Merged_956691

UNIT: 1 INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is veterinary public health?
1.3 International custodians of veterinary public health
1.4 Aspects of veterinary public health
1.5 Meat hygiene and veterinary public health
1.6 Role-players in meat hygiene
1.6.1 Local role-players

1.6.2 International role-players
1.7 Legislation governing meat hygiene in South Africa
1.8 Summary
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• define veterinary public health (VPH) and describe the role of VPH in public health
• list the various international custodians of VPH and describe the focus of each of these
organisations in terms of protecting the health of the public
• identify the various aspects of VPH
• define meat hygiene and explain the scope of the value chain over which meat hygiene must be
implemented
• identify both local and international role-players in meat hygiene
• identify the most important legislation that relates to meat hygiene
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Good hygiene practices on the farm, during processing and in the retail environment ensure that meat
and meat-related products are safe for human consumption. Meat is a perishable product and can be
easily contaminated with a variety of hazards if it is not handled properly. Therefore, good hygiene
practice plays an important role in ensuring that the product is safe for human consumption.
Potential hazards associated with meat may be divided into three categories, namely biological, physical
and chemical hazards. The most important of these are the biological hazards, which have been linked
with outbreaks of food-borne illnesses in humans. The application of strict hygiene management practices
at the abattoirs has been known to play an important role in quality assurance and mitigation of food-
borne illness. Officials, including animal health technicians (AHTs) who are involved in veterinary public
health (VPH) at the abattoir, often make an important contribution to this.
1.2 WHAT IS VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH?
The WHO (World Health Organization) defines VPH as "the sum of all contributions to the physical, mental
and social well-being of humans through an understanding and application of veterinary science".
This definition emphasises the close link between human and animal health, and points to the fact that
poor animal health has the potential to lead to serious public health and economic consequences. Did you
know, for instance, that about 75% of the new diseases that have affected humans over the past 10 years
have been caused by pathogens originating from animals or from products of animal origin? This clearly
illustrates the importance of VPH in the health of the human population.
1.3 INTERNATIONAL CUSTODIANS OF VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

There are three large international organisations that make reference to VPH. They each look at VPH from
a different perspective, but operate in collaboration. These organisations are the FAO, the WHO and the
OIE.
Below I have provided a summary of the activities of each, but to learn more about them, you are welcome
to visit their websites.
❖ The FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations) raises awareness about
better agricultural productivity and the living conditions of rural populations.
http://www.fao.org/about/en/
❖ The OIE (Office International des Epizooties, or World Organization for Animal Health)
determines animal health standards for international trade, and advises the veterinary services
in member countries on animal health and the control and eradication of zoonotic diseases.
http://www.oie.int/
❖ The WHO (World Health Organization) coordinates international health activities and helps
countries improve human health services. http://www.who.int/zoonoses/vph/en/
Activity 1.1 Go to the discussion forum entitled “Introduction to VPH”, and post a summary of
your understanding of what VPH is. Based on your understanding of the role of the three main
organisations that make reference to VPH, state which one of them is directly involved with
veterinary science. Provide a reason for your choice by briefly explaining what the other two focus
on.
Activity 1.2
Match the following organisations to their respective functions.
❖ FAO
❖ WHO
❖ OIE
• Assists member countries to control animal diseases
• Deals with improvement of health provision
• Focuses on improving the life of rural people by promoting agriculture
1.4 ASPECTS OF VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH
VPH is an essential part of public health systems which link humans, animals and the environment (these
three elements make up what is known as the public health triad).
VPH is multidisciplinary and includes meat hygiene; diagnosis of diseases; surveillance; epidemiology;
control, prevention and elimination of zoonoses; food protection; management of health aspects of
laboratory animal facilities and diagnostic laboratories; biomedical research; health education and
extension. Also included are production and control of biological products and medical devices;
management of domestic and wild animal populations; protection of drinking water and the environment;
and management of public health emergencies.
1.5 MEAT HYGIENE AND VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

