plate (mm) 9.5
Thickness of clutch facing (mm) 4
Thickness of the axial cushion (mm) 1.5
Number of rivets 12
Outer diameter of rivet (mm) 9.3
Inner diameter of rivet (mm) 4.7
Head Depth (mm) 1.25
Number of Splines 12
Maximum angular slipping speed, ωo (rad/sec) 104.72
Slipping Period, ts (sec) 0.5
Initial temperature, Ti (oC) 25

Thus, to maximise the heat dissipation, friction, and grip to the DMF, a wide range of design variations in the groove
area could be followed. The different designs adopted are presented in Figure 2. It is also employed as a depository of
waste or metal chips from the flywheel or clutch and has many perforated holes. The clutch hub riveting to the central
plate is the driving shaft slot. They are designed to handle structural loads and thermal stress and are tailored to reduce
weight and moment of inertia. For greater heat dissipation, the S/V ratio of the clutch hub is optimised [4]. In the uniform
wear hypothesis, the parameters are specified by a service factor 1.4. In an application where the engine torque is between
270 and 370 Nm, the considered clutch system is used [4]. This clutch system may generally be utilised in combination
with 1.5-1.8 L engines and 6-speed DCT and Automated manual transmission (AMT) with DMF.

(a) Stock (b) Ellipse (c) Trigonal (d) Waffle (e) Sunburst
Figure 2. Illustration of the developed groove patterns.

MATERIALS
For the selection of clutch-type (with or without damper) and clutch material (organic or inorganic) for the intended
application, it is important to consider necessary factors: (i) wear characteristics, (ii) operating temperature range, (iii)
facing design, (iv) clutch feel, (v) strength. The materials considered in this work are used only to analyse the facing
design and effect of groove pattern design and area on its structural and thermal performance. Two inorganic paper friction
materials, namely FTL180 and TF1600-MC2, are considered in this study. Both have great performance, high friction,
and a high proportion of aramid fibre, which are non-metal composites. They may be seen in sintered metal materials as
an alternative and provide several advantages. They are resistant to large energy inputs and are ideal for dry and oil

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applications. They are not abrasive to the counter material, are silent in operation, and resist high pressures. The wear rate
is consistent even at high temperatures. The recommended mating surface for both is fine-grained, pearlitic cast iron or
cold-rolled steel with a Brinell hardness between 150 – 200. In terms of the bonding material used, it is necessary to use
a thermosetting adhesive to obtain the best results. Also, according to the manufacturer’s guidelines, no backing plate is
required for most clutch applications. Organic friction facings offer a compromise between tribological and structural
properties. Moreover, their properties have interactions. Despite their smooth engagement, lower tolerance to repeated
engagements and a broad range of operating temperatures limited their applications in the relevant field. Organic materials
bonded by resins often tend to lose friction as the temperature rises. This is because the resin melts and starts acting like
a lubricant. At this point, any increase in clamp load or the clutch material coefficient of friction will simply elevate the
shock load to the gears. The required material properties for the pressure plate and DMF to maximise compatibility are
obtained by regulating chemical composition, cooling rate, and heat treatment of grey cast iron accordingly. There are
very slight differences in each of the materials when it comes to frictional coefficient and the wear rate, as seen in the
table below. The important material properties of these two inorganic clutches facing materials are presented in Table 2
from the manufacturer’s site.
Table 2. Material properties [17,18].
Parameters FTL180 TF1600MC2
Material type Paper friction Paper friction
Static friction coefficient, μ 0.41 0.30
Fading temperature (oC) 395 423
Wear rate (mm3/kwh) 53 30
Dynamic friction coefficient, μd 0.36 0.4
Hardness (DIN53505) 82 85
Density (g/cm3) 1.21 1.30
Thermal conductivity (W/m°K) 0.24 0.26
Poisson coefficient 0.28 0.30
Tensile strength (ASTM D638) - (N/mm2) 72 70
Compressive strength (UNE 53205) - (N/mm2) 308 306
Young modulus (ASTMD 638-10)- (N/mm2) 7290 7260
Continuous operation, Tmax (oC) 360 360
Intermittent operation, Tmax (oC) 400 400
Max. allowable pressure (MPa) 1.034 1.034
Burst resistant (200×137×3.5) 200°C (rpm) 18180 18300

