Received: 31 March 2019 Revised: 30 April 2019 Accepted: 3 May 2019

DOI: 10.1002/mdp2.82

SPECIAL ISSUE ARTICLE

Physical characteristics of concrete, essential in design of

fracture‐resistant, dynamically loaded reinforced concrete
structures

Grzegorz Ludwik Golewski

Faculty of Civil Engineering and

Architecture, Department of Structural
Abstract
Engineering, Lublin University of Dynamic loads are all forces acting on the structure, which are characterised by
Technology, Lublin, Poland variability in a short period of time in relation to the essential dynamic charac-
Correspondence teristics (a period of natural vibrations) of the loaded structure. The use of
Grzegorz Ludwik Golewski, Faculty of materials with appropriate parameters is required for the construction of
Civil Engineering and Architecture,
dynamically loaded structures, as it allows to reduce crack formation in the
Department of Structural Engineering,
Lublin University of Technology, material structure. Reinforced concrete (RC) is an essential and widely used
Nadbystrzycka 40 str., 20‐618 Lublin, construction material for dynamic load‐bearing structures. Therefore, the most
Poland.
important physical parameters of materials used for the construction of RC
Email: g.golewski@pollub.pl
structures, subjected to dynamic loads, are described in this paper. The signif-
Funding information icant physical parameters of concrete, affecting the work of dynamically loaded
Ministry of Science and Higher Education,
reinforced concrete structures, include dynamic coefficient of concrete elastic-
Grant/Award Number: S‐15/B/III/2019
ity, vibration energy absorption, dumping coefficient, and fatigue strength.

KEYWORDS
reinforced concrete, dynamic loads, vibrations, physical parameters, dumping coefficient, fatigue
strength

1 | INTRODUCTION

In practice, the design of a building structure frequently requires considering the static and dynamic loads in the calcu-
lations. Often, dynamic loads in the form of impact need to be taken into account, eg, Karnati et al,1 Craciun et al,2
Peride et al,3 and Craciun and Soos.4 Situations where it is necessary to consider dynamic influences on structural ele-
ments require the designer's particular attention due to the fact that loads of this type cause the occurrence of vibrations
in the structure. The vibrations are an inherent phenomenon accompanying buildings throughout their lifecycle,
starting from the building process through maintenance up to their disposal, and usually their occurrence does not
adversely affect the work of the structure. Situations related to the occurrence of the so‐called harmful vibrations or
vibrations caused by variable forces, which could cause the so‐called resonance, constitute exceptions.
The work of structures subjected to “harmful” vibrations or resonant vibrations may, in the long term, lead to very
serious effects such as structure's damage or, in extreme cases, failure or destruction. For example, in concrete structures
subjected to dynamic loading, the cracks are formed very rapidly along straight lines through the aggregate.
In support of this statement, Figure 1 shows the view of a concrete sample after destruction as a result of impact load.
Experiments of this type were carried out on the MTS 810 servo‐hydraulic testing machine. We tested a concrete cubic
specimen, with 150‐mm‐long edge, according to mode II fracture. During the experiment, we applied a displacement‐

Mat Design Process Comm. 2019;1:e82. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/mdp2 © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1 of 7
https://doi.org/10.1002/mdp2.82
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FIGURE 1 Cross section of a concrete sample after destruction, as a result of impact load, with visible damaged aggregate grains

controlled type of tests with the MTS head velocity equal to 800 mm/s with a force equal to 80 kN. This caused the
concrete specimen to be damaged in a sudden manner similar to the tests on the impact tower.
The macroscopic cross section of the test sample shows numerous broken aggregate grains (marked with light blue
borders in Figure 1). Microscopic magnifications of the selected grains by using scanning electron microscope (SEM)
show the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between coarse aggregate and the paste:

• Does not show any defects, as in the case of ITZ between the grain and the matrix—marked with red border in
Figure 1.
• The width of the crack in the ITZ area is very small, as in the case of ITZ between the grain and the matrix—marked
with yellow border in Figure 1.

