CHAPTER 1

ELECTRICITY – BASIC PRINCIPLES

 INTRODUCTION
Electricity plays a crucial role in our daily lives, making it essential to understand its various
functions. Today, all our basic needs rely heavily on electricity. Electrical engineering studies
involve analyzing how energy is transferred from one form to another. Before diving into the actual
study of electrical engineering, it's important to discuss the fundamental concepts and elements of
the field.

In this module, you will explore the basic principles, concepts, laws, and theories of electrical
engineering, enabling you to understand the various applications of electricity in the future.
 ELECTRICITY
The invisible energy that constitutes the flow of electrons in a closed circuit to perform work is
called "electricity." It is a form of energy that can easily be converted into other forms. In the past,
it was believed that electricity was a substance that flowed through a circuit to do work. However,
it is now understood that electricity is the flow of electrons within a circuit, and through this
process, work is accomplished. The term "electricity" originates from the Greek word "electron,"
which means amber. Electricity is fundamentally about electrons, the primary drivers of electrical
phenomena.
 TWO MAIN TYPES OF
ELECTRICITY
•Static Electricity involves the movement of electrons from one place to another, typically through rubbing or
brushing. Static electricity occurs when there is an imbalance between the number of protons and electrons
(positively and negatively charged subatomic particles). For friction to generate static electricity, the particles
must be opposite in charge (positive and negative). If particles of the same charge (positive-positive or
negative-negative) come into contact, no frictional electricity is produced.

•Current Electricity involves the flow of electrons through a conductor. It is the movement of electric charge
across an electrical field, which is carried through a conductor. Conductors are generally classified into two
types: good and poor conductors. Good conductors, such as copper wires, allow electric charge to flow freely
through them, while poor conductors, such as wood, resist the flow of electric charge. The continuous flow of
electric charge often causes the conductor to heat up.
 HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY
Around 600 BC, the Greeks discovered that rubbing a hard fossilized resin (amber) against a fur
cloth would cause it to attract particles of straw. This strange phenomenon remained a mystery for
over 2,000 years.

Two Thousand Years Later

Around 1600, William Gilbert, a physician in London during the time of Queen Elizabeth I and
Shakespeare, studied magnetic phenomena. He demonstrated that the Earth itself is a massive
magnet using his "terrella" experiment. Gilbert also explored the attraction produced when certain
materials were rubbed together and named this force "electric" attraction. From this term, the
word "electricity" and all related terms were derived.
 WILLIAM GILBERT