ANALYTICAL FORMULATION
A basic clutch disc with a simple outer diameter of 230 mm, facing width of 50 mm is designed according to IS 3649:
2018 regulations. The clutch virtually transforms the engine torque into heat during the slippage just before maximum
engagement, and the heat generated must be dissipated into the surroundings; hence the thermal efficiency of the clutch
is of considerable significance. The relative sliding between flywheel and clutch plate during engagement also results in
wear in the clutch components. Based on the driver’s way of operation, the impact energy of the engagement also causes
vibrations leading to noise and judder. In this project, all the aforementioned phenomena are investigated with the help
of FEA. The initial results are used to develop new groove patterns. The simulations are then run on these geometries to
generate data sets for recording any noticeable trends in various properties. Additionally, two different inorganic
materials, namely; TF1600-MC2 and FTL180, are used for each of varying geometries to reinforce the consistencies of
the trends.
Frictional Torque Model
During the clutch disc design, the adoption of uniform wear theory is recommended as uniform pressure assumption
gives a higher torque in most cases. Thus, a clutch disc design based on uniform pressure will result in the clutch slip
when it becomes old. Assuming constant wear rate, i.e., pr = C, the elemental clamping force on clutch facing is given by
Eq. (1).

𝜹𝜹𝜹𝜹 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 (1)

𝜹𝜹𝜹𝜹 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 (2)

where, W – clamp load, C – wear rate (constant), p – pressure, r - radius. Integrating the element clamping force will
give the total clamping force W as in Eq. (3).

𝑾𝑾 𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜
� 𝜹𝜹𝜹𝜹 = � 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 (3)
𝟎𝟎 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖

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𝑾𝑾
𝐂𝐂 = (4)
2𝜋𝜋(𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 − 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 )

The total frictional torque, T, is given by integration of the product of the clamping force given by (𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁) and the
radius, r, between the limits of the clutch facing, ri and ro, as in Eq. (5).

𝐓𝐓 = 2πμp𝑟𝑟 2 δr (5)

𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜
𝐓𝐓 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 � 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 (6)
𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖

𝐓𝐓 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜2 − 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖2 ) (7)

𝐓𝐓 = zμ𝐖𝐖𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚 , where 𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚 = (𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜 + 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 )/2 (8)

For a single plate clutch having one pair of contact surfaces, the total torque capacity is given by Eq. (8). Where z –
number of frictional surfaces, µ- coefficient of friction, rm – mean radius of the friction clutch and the average pressure
(pavg) applied on the frictional contact is given by Eq. (9).

𝑾𝑾
𝑷𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = (9)
𝜋𝜋(𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜2− 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖2 )

Thermal Model
For the thermal model, the following assumptions are considered: (i) clamping force on the clutch facing is uniform
(ii) constant convective heat transfer coefficient during clutch engagement are employed to avoid complexity. During the
engagement period, due to the speed difference of DMF and clutch plate, heat is generated between frictional surfaces till
relative sliding velocity falls to zero. The heat generated between components of the clutch is dissipated through
convection. The different groove patterns on the clutch facings affect the thermal dissipation through convection
accordingly. The total heat produced during slipping is given as Eq. (10) [19].

𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝑽𝑽𝒔𝒔 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠
𝒒𝒒𝒇𝒇 = �
0; 𝑡𝑡 > 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠
(10)

𝑽𝑽𝒔𝒔 = 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟 (11)

𝑡𝑡
𝝎𝝎𝒔𝒔 (𝒕𝒕) = 𝝎𝝎𝟎𝟎 �1 − � ; 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 (12)
𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠

where, qf – Total thermal heat flux generated, Vs (𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟) − sliding velocity and 𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 – sliding angular velocity, ωo
– relative sliding angular velocity when the clutch starts to slip (t=0). In this study, under uniform wear conditions, the
friction torque and the heat flux generated are given in Eq. (13) and Eq. (15), respectively.