On the other hand, in both the above cases, the main damages run through the central part of the aggregate. This can
be seen on the enlargements of the ITZ zones of both grains, shown in Figure 2. In order to show this weakest concrete

FIGURE 2 A view of the broken

aggregate grains: (A, C) grain surface
view, mag.: ×500, and (B, D) ITZ view,
mag.: ×20 000
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zone accurately, the images of both grains were taken at two identical magnifications and scales (Figure 2). The main
concrete phases were also marked on SEM images. The compact and stiff structure of the ITZ is visible in Figure 2A,B,
while the ITZ with a very small crack, size less than 1 μm, in Figure 2C,D.
Furthermore, it should be added that the cracks propagating through the aggregate grains, described and shown
above, are very difficult to detect in the composite. For their detection, the nondestructive methods of acoustic emission
(AE) or digital image correlation (DIC) are most often used, eg, Goszczynska et al5 and Golewski.6
Structural cracks in the material caused by dynamic loads are similar to damages, occurring in concrete structures
working in conditions of complex stress.7-15 It should be noted, however, that with properly conducted structure
analysis and correct selection of construction materials, the adverse effect of vibrations may be reduced almost entirely.
To complete this task, in the construction of structures exposed to dynamic loads that cause vibrations, materials
characterised by sufficient strength, fatigue durability, resistance to external factors (chemical, atmospheric) as well
as homogeneity, ie, identical physical properties throughout its mass, are used. The material that meets all these
requirements is undoubtedly reinforced concrete (RC). Therefore, it is an essential and widely used construction
material for dynamic load‐bearing structures.16-18
Concrete used for dynamically loaded RC structures manufacturing should be characterised both by appropriate
mechanical and physical parameters. The physical characteristics of concrete, which are responsible for damping and
reducing the redistribution occurring vibrations that can cause the development of cracks in the material,19 are partic-
ularly important. Therefore, the following article describes the most important mechanical and physical concrete
parameters, affecting the work of dynamically loaded RC structures.

2 | MECHANICAL AND STRENGTH C ONCRETE PARAMETERS

The most important mechanical parameter taken into account when selecting concrete for dynamically loaded
structures is the class of concrete compressive strength. Its minimum guidelines are dependent on the dynamic forces
occurring in the structure. However, the type of machine that generates dynamic loads influences the type and value
of these forces.
The minimum class of concrete compressive strength required in the case of dynamically loaded RC structures is C
12/15. RC structures transferring impact loads from operating machines, ie, foundations under hammers, are an excep-
tion. In such cases, concrete class C 16/20 should be used for smaller machines, whereas C 20/25 and C 25/30—for
larger ones.
Additionally, the group of small machines can include, for example, electrical machines (engines, generator sets,
compensators, etc) or some mechanical tools (lathes, grinders, drills, etc). Large machines include, among others,
turbine sets (turbo generators, turbo pumps, turbo blowers, etc) or free forging hammers and drop forging hammers.
When selecting concrete strength class for dynamically loaded structures, it should be considered that the lower the
coefficient of longitudinal elasticity (ie, the lower the strength class), the greater the fatigue strength. Concrete of lower
strength exhibits greater resistance to vibrations, which, to a lesser degree, reduces its compressive strength. In addition,
high‐strength concrete is characterised by increased brittleness when compared with ordinary concrete. For these two
reasons, when selecting concrete parameters for dynamically loaded structures, the high strength of material is never
the main criterion. However, it is important always to satisfy the minimum requirements.
Obtaining concrete with uniform characteristics throughout its mass is often more important than its high strength,
as it is largely unused in dynamically loaded RC structures and any subsequent damage to these structures is often a
result of mistakes made during concrete mixing.
Therefore, despite the apparent ease of concreting massive structures transferring vibrations such as foundation
blocks, all possible measures to ensure high‐quality concrete should always be applied. Concrete should be homoge-
neous, without surface imperfections indicating the presence of honeycombs or porous areas, shrinkage cracks, etc.
All discontinuities occurring in a concrete structure may diminish its ability to damp vibrations. In addition, it should
be remembered that if a structure, which in the future is to transfer dynamic loads, has some weak areas, ie, seams
caused by pauses in concreting, they will inevitably be the beginning of structure cracking.
Both laboratory and practical experiments prove that the destruction from vibrations originates in the already
damaged areas prior to the application of load. Concentration of harmful stresses in weakened areas has the effect of
decreasing both the material's durability and its resistance to aggressive surrounding environment. Microcracks and
cracks occurring in concrete also promote the reinforcement corrosion.
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Given the above, it is required to construct dynamically loaded RC structures from one batch—concreting from the
beginning to the end without pauses.