•Father of Electricity

•The term "electricity" was coined by William

Gilbert, who derived it from the Greek word for
amber.
 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
In 1752, Benjamin Franklin proved that lightning
and the spark produced by amber were the same
phenomenon. This well-known story involves
Franklin attaching an iron spike to a silken kite,
which he flew during a thunderstorm while holding
the kite string with an iron key attached. When
lightning flashed, a tiny spark jumped from the key
to his wrist, confirming Franklin's theory. However,
the experiment was extremely dangerous—he could
easily have been killed.
 GALVANI AND VOLTA
In 1786, Luigi Galvani, an Italian professor of medicine,
discovered that the leg of a dead frog twitched violently when
touched by a metal knife. Galvani believed that the frog's
muscles contained electricity.
By 1792, another Italian scientist, Alessandro Volta,
challenged Galvani's interpretation. He realized that the key
factors in Galvani's experiment were the two different
metals—the steel knife and the tin plate—on which the frog
was lying. Volta demonstrated that when moisture comes into
contact with two different metals, electricity is generated.
This led him to invent the first electric battery, known as the
voltaic pile, which he constructed from alternating thin sheets
of copper and zinc separated by moist pasteboard. This
invention produced a steady flow of electricity, akin to a
current of water, rather than a single spark or shock. Volta's
work showed that electricity could be transmitted from one
place to another via wires, marking a significant advance in
the field. The unit of electrical potential, the volt, is named in
his honor.
 MICHAEL FARADAY
The credit for generating electric current on a practical
scale belongs to the renowned English scientist Michael
Faraday. Faraday, who was deeply interested in
electromagnetism, took earlier experiments a step
further. He questioned why, if electricity could produce
magnetism, magnetism couldn't produce electricity.
In 1831, Faraday found the answer. He discovered that
electricity could be generated through magnetism by
using motion. Faraday demonstrated that moving a
magnet inside a coil of copper wire induced a tiny electric
current in the wire. While Faraday's electric generator
was relatively crude by today's standards and produced
only a small current, he had developed the first method
for generating electricity through motion in a magnetic
field. Additionally, Faraday recognized that electric force
is transmitted through an electric field.
 JAMES WATT
When Edison's generator was coupled with
Watt's steam engine, large-scale electricity
generation became a practical reality. James
Watt, the Scottish inventor of the steam
condensing engine, was born in 1736. His
improvements to steam engines were patented
over a period of 15 years, starting in 1769. The
unit of electrical power, the watt, is named in his
honor.
 ANDRE MARIE AMPERE
André-Marie Ampère, a French mathematician
who dedicated himself to the study of electricity
and magnetism, was the first to explain the
electro-dynamic theory. A lasting tribute to
Ampère is the use of his name for the unit of
electric current.
 GEORG SIMON OHM
Georg Simon Ohm, a German mathematician
and physicist, was a college teacher in Cologne
when he published "The Galvanic Circuit
Investigated Mathematically" in 1827. Although
his theories were initially met with skepticism by
German scientists, his research was later
recognized in Britain, and he was awarded the
Copley Medal in 1841. His name has since been
honored with the unit of electrical resistance, the
ohm.
 HOW IS ELECTRICITY
PRODUCED?
1) Friction
2) Pressure
3) Heat
4) Chemical Reaction
5) Light
6) Magnetism
 ELECTRICITY PRODUCED
FROM FRICTIONAL ENERGY
Frictional electricity is the least significant method for generating electricity. It is produced by
rubbing certain dissimilar materials together. One notable application of static electricity is the
Van de Graaff generator, a device used in atomic research.
 ELECTRICITY PRODUCED
FROM PRESSURE
Electricity produced from pressure is known as piezoelectricity. This phenomenon occurs in
certain crystalline materials, such as quartz and barium titanate. When a crystal made from these
materials is placed between two metal plates and pressure is applied, an electric charge develops.
The amount of electric charge generated depends on the amount of pressure exerted.
 ELECTRICITY PRODUCED
FROM HEAT
The amount of charge produced depends on the temperature difference between the junction and
the ends of two wires. A greater temperature difference results in a larger charge. Electricity is
generated by heating the junction of a thermocouple.
 ELECTRICITY PRODUCED
FROM CHEMICAL REACTION
Electric cells are electricity produced by chemical reactions.
 ELECTRICITY PRODUCED
FROM LIGHT
Electricity is produced when light strikes photosensitive materials. These materials release
electrons when they are excited by light under the right conditions. This release of electrons is
known as the photoelectric effect.
 ELECTRICITY PRODUCED
FROM MAGNETISM
Electricity is produced by the relative movement
of a magnet and a wire, which causes the cutting
of magnetic field lines. The amount of electricity
generated depends on:
1. The number of turns in the coil
2. The speed of the relative motion between the
coil and the magnet
3. The strength of the magnet
 QUICK REVIEW OF ATOM
Matter is composed of atoms. Atoms consist of nucleons
(protons and neutrons) and electrons. Protons carry a positive
charge, neutrons have no charge, and electrons have a negative
charge. The charges of protons and electrons are equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign.