𝑻𝑻 = 𝜋𝜋𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜇𝜇𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 (𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜2 − 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖2 ) (13)

𝑇𝑇𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠
𝒒𝒒𝒇𝒇 =
𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓
(14)

𝑡𝑡
𝒒𝒒𝒇𝒇 = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜔𝜔0 �1 − � 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, C = 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 . 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 (15)
𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠

Where (C = pmax. ri), pmax - maximum pressure which determines the maximum transmittable torque; Af - total friction
surface area; ri – inner radius, ro – outer radius, ω0 – angular velocity of sliding of the clutch disc. The rate of heat energy
generated is a function of time only in the case of uniform wear [20]. The heat generated will be distributed in the clutch
components by conduction and dissipated to the surrounding air by convection. To examine the temperature distribution
in the clutch facing, 3D models of the clutch disc are simulated by applying the thermal load with boundary conditions
during the engagement. The model with imposed loads and boundary conditions is presented in Figure 3.

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Figure 3. Loads and boundary conditions for the thermal model.

Surface Wear Model
Surface degradation caused by the removal of material during relative movement between one surface and another
contacting body is known as wear. It can be approximated by models that relate various quantities at the contact surface
to material loss despite its complex nature that involves both mechanical and chemical processes. Repositioning the
contact nodes at the contact surface in ANSYS approximates material loss due to wearing. A wear model determines the
updated coordinates of the nodes. Based on the contact readings at the contact nodes, the wear models compute how much
and in which direction a contact node should be moved to simulate wear. According to Archard’s original model, the rate
of volume loss due to wear is proportional to the contact pressure and sliding velocity at the contact surface [21]. The
software, by default, implements a generalised version of this model that incorporates proper law dependence on contact
pressure and velocity.

𝐾𝐾 𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛
𝑤𝑤̇ = 𝑃𝑃 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 (16)
𝐻𝐻

where, K-wear coefficient, H-material hardness, P-contact pressure (obtained from an indentation test), Vrel - the
relative sliding velocity, m-pressure exponent, n-velocity exponent. The values of K, m and n in the Archard wear model
are typically obtained via empirical lab tests by experimentation on sample sets and curve fitting of the generated data
sets.

METHODOLOGY
For mesh generation, standard practices are followed to get high-quality solid elements. A hexahedral meshing method
is adopted for the target body and a tetrahedral meshing for the contact body. Linear elements are preferred for this
analysis instead of quadratic elements due to their apparent higher stiffness values. This prevents them from becoming
distorted easily during the change in contract status. The elements on the contact body (friction lining) are made finer to
capture the wear more accurately. On average, a total of 11473 nodes and 51373 elements are generated across various
geometries. This includes the aforementioned CONTA174 contact elements. Since wear requires repositioning the surface
nodes to simulate material loss, with increasing wear, the element quality of the solid elements underlying the contact
elements gradually becomes worse. Because of element distortions, the analysis can eventually terminate. In such a case,
to strengthen the mesh and continue the analysis, we can adopt manual rezoning or nonlinear mesh adaptivity. Both these
methods require substantial processing power and rebuild the mesh midway through the solution whenever the set user
criterion (e.g., element quality) crosses a certain critical value, thus avoiding solution divergence. This makes the FEA
model more robust and versatile by avoiding possible solution divergence in certain scenarios. The schematic of the
workflow adopted in the present work is depicted in Figure 4.
In our case, to model the thermal contact, we have to use node-to-surface contact elements combined with thermal,
structural, coupled solid elements to visualise and model the temperature distribution at the contact surface on the friction
lining. To analyse the thermal contact behaviour with volume wear analysis, we have to assign frictional sliding at the
contact. The dissipated frictional energy generates heat in contact surfaces, i.e., friction lining surfaces. The contact
surface temperature is needed for interface heat conduction, convection, or radiation. To take into account the conduction
and convection between the contact and target surfaces, we need to assign thermal conductance coefficient and heat
convection coefficient, which can be constant value or function of time, temperature, or location. To model radiative heat
transfer, we need emissivity value, Stefan-Boltzmann constant, offset temperature, and environment (ambient)
temperature. We have to apply uniform heat flux on the contact elements, not on the target elements. To contribute to
target elements for near-field contact, external flux can be applied. For modelling of heat generation due to friction,
transient thermal, structural analysis results and effects are needed. These settings in the ANSYS Workbench can give
the desired outputs.
The surface wear calculations are activated in a coupled field analysis to take the temperature effect into account.
During the steady-state period (full engagement phase), it was anticipated that two types of load conditions act on the
clutch system: the contact pressure between clutch elements due to the axial force of the diaphragm spring and the
centrifugal force owing to rotation. The force applied is ramped up to the steady value to allow the contact and the target
elements to find each other better. To capture the wear more accurately, the wear calculations are turned on right at the
start of the first sub-step. In a frictional type of contact, the elements at the contact surface may experience an abrupt
change in status (when they come into or out of contact), causing a sudden change in the stiffness matrix of the solver