As I mentioned above, meat hygiene is an essential part of VPH, and will be the focus of this module.
What is meat hygiene?
To define meat hygiene, I would like to adapt the WHO definition of food hygiene, and say that it
comprises of conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety of meat from production to
consumption.
Why do you think that it is important to implement hygienic measures from production to the table or
from farm to fork? (This concept is referred to as “stable to table” or “farm to fork”.) This is because food
can be contaminated at any point during slaughtering, processing, storage, distribution, transportation
and preparation. We will go into more detail about this in unit 3. For the present, however, remember
that when meat hygiene is neglected, the result can be food-borne diseases and death of the consumer.
How is meat hygiene achieved?
Traditionally, the focus of meat hygiene programmes has included routine ante- and post-mortem
inspection of the abattoirs. Studies have demonstrated that microbial hazards that might be present in
the meat are just as important or even more important to human health than grossly apparent
abnormalities. This illustrates the weakness of meat inspection alone in delivering safe meat for the public,
as it is not possible to identify meat that is contaminated with microorganisms through meat inspection.
Nevertheless, meat inspection remains an important step in the identification of possible food-borne
illnesses during meat production. Because meat inspection is not sensitive enough to detect or identify
microbial hazards, identification of these hazards and their control must start at the farm, before the
animal reaches the abattoir. This is why the trend in modern VPH practice is to evaluate the value chain
as opposed to just carrying out on-site spot inspection of carcasses.
1.6 ROLE-PLAYERS IN MEAT HYGIENE
Let us now turn to the role-players in meat hygiene whose day-to-day activities influence the safety of
the meat that is produced in the various abattoirs.
1.6.1 LOCAL ROLE-PLAYERS

In South Africa the Red Meat Producers Organisation (RPO), the Red Meat Abattoir Association (RMAA)
and the Association for Meat Importers and Exporters (AMIE) are responsible for the production and
marketing of red meat. The Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) is responsible for
policy development and regulation of the meat industry.
I am sure that as an AHT you would like to know what your role would be if you were employed in the
VPH sector. Your role would be aligned to that of DAFF, and would mainly entail implementing policies
and regulations related to the meat industry. Therefore your tasks would involve enforcing the Meat
Safety Act and the relevant regulations (we will go into more detail about these later). Your responsibilities
would fall into the following categories:
1. Directly promoting animal health
Here you would be involved in
• monitoring animal diseases in animal populations at district, provincial or national level

• control of animal diseases by getting involved in vaccination campaigns, treatment of sick
animals or culling in the event of outbreaks of controlled diseases
2. Contributing to enhancing the health of the public
• rendering extension services to the public to educate them on how to prevent diseases,
especially those that can be transmitted from animals to humans (zoonotic diseases)
• monitoring zoonotic diseases in animals
• epidemiological surveys and collaboration with health services in cases of zoonotic diseases
such as rabies
• promoting animal welfare
3. Promoting food/meat hygiene and safety
• offering extension services to the public (promoting the production of safe animal products
such as meat and milk)
• working in an abattoir as a quality controller and overseeing animal welfare and meat hygiene
1.6.2 INTERNATIONAL ROLE-PLAYERS

At the international level, the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) is responsible for developing
international food standards and guidelines to protect consumer health and ensure fair practices in the
international food trade. The commission was created by the FAO and WHO. The commission is made up
of 158 member states, of which South Africa is one.
The Codex Alimentarius includes codes governing hygienic processing practices for food,
recommendations relating to compliance with standards, limits for pesticide residues, and guidelines for
contaminants, food additives and veterinary drugs. The code that deals with meat hygiene is the Code of
Hygienic Practice for Meat (CAC/RCP 58-2005).
These standards are important both in large food-producing companies that participate in international
trade and for rural farmers in developing countries. They ensure uniformity in national standards with
regard to meat hygiene throughout the value chain in all countries and states where production and trade
take place. In resource-poor countries the Codex Alimentarius can be used to develop policy and improve
the standard of the local food-producing industry, and thus to promote animal and public health.
1.7 LEGISLATION GOVERNING MEAT HYGIENE IN SOUTH AFRICA