3 | PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE

In order to calculate dynamically loaded RC structures, the coefficients of material elasticity and fatigue strength
constitute essential variables. The important physical characteristics also include damping properties (energy
absorption) of vibrations through the material and structure. Below, the most significant parameters, requiring special
attention when designing dynamically loaded RC structures, are listed.

• Coefficient of material elasticity (modulus of elasticity)

In dynamic calculations of RC structures, coefficient of concrete elasticity is primarily used to determine structure
stiffness. It needs to be determined experimentally, based on measurements of natural frequencies and amplitudes of
forced vibrations of the test sample. However, due to the fact that the difference between static and dynamic structure
stiffness is small (smaller than 6% for RC), the values of coefficient of elasticity, specified in standards, are obtained with
static short‐term load and can be used in dynamic calculations. The values of modulus of elasticity, for particular
strength classes of concrete, are summarised on the basis of EN 1992‐1‐120 in Table 1.
In practice, while calculating natural frequencies and amplitudes of forced vibrations—of typical RC structures—
coefficients of elasticity are assumed as for concrete in compression, omitting the influence of reinforcement (values
given in Table 1). The so‐called responsible structures, eg, foundations under high‐power turbine sets, are exceptions.
In their case, it is necessary, prior to concreting, to check concrete strength of samples and determine its coefficient
of elasticity. The results of such studies should be close to standard values, which were adopted in static calculations.

• Absorption of vibration energy

Concrete and structures made of it are characterised by the ability to absorb some energy that causes deformations
from stresses and to dissipate it as heat energy. Thanks to this property, it is possible to limit the formation of
microcracks in the material structure. This ability is characterised by energy absorption coefficient ψ, which is defined
as the ratio of energy absorbed during one period of vibrations to energy corresponding to amplitude of deformation.

TABLE 1 Modulus of elasticity of concrete used in calculations of dynamic structures according to

EN 1992‐1‐120

Concrete Strength Class Modulus of Elasticity E, GPa

C 12/15 27
C 16/20 29
C 20/25 30
C 25/30 31
C 30/37 32
C 35/45 34
C 40/50 35
C 45/55 36
C 50/60 37
C 55/67 38
C 60/75 39
C 70/85 41
C 80/95 42
C 90/105 44
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The value of absorption coefficient ψ depends on the following factors: type and value of stresses, vibration
frequency, ratio of dynamic to static stresses, temperature, and age of structure.
The value of coefficient ψ for concrete and RC are summarised in Table 2.18
An important observation, resulting from the analysis of both values ψ in the above table, is the increase in energy
absorption throughout the structure when compared with results obtained for materials used to make these structures.
The fact that the values of coefficient ψ for RC structures are bigger than for concrete (Table 2) results from the
following three reasons:

• Along with the structure basic material, there exist additional materials with improved energy absorption
characteristics (eg, RC structure with steel or wall).
• Energy absorption is increased due to the use of different types of connections.
• Structures work spatially, so that the vibrations of one element are partially damped by adjacent elements.
• Damping coefficient

In practice, nonelastic resistance coefficient called damping coefficient γ is taken into account. It is determined using
the following equation,18 whereas the values of γ depend on the dynamic category of machines generating vibrations.