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equation. This is the primary cause of non-linearity and hence solution convergence problems in contact analysis. Due to
this high degree of non-linearity, contact simulations require a substantial amount of computational power. Thus, we have
simplified the geometry to a great extent by removing small features such as fillets with small radii. The contact surfaces
of rigid-flexible contact are set to the deformable body, while the target surfaces are set to the rigid body.

Figure 4. Workflow schematic.

In the case of contact formulation algorithm, only Augmented Lagrangian and Penalty Function algorithms are
recommended since the default Pure Lagrangian algorithm can result in convergence problems. We have used the
Augmented Lagrangian formulation here as it is more robust in comparison to, and is not recommended. The location of
the contact detection point is set to normal to the target surface since, in this scenario, the target body (flywheel/ pressure
plate) is fixed. Asymmetric contact is used as the flywheel/pressure plate does not wear significantly in comparison to
the clutch plate. The Coulomb friction between the clutch face and the pressure plate produces heat. The pre-calculated
heat flux on the contact region of the clutch face is taken into account. Heat loss by convection happens on air-exposed
surfaces. The value convection is derived in the ANSYS database for stagnant air scenario-vertical planes. The radiative
heat transfer is considered to be negligible.
In ANSYS, surface wear can only be activated for quasi-static and transient dynamic analyses. Contact surface wear
is not natively available in the ANSYS Mechanical interface and thus has to be activated by invoking APDL (Ansys
Parametric Design Language) commands. We use the CMROTATE command to impart rotational velocity components
to the clutch plate instead of providing rotational velocity in mechanical because the latter indirectly invokes CGOMGA
or CMOMEGA, which only takes into account the centrifugal forces and while ignoring the velocity components. The
KBC command is used to step apply the required rotational velocity at the first sub-step. To initiate wear calculation right
away, TB, WEAR is used in conjunction with TBFIELD, TIME. The problem is simulated in four load steps. In the first