In South Africa, meat hygiene is regulated by a number of Acts and regulations (refer to table 1.1), which
will be dealt with in greater detail in the Veterinary Legislation module. In this module, VPH3601, I will
concentrate on the regulations of the Meat Safety Act 40 of 2000. However, in table 1.1 I have summarised
the most relevant Acts associated with meat hygiene as well as the departments responsible for enforcing
them. However, this table is not exhaustive, and so I only point out the most relevant ones (refer to the
figure at the end of the unit for a more detailed summary of the different legislations and departments
that pertain to meat hygiene). Note that certain responsibilities in terms of law enforcement are
delegated from the national authorities to provincial, district and local levels.
A number of international guidelines and regulations have been established to ensure the safety and
suitability of food for human consumption. These guidelines are the result of collaboration between
international and national organisations, and you can find them at www.codexalimentarius.net.
Activity 1.3
1. Can you think of legal documents in addition to the Meat Safety Act 40 of 2000 that
make reference to meat hygiene? Post your response on the discussion forum entitled
“Other Acts dealing with meat hygiene”.
HINT: Refer to Tutorial Letter 504. After qualifying as an AHT, you will definitely play an
important role in ensuring that the South African public is healthy and free from zoonotic
diseases. Do you agree with this statement? Please give reasons for your answer, and post
it on the discussion forum “The role of the AHT in VPH”. Give your post the heading “The
role of the AHT in VPH”.
Feedback. The answer will be given during the discussions on the discussion forum.
Table 1.1: Food hygiene legislation in South Africa
DEPARTMENT ACT SUMMARY

International Health The Act makes certain provisions related to food, including
Regulations Act 28 of approval of the source of food for consumption on the
1974 premises of ports and airports, and on vessels and aircrafts.
Foodstuffs,
Cosmetics and Governs the manufacture, sale and importation of all
Department Disinfectants Act 54 foodstuffs from a safety/public health point of view.
of Health of 1972
Health Act 63 of Governs the hygiene aspects of food premises, including
1977 milking sheds, and the transport of food.
Medicines and The Act includes provisions for the registration of veterinary
Related Substances drugs, foodstuffs and food supplements with medicinal
Act 101 of 1965 effects or in respect of which medicinal claims are made.
The Act controls and promotes agricultural product food
Agricultural Product
safety and quality assurance standards (meat, dairy
Standards Act 119 of
products, fruit, vegetables etc.) for local and export
1990
purposes.
The Act makes provision for the maintenance of proper
Meat Safety Act 40
standards of hygiene in the slaughtering of animals for the
of 2000, including
purpose of obtaining suitable meat for human and animal
the Red Meat
consumption, and in the handling, keeping and conveyance
Department Regulations (2004)
of such meat and animal products at and from abattoirs.
of Agriculture
Fertilizers, Farm
Feeds, Agricultural
Animal feeds, stock remedies and agricultural remedies
Remedies and Stock
(pesticides etc.) are registered in terms of this Act.
Remedies Act 36 of
1947
The Act controls animals and animal products including
Animal Diseases Act
meat, milk, eggs and products derived from them from an
35 of 1984
animal disease point of view.
From Table 1.1 you would have noticed that the enforcement of the legislation that governs meat
hygiene in South Africa is divided among several authorities. Take importation of foodstuffs as an
example. At larger ports of entry into South Africa, such as harbours and airports, the Directorates of
Veterinary Public Health and Animal Health, The South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) and the
provincial health authorities work together to control the import and export of goods. Therefore,
inspection and even sampling of the same product requires the involvement of more than one authority.
In this module our focus is on legislation associated with meat hygiene. In particular, we will deal with
the Meat Safety Act 40 of 2000 and the associated regulations (Red Meat Regulations No. 1072 of 2004,
and the Poultry Regulations No. 173 of 2006).
The aims of the Meat Safety Act are
• to provide for measures to promote meat safety and the safety of animal products;
• to establish and maintain essential national standards in respect of abattoirs;
• to regulate the importation and exportation of meat;
• to establish meat safety schemes; and
• to provide for matters connected with the above.
You will notice that the Meat Safety Act is not a very extensive document – in fact, it is really just an
outline. The Red Meat Regulations provide more detailed and complementary information. Although the
two documents go hand in hand, but the regulations give a better description of what is required.
Activity 1.4
Before continuing, turn to the Meat Safety Act (in Tutorial Letter 504 Page 6), and read
section 11(1)(u-s).
You will notice that this section contains references to essential national standards or
“prescribed requirements” applying to abattoirs. These requirements relate to aspects such as
throughput, structure and hygiene management practices.
Now refer to the Red Meat Regulations (on page 15 of Tutorial Letter 504) and find Part II,
section 11(1)(a) on page 20. You will see Regulation 4 of the Red Meat Regulations No 1072
which provides details of such requirements for abattoirs. Skim through regulation and then
answer the following questions:
1. How are these requirements subdivided, and what types of abattoirs does the legislation
make provision for?
2. What would you say are some of the main differences between the types of abattoirs in
terms of the requirements each has to meet? Note down at least two differences.
Feedback on Activity 1.4
The requirements are subdivided according to the grade of the abattoir. There are three grades: rural
abattoir, low throughput abattoir and high throughput abattoir.
For the second question, all you needed to do was identify any two of the characteristics mentioned
under each category.
1.8 SUMMARY
In this unit I explained what VPH is and the various role-players in VPH and meat hygiene. I also briefly
discussed various international organisations, such as the FAO, WHO, and the OIE, that make reference to
VPH as one of their core activities. I also discussed with you the role of the Codex Alimentarius Commission
and its codes, and the national legislation relating directly to food and meat hygiene. Most important, we
looked at the important role that you as an AHT can play by applying your knowledge of VPH to protect
the health of the public. With the information given in this unit, you should be able to link VPH and meat
hygiene to several local and international organisations and what they do in a simple diagram. I have
drawn a diagram that illustrates these interlinkages for you. Take some time to study it before moving on
to unit 2.
UNIT 5: LAYOUT, ESSENTIAL FACILITIES AND UNITS OF THE
ABATTOIR, AND MEAT INSPECTIONS
Contents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Layout of the abattoir
5.3 Essential facilities at an abattoir
5.4 Units of the abattoir
5.5 The slaughter process and meat inspections
5.5.1 Ante-mortem inspection
5.5.2 The slaughter process
5.5.3 Primary meat inspection
5.5.4 Most common pathological conditions
5.5.5 Secondary meat inspection
5.6 Summary
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• describe the essential features of the layout of an abattoir