ψ
γ¼ : (1)
2π

At this point, it should also be added that both parameters, ψ and γ, have much higher values for concrete, RC, and
RC structures in comparison with other types of construction materials such as steel or wood. The favourable indicators
of damping parameters in the case of this type of materials and structures indicate the legitimacy and, indeed, the
necessity to apply them—in situations involving dynamic loads.
Furthermore, damping enables energy to be dissipated from external forces and is inextricably connected with
movement of the structure. The ability of damping is determined as the ratio of energy dissipated in one vibration cycle
to the total energy introduced to the system. Damping is divided into

Internal—material or structural.
External—environmental.

• Fatigue strength

Effects of material fatigue, caused by dynamic load resulting in the occurrence of variable stresses, manifest
themselves in the possibility of destruction of the loaded element at stresses lower than those needed for the destruction
of the same element, but loaded statically, eg, Hu et al.21 In the case of dynamic loads, the calculated material strength
depends on the number of cycles of stress changes, the value of the initial static stress, on which stresses will overlap,
and the ratio of minimum and maximum stresses. An additional factor affecting the strength is the presence of the
so‐called notches, which may cause stress concentration.
The durability in preventing fatigue crack is important for concrete and RC, eg, Ahn et al.22 Therefore, when
dimensioning dynamically loaded RC structures, it is absolutely necessary to take into account fatigue strength, if
stresses in cross sections of the structure's elements change at least 5 × 105, during the entire “life” of the structure
or variable loads constitute at least 60% of total load.
According to EN 1992‐1‐1,20 in the ultimate limit states, partial factor of fatigue loads γP,fat can be taken based on
national guidelines. The value recommended by EN 1992‐1‐120 is 1.0. However, the design fatigue strength f fat can
be determined in a simplified manner with the following equation,18 which mainly depends on type of material and
its structure, coefficient characterising material fatigue, and stress concentration coefficient.

TABLE 2 Values of energy absorption coefficient ψ for concrete and RC α0α0

Type of Material Coefficient ψ

Concrete 0.26
Reinforced concrete 0.30
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TABLE 3 Values of coefficients α0 and ρ to determine design fatigue strength ffat α0α0

Coefficient
Material of Structure α0 ρ

Reinforcement 3.5 1.7

Concrete 3.0 1.0

f fat ¼ Sfat ρf 0 ; (2)

where

1 þ k0
Sfat ¼ ; (3)
1 þ α0 μ0 k 0

ρ—coefficient depending on the type of material selected from Table 3, f 0—design strength of material for static load,
according to EN 1992‐1‐1,20 and k0 —coefficient of symmetry of stress cycles, determined from Equation (4).

Sdyn
k0 ¼ : (4)
Sst

α0—coefficient characterising fatigue of the material, adopted in accordance with Table 3 and depending on the type
of structure's material, μ0 —coefficient of stress concentration (for monolithic RC structures is 1.0), Sst —generalised
characteristic static force (normal force, transverse force, moment) in the considered cross section of structure,
and Sdyn —amplitude of generalised, design dynamic force in the same cross section of the structure.

4 | SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Vibrations in buildings and other engineering structures are an integral part of their existence. This fact makes the
fundamental knowledge in the area of structural dynamics essential for engineer's professional work.
The article draws attention to the phenomenon of crack formation in concrete structures, which can be caused by
dynamic loads. As a result of the conducted analyses, it was found that such cracks propagate mainly through aggregate
grains, while they are insignificant in the ITZ area.
Furthermore, physical parameters of concrete, important for designing fracture‐resistant, dynamically loaded RC
structures, were presented in this paper. The conducted research led to the conclusion that the main physical factors
affecting the behaviour of RC structures subjected to dynamic loads include

• Dynamic coefficient of elasticity (modulus of elasticity).

• Absorption of vibration energy.
• Damping coefficient.
• Fatigue strength.

A C K N O WL E D G E M E N T
This work was financially supported by Ministry of Science and Higher Education within the statutory research number
S‐15/B/III/2019.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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ORCID
Grzegorz Ludwik Golewski https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9325-666X

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How to cite this article: Golewski GL. Physical characteristics of concrete, essential in design of fracture‐
resistant, dynamically loaded reinforced concrete structures. Mat Design Process Comm. 2019;1:e82. https://doi.org/
10.1002/mdp2.82