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load step, pressure is ramped to the desired level. To avoid Solver Pivot Error, the NCNV command is called to raise the
upper limit for the nodal DOF solution to 1.0E30. Using the NEQIT command, the maximum number of equilibrium
iterations for nonlinear analyses is set to 50 to improve the chances of solver convergence.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Slippage in the clutch has three major causes (i) facing wear (i.e., past the wear limit), (ii) improper contact, and (iii)
burnt or disintegrated material. These root causes are frequently observed in standard-facing designs. The design approach
for improving clutch geometry is dependent on temperature distribution, volumetric wear, wear thickness, and slip rate
observed during an engagement scenario. Rusli et al. derived that the normal contact stiffness and friction coefficient are
affected significantly by velocity and clamping force [22]. The values of these characteristics for the stock pattern are
considered as a base reference throughout this simulation. The activation of the Archard wear model in ANSYS enables
a set of miscellaneous results in the post-processing section, as shown in Table 3. These results are not natively available
in the mechanical interface. These commands provide desired node-specific results at each element.
Table 3. Miscellaneous wear parameters obtainable in ANSYS Mechanical.
Nodes
Name Definition Function
E I J K L
VWEAR Volume lost due to wear CONTNMISC 189 - - - -
VREL Equivalent sliding velocity CONTNMISC - 156 157 158 159
WEARZ Wear correction-Z component CONTNMISC - 180 181 182 183
Temperature
Clutch uses friction to transmit the torque, causing it to generate heat through slippage. At such elevated temperatures,
the coefficient of friction may change, affecting the torque output. It can also distort the plates due to uneven distribution
of heat; hence there is an absolute need to consider the thermal performance while discussing its behaviour. Figure 5
indicates the maximum temperature distributions of FLT180 on the contact region at the time of first engagement. No
irregularity in the temperature contours is evident, which could affect the thermal stability of the clutch facing. The
temperatures are found to rise during consecutive engagements as there is not enough time for the convective heat transfer
medium to cool down the clutch facing fully at the next engagement. Hence, it is observed that the overall symmetry also
considerably influences temperature distribution, while the patterns with aspect ratios closer to unity provide the lowest
temperatures. Almost similar trends are observed for both the materials considered in this investigation.

(a) Stock (b) Ellipse

(c) Sunburst (d) Waffle

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(e) Trigonal
Figure 5. Temperature distribution for the investigated clutch geometries.
Figure 6 shows a bell curve trend for the temperature-time graphs of all different clutch geometries made of inorganic
materials. A similar trend is observed by the previous researchers [9,19,22,23,24]. The temperature continues to rise as
the frictional heat generation peaks during the slipping period (t = 0.25 sec), and once the clutch is facing sticks to the
flywheel/pressure plate, convective heat transfer increases, thus causing the cooling. Out of different patterns considered
in this investigation, the Trigonal is providing the best cooling performance, followed by the Waffle pattern. Due to the
lower thermal conductivity of the friction material, the hotspots tend to form over a large area. This is evident from the
temperature contour plot for the stock pattern (as well as the outer contact surface of the Sunburst pattern).

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Temperature over time for different clutch geometries with (a) FTL 180 (b) TF1600-MC2.
Wear Thickness
When the friction material on the clutch disc wears beyond a certain point, the disc is no longer thick enough for it to
be sufficiently clamped between the pressure plate and flywheel. The clutch then slips and loses the ability to transmit
power to the transmission. If the surface wear is ignored, there may be a point where the rivets attaching the clutch
material to the metal backing plate become exposed and scratch the flywheel causing further damage. A similarity is
observed in the graphs of volumetric wear loss and wear thickness. During the initial contact phase, more wear is observed
in TF1600-MC2 in comparison to FTL180. The Waffle pattern is found to exhibit the lowest level of material wear
thickness. The wear thickness variation over time for different clutch geometries with the investigated materials is
presented in Figure 7.
Volume loss due to wear
The volume lost during an engagement is an important criterion used to calculate and predict the estimated life of the
particular clutch geometry. As shown in Figure 8, the volumetric wear loss is more linear in TF1600-MC2 as compared
to FTL180. Thus, a clutch plate made of TF1600-MC2 will wear more uniformly during the initial engagement phase.
The waffle pattern shows the lowest level of material wear compared to the stock clutch. Due to the higher rate of
volumetric wear in the stock pattern, the facing will exceed its wear limit faster. As a consequence, the amount of clamp
load available at the contact patch will drop to suboptimal values.