• explain how correct abattoir layout contributes to the production of safe meat
• list the essential facilities needed in an abattoir to produce safe meat
• list the units in an abattoir and describe the function of each
• identify and describe the meat inspections that are normally conducted in the process of
converting a live animal into meat
• given a scenario, make a judgement following inspection of the live animal or a carcass or part of
it
5.1 INTRODUCTION
An abattoir is a facility for producing meat from animals. We could therefore think of an abattoir as a
“food factory”: the animals are the “raw material”, and the “end product” is fresh or processed meat and
other products of animal origin. However, if you are asked to give a formal definition of an abattoir, you
should provide the definition given in the Meat Safety Act. If you cannot remember the definition as it
appears in the Act, refer to page 1 of Tutorial Letter 504, and write it down in the space provided below.
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For the abattoir to fulfil its role as a food factory, it must be designed and constructed to allow
meat and meat products to be produced in the most hygienic way. We discussed this in detail in
unit 4, where we talked about the location of the abattoir, and spoke about how the abattoir must
be constructed to ensure that it complies with the essential national standards. One of the most
important considerations is the abattoir layout. What do we mean by abattoir layout, and why is
it important? You should be able to answer these two questions by the end of this unit.
As I said in the first paragraph, we could think of the abattoir as a food factory. During the
process of converting a live animal into meat and/or meat products, the animal has to be
slaughtered. By definition, the slaughter process is the killing of an animal. Slaughter is
followed by a number of processes performed to divide the body of the animal into a carcass and
other edible and inedible parts. This is known as dressing. The layout of the abattoir should
ensure that the slaughter and dressing processes are performed systematically. In the progression
from slaughtering to dressing, the risk of contamination of the product increases dramatically,
and the layout of the abattoir plays a key part in limiting this and so ensuring the safety of the
product.
5.2 LAYOUT OF THE ABATTOIR