Atoms are present everywhere. Electrons move along fixed

pathways around the nucleus. Changing the number of electrons
in an atom creates an ion of that atom.
 QUICK REVIEW OF ATOM
(cont.)
ON THE MOVE
Electrons in the outer rings or shells of atoms are bound more loosely to the nucleus. These electrons are more
likely to break free from the nucleus and move around among nearby atoms. Such electrons are called free
electrons.
MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight.
ELEMENT
An element is a substance that cannot be decomposed any further by chemical reactions.
ATOM
An atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element. It is the
fundamental building block of matter.
COMPOUND
A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements combined in fixed proportions.
MOLECULE
A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound that retains the chemical properties of that compound. It is the
smallest unit that can exist independently before breaking down into its constituent elements.
 QUICK REVIEW OF ATOM
(cont.)
ELECTRONS NUCLEUS
Electrons are negatively charged particles that The nucleus is the central part of an atom
orbit the nucleus of an atom. They are among where protons and neutrons are located.
the lightest particles with a known mass, ATOMIC NUMBER
approximately 9.11×10−31 kg. The atomic number represents the number of
PROTONS protons or electrons in an atom.
Protons are positively charged particles located ATOMIC MASS
in the nucleus of an atom. Although protons are The atomic mass represents the total number of
very small, they are relatively massive compared protons and neutrons in an atom.
to other particles in matter. The mass of a VALENCE ELECTRONS
proton is approximately 1.675×10−27 kg. Valence electrons are the electrons located in
NEUTRONS the outermost shell or orbit of an atom.
Neutrons are particles with no charge. They are
similar in size to protons, but their mass is
slightly greater, approximately 1.675×10−27 kg.
 CONDUCTORS
In conductors, electric charges are free to move through the material, whereas in insulators, they
are not.
In Conductors:
• The charge carriers are called free electrons.
• Only negative charges are free to move.
• When isolated atoms combine to form a metal, the outer electrons do not remain attached to
individual atoms but become free to move throughout the material.
Other Types of Conductors:
Electrolytes: Both negative and positive charges can move in electrolytes.
Semiconductors: These materials are intermediate in their ability to conduct electricity
compared to conductors and insulators. Their conductivity can be significantly enhanced by adding
small amounts of other elements. Understanding semiconductors fully requires knowledge of
quantum physics.
 INSULATORS
Insulators, in contrast to conductors, are materials that do not allow electric charges to move freely. Typically
composed of non-metals, insulators have very few or no "free electrons" within their atomic structure. In these
materials, the electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly bound to the positively charged nucleus,
preventing them from moving. As a result, when a potential voltage is applied, no current flows, which is what
gives these materials their insulating properties.
Examples of good insulators include marble, PVC plastics, rubber, glass, oil, asphalt, fiberglass, porcelain,
ceramics, dry cotton, dry wood, air, diamond, mica, textile fibers, and wax.
Insulators play a crucial role in electrical and electronic systems. Without them, electrical circuits would
short-circuit and malfunction. For instance, glass or porcelain insulators are used to insulate and support
overhead transmission cables, while epoxy glass resin materials are employed to manufacture printed circuit
boards (PCBs) and other electronic components.
 SYSTEM OF UNITS
When representing a circuit and its components, it is essential to use a consistent system of units for the
quantities involved. At the 1960 meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures, representatives
modernized the metric system and established the Système International d’Unités (SI units).
The SI system is based on a set of seven fundamental units from which other units are derived. These
fundamental units are:
1. Meter (m) - The unit of length.
2. Kilogram (kg) - The unit of mass.
3. Second (s) - The unit of time.
4. Ampere (A) - The unit of electric current.
5. Kelvin (K) - The unit of thermodynamic temperature.
6. Mole (mol) - The unit of the amount of substance.
7. Candela (cd) - The unit of luminous intensity.
These units provide a standardized framework that ensures consistency and accuracy in scientific and
engineering calculations.
 SI PREFIXES
Prefix SI Symbol Exponent Form
Exa E 1018
Peta P 1015
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
kilo k 103
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
femto f 10-15
atto a 10-18
 DIRECT CURRENT SYSTEM
Direct current (DC) is a unidirectional electric current, meaning that the flow of charge always
moves in the same direction. Unlike alternating current (AC), the direction and amplitude of direct
current remain constant. DC is commonly used in many household electronics and in all devices
that operate on batteries. Essentially, any device powered by a battery uses DC.
 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT THEORY
The fundamental theory upon which all branches of electrical engineering are built is electric
circuit theory. This theory forms the basis for various fields within electrical engineering, including
power systems, electric machines, control systems, electronics, communications, and
instrumentation.
 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements, with each component of the circuit
referred to as an element.

A simple electric circuit, as illustrated in the figure above, consists of basic elements such as a
battery, a light bulb, connecting wires, and a switch. An electric circuit must always form a closed
path. A closed circuit is complete, with uninterrupted continuity throughout.
 TYPES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
OPEN CIRCUIT SHORT CIRCUIT