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(a) (b)
Figure 7. Wear thickness over time for different clutch geometries with (a) FTL 180 (b) TF1600-MC2.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. Volumetric wear loss over time for different clutch geometries with (a) FTL 180 (b) TF1600-MC2.
Slip Rate
Slip rate can be defined as the equivalent sliding velocity at the contact surfaces relative to each other. From Figure
9, it is inferred that slip rates in all cases are found to be within an acceptable range. All of the developed patterns provide
slip rates lower than that observed in the stock pattern. Since torque transferring capacity is directly proportional to the
observed slip rate, it is safe to say that all the developed patterns provide higher torque transfer efficiency during the
engagement. Here, it is also observed that relative slipping occurring during the initial engagement in TF1600-MC2 is
higher than that of FTL180.

(a) (b)
Figure 9. Slip-rate over time for different clutch geometries with (a) FTL 180 (b) TF1600-MC2.
Lifetime
The wear limit of the clutch is defined as the maximum thickness of the facing that can wear before the clutch
performance starts deteriorating. This limit varies from design to design based on the amount of material above the rivets

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or depth of grooves in the friction material, whichever comes first. In our case, the depth of grooves is the limiting factor
with a value of 2 mm. Considering this value as the wear limit and dividing it by overall cumulative wear, one can estimate
the total number of engagements for which the clutch will provide optimum performance. Then, by assuming the rate of
clutch usage per km (based on the habits of an average driver in city conditions), one could calculate the total driving
distance before the clutch exceeds its wear limit. There will always be certain scenarios bundled where the data from this
simulation may prove to be unsatisfactory. Especially when it comes to surface wear since a major factor is the driver’s
habit and level of skill which cannot be accurately accounted for. The estimated life with different clutch geometries and
materials is presented in Figure 10. There may be other factors such as vehicle weight, gearing, and terrain as well that
can lead to deviations into predicted service life.

(a) (b)
Figure 10. Estimated lifetime of the different clutch geometries with (a) FTL 180 (b) TF1600-MC2.

CONCLUSION
In this research, a simulation study is performed to model and analyse wear in clutch facings with various groove
patterns. The wear characteristics of each of the patterns are studied by using a coupled field analysis in ANSYS. APDL
commands are invoked to activate wear calculations via the Archard wear model in the mechanical interface. All the
patterns are tested with two different inorganic materials with slightly different coefficients of friction to understand the
trend in wear parameters better. From the study, the following observations are made.
i. The trigonal pattern showed a temperature reduction of about 17.61% compared to the stock pattern under
identical operating conditions.
ii. The waffle pattern offered a decrease of about 10.4% in volumetric wear loss and a 5.78% in maximum wear
thickness over the stock pattern.
iii. The waffle pattern exhibited an estimated increase of about 11.51% in the average working life when the clutch
is used in high-traffic, city-like conditions.
iv. The wear rate, lifetime comparison of two inorganic material-based clutches facing different groove patterns
revealed the supremacy of TF-1600MC2 over FTL 180.

The above results provide evidence that usage of the waffle pattern in a clutch facing provides improved performance
in terms of wear and working life when coupled with inorganic materials. The clutch facing wears out faster than the
DMF. During replacement of the clutch facing at the end of its service life, the entire set is needed to be replaced due to
the complexity of the assembly. In such a case, the customer often finds the option of switching to solid mass flywheel
logical. However, in the long term, this increases fuel consumption and indirectly CO 2 emissions. Increasing the life of
the clutch facing improves the cost to performance ratio, thereby making the option of continuing with DMF more
lucrative while saving money in terms of fuel during its extended lifetime.
The scope of this work can be extended in the future by (i) simulating and analysing the optimised facing on repeated
engagements with organic and inorganic materials, (ii) obtaining a more accurate convection film coefficient using
ANSYS CFX and validating the results by running lab tests, (iii) estimating the life of the clutch for standardised drive
cycles like Modified Indian Driving Cycle (MIDC) and (iv) conducting lab experiments on the optimised clutch facing
for performance analysis with required materials. Based on these data from physical lab tests can be used to implement
and extract the advantages of the optimised facings.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Management of Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore for providing the
necessary computational facilities to carry out this research work.

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