The layout of the abattoir must be designed so that the production process moves in one direction
without any cross flow of products, as this could adversely affect the hygiene of the product.
Therefore the abattoir floor must be laid out in such a way that the animals are received at the
“dirty” end and meat comes out to be loaded from the “clean” end of the abattoir.
As you know, a very important principle associated with slaughtering premises is the division of
the facilities and the processing steps into “clean” and “dirty”. Each area of an abattoir is
identified as either clean or dirty, and the production process has to flow in one direction, from
dirty to clean. Under no circumstances should a cross flow of products, processing steps or staff
occur. It is therefore important to ensure that this principle is upheld when an abattoir is
designed.
Activity 5.1
Refer to pages 29 to 31 of Tutorial Letter 501 (refer to the page numbers at the bottom of the
page), and read about the layout of the abattoir. Then answer the questions below.
1. Is it acceptable for the point at which the live animals are received and the area from
which the meat is dispatched to be next to each other? Give reasons for your answer.
2. Each function in the slaughter and dressing process has a fixed status in terms of “clean”
or “dirty”. How is the separation of “clean” and “dirty” areas achieved in the abattoir?
3. Some areas in the abattoir are considered “clean” areas, while others are considered
“dirty” areas. Why is this the case? Shouldn’t all the areas in the abattoir be clean to
ensure that the meat is clean?
4. Look carefully at the lists of clean and dirty areas in the Red Meat Regulations. As you
can see, these lists are quite long. To make them easier to understand and remember, try
to make the two lists shorter by grouping some of the areas according to their functions.
For example, you could group together the vehicle wash bays and the offloading areas as
“areas for animal transport vehicles”. Write down your new lists below.
5. Products from the animal can also be classified as either “clean” or “dirty”. In your view, which
products are dirty, and which ones are clean?
6. “Dirty” products can further be divided into edible and inedible products. Which are the edible
dirty products, and which the inedible dirty products?
Post some of your answers to the questions above on myUnisa in the discussion forum entitled
“The layout of the abattoir”. Please restrict yourself to three sentences at most. Keep your
discussion short and to the point to allow others to engage as well.
Write your new list of clean and dirt areas in the space provided below:
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5.3 ESSENTIAL FACILITIES AT AN ABATTOIR
An abattoir must have the following essential facilities:
• a resting place for animals before slaughter

• adequate facilities for ante-mortem inspection
• facilities for carrying out humane slaughter
• facilities for flaying, dressing and washing the carcasses
• facilities for hanging carcasses and edible offal
• facilities for handling by-products
• facilities for inspection of meat and disposal of meat unfit for human consumption
• laboratory
• social welfare
• segregation ward for sick/diseased animals
• adequate water supply
In addition, there may also be a rendering plant and an incinerator. However, these are not compulsory for
all abattoirs. We will discuss this in more detail in the next learning unit, which deals with quality
assurance systems.
5.4 UNITS OF THE ABATTOIR
The abattoir can be divided into a series of units. Some of these may be combined, depending on the
grade of the abattoir. To function properly, an abattoir must have the following units:
• reception
• lairage
• slaughter floor
• isolation area
• detention room
• chiller
• rough offal room
• processing room
The reception area

This is where the animals are received when they get to the abattoir. This area must have an offloading
ramp or ramps. The requirements for the offloading ramp are described on page 30 of Tutorial Letter 504
(Red Meat Regulations Part II B (2): Additional requirements for low and high throughput red
meat abattoirs).
Activity 5.2
Consult the sources listed above and read more about the offloading ramps.
Write down the important features of an offloading ramp.
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Lairage
If animals awaiting slaughter are not rested overnight, they must not be slaughtered within an
hour of arrival. These animals must be kept in a lairage. Lairages must be kept clean and in line
with the minimium requirements of the Red Meat Regulations. Read the requirements for
lairages set out on page 30 of Tutorial Letter 504 (Red Meat Regulations No 20 of the Red Meat
Safety Act, Part II B (2): Additional requirements for low and high throughput red meat
abattoirs).
Activity 5.3
What are the requirements relating to the function of lairages, feed, drinking water and holding
time in the lairage?
Refer to regulations 67 and 69 of the Red Meat Regulations (Tutorial Letter 504, pages 47–48).
Slaughter floor
The slaughter floor may be divided into the following distinct areas:
• stunning box
• bleeding
• dressing (flaying and evisceration)
• splitting of the carcass
• primary meat inspection and secondary meat inspection
• grading and storage
The different sections of the slaughter floor are described in regulations 71 to 76 (Tutorial Letter
504, pages 48–50).
Activity 5.4
Please read through the regulations and answer the following:
1. What do you think is the role of stunning in the slaughter process?