It implies that the two terminals are points that are It implies that the two terminals are externally
externally disconnected, which is equivalent to a connected with resistance R=0, the same as an ideal
resistance R=∞ . This means that zero current can wire. This means there is zero voltage difference for
flow between the two terminals, regardless of any any current value.
voltage difference.
 ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
It is a small picture or image called a pictogram used to represent various electrical and electronic
devices (such as wires, batteries, resistors, and transistors) in a schematic diagram of an electrical
or electronic circuit.
 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS
1. Ammeter – it is an instrument used to measure current and must be connected in series with
the circuit.
2. Voltmeter – it is an instrument used for measuring the electric potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit. and must be connected in parallel with the part of the circuit whose
potential difference is required.
3. Wattmeter – it is an instrument for the measurement of power in an electrical circuit.
4. Ohmmeter – it is an instrument for measuring resistance.
5. Multimeter – also known as the universal instrument, may be used to measure voltage, current,
and resistance.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
 PROBLEM 1
If a current of 10 A flows for four minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.
 PROBLEM 2
How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?
ELECTRIC CURRENT
 TYPES OF CURRENT
1. Direct Current (DC) – a current that remains constant with time.
2. Alternating Current(AC) – a current that varies sinusoidally with time.
 CONVENTIONAL VS
ELECTRON FLOW
1. Conventional current flow – from the positive pole of the battery and return to the negative
pole.
2. Electron flow – from the negative pole of the battery (the cathode) and return to the positive
pole (the anode).
 MAIN EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC
CURRENT
The three main effects of an electric current are:
(a) magnetic effect
(b) chemical effect
(c) heating effect
Some practical applications of the effects of an electric current include:
1. Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators, transformers, telephones, car-ignition, and
lifting magnets
2. Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and electroplating
3. Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons, furnaces, kettles and soldering irons
 PROBLEM 3
How much current must flow if 0.24 C is to be transferred in 15 ms?
 PROBLEM 4
A constant current of 4 A charges a capacitor. How long will it take to accumulate a total charge of 8
coulombs on the plates?
VOLTAGE
 TYPES OF VOLTAGE
DC Voltage
- commonly produced by batteries
AC Voltage
- produced by electric generator

A constant voltage is called a DC voltage and is represented by V, whereas a sinusoidal time-varying

voltage is called an AC voltage represented by v.
VOLTAGE POLARITY
 PROBLEM 5
A battery can deliver 10 J of energy to move 5 C of charge. What is the potential difference between
the terminals of the battery?
 PROBLEM 6
Work equal to 136.0 J is expended in moving 8.5 x 1018 electrons between two points in an electric
circuit. What potential difference does this establish between the two points?
ELECTRICAL POWER
ELECTRICAL POWER (cont.)
 PROBLEM 7
A portable machine requires a force of 200 N to move it. How much work is done if the machine is
moved 20 m and what average power is utilized if the movement takes 25 s?
 PROBLEM 8
A mass of 1000 kg is raised through a height of 10 m in 20 seconds. What is (a) the work done and
(b) the power developed?
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
NOTE:
1 cal = 4.186 J
1 HP = 746 W
1 BTU = 252 cal
1 kWh = 3600 kJ = 3413 BTU = 860 kcal
1 J = 1 x 107 ergs
1 day = 24 hrs
1 month = 30 days = 720 hrs
1 year = 365 days = 8760 hrs
 PROBLEM 9
A source EMF of 5 V supplies a current of 3 A for 10 minutes. How much energy is provided at this
time?
 PROBLEM 10
Electrical equipment in an office takes a current of 13 A from a 240 V supply. Estimate the cost per
week of electricity if the equipment is used for 30 hours each week and 1 kWh of energy costs 7
pesos.
 CHAPTER TEST
1. Calculate the amount of charge represented by six million protons.
2. At what time would a current of 10A transfer a charge of 50 C?
3. A constant current of 4 A charges a capacitor. How long will it take to accumulate a total charge
of 8 coulombs on the plates?
4. An electric kettle has a resistance of 30 ohms. How much current will flow when it is connected
to a 240 V supply? Determine the power rating of the kettle.
5. An electric heater consumes 3.6 MJ when connected to a 250 V supply for 40 minutes. Find the
power rating of the heater and the current taken from the supply.
6. How many calories does an electric heater of 100 watts generate per second?
7. The voltage across a 1.1 kW toaster that produces a current of 10 A is _____.
 CHAPTER TEST (cont.)
8. A telephone wire has a current of 20 µA flowing through it. How long does it take for a charge of
15 C to pass through the wire?
9. A lightning bolt carried a current of 2 kA and lasted for 3 ms. How many coulombs of charge
were contained in the lightning bolt?
10. How much work is done by a 12-V automobile battery in moving 5 x 10 20 electrons from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal?
11. A business uses two – 3kW fires for an average of 20 hours each per week, and six – 150W lights
for 30 hours each per week. If the cost of electricity is P14.25 per unit, determine the weekly cost of
electricity to the business.
12. How much energy does a 10-HP motor deliver in ½ hour?