2. Which methods are practised in South Africa for stunning animals before slaughter?
3. After stunning the animal must be bled within 60 seconds. Why do you think this is
done?
4. It is recommended that bleeding should commence only after an animal has been stunned.
Different bleeding times are specified for different species. Why do you think this is the
case?
5. During flaying, what are some of the likely sources of contamination of meat?
6. What activities are involved in the dressing of a carcass?
Go to myUnisa and visit the discussion forum entitled “Activities that take place on the slaughter
floor” and post an answer to at least one of the above questions. Please allow others a chance to
post – do not post answers to all the questions.
Isolation area
This is where animals suspected of suffering from a condition that may render the meat unsafe
for human and animal consumption are kept away from the rest of the animals. It is an area
separate from the lairage, and has a crush pen that is used for further examination of the animal
by the registered inspector.
REFLECTION
Reflect on the following. You do not have to postyour thoughts on myUnisa.
1. What other structure should be included in the isolation area, and what is this structure
used for?
2. The isolation area plays an important role in the production of meat that is safe for the
consumer. Provide a justification for this statement.
Detention room
Carcasses with partial pass status are sent to the detention room for secondary meat inspection.
In accordance with the Red Meat Regulations, only a veterinarian is allowed to do secondary
meat inspection. I won’t say more about this, as it is outside the scope of an AHT working as a
meat inspector.
Chiller rooms
Chillers must be provided to hold at least the daily slaughter throughput in both LT and HT
abattoirs. The design of the chillers will be influenced by factors such as quantity and species
slaughtered at the abattoir. Units on the line should be spaced in such a way that there is enough
airflow between carcasses or sides.
Rough offal room

This is the only room where the inspection of the rough offals (inner surfaces of the stomach and
intestines) can take place. It best to use separate equipment to inspect rough offals. Why do you
think it is important to use separate equipement? To answer this question, you need to know the
definition of rough offals (hint: refer to regulation 90 of the Red Meat Regulations – see page 54
of Tutorial Letter 504). You are welcome to discuss your answer with colleagues and fellow
students.
Processing room
This facility is available mainly in export abattoirs, and it has to meet food safety requirements
stipulated in the Meat Safety Act. This is where carcasses are cut or deboned and then packaged
for export.
5.5 THE SLAUGHTER PROCESS AND MEAT INSPECTIONS

In this section we will talk about the slaughter process and the various meat inspections that
animals awaiting slaughter will undergo. We will also look at whether animals are fit for
slaughter and whether carcasses and other products derived from the animal can be passed as fit
for human and/or animal consumption.
5.5.1 ANTE-MORTEM INSPECTION

Definition
The term ante-mortem consist of two Latin words: “ante”, meaning “before”, and “mortem”,
meaning “death”. Ante-mortem inspection is an inspection of the living animal before slaughter.
The ante-mortem inspection is a very important part of the slaughtering process. It serves to ensure
that only apparently healthy and physiologically normal animals are slaughtered for human
consumption.
Ante-mortem inspection can only be done by a registered inspector (refer to the definition of a
registered inspector on page 19 of Tutorial Letter 504), who conducts an inspection of all animals
before they are slaughtered.
Performing ante-mortem inspection
During ante-mortem inspection, an inspector must receive certificates declaring the health and
origin of animals, which must be provided by the owners of the animals to be slaughtered that day.
The law prescribes what must be included in this declaration.
Activity 5.5
Read through regulation 79, subregulation (2) of the Red Meat Regulations on page 51 of Tutorial
Letter 504, and list the information that must be contained in the declaration of health for animals
intended for slaughter.
(a) ______________________
(b) ______________________
(c) ______________________
(d) ______________________
(e) ______________________
Regulation 79, subregulation (3) of the Red Meat Regulations (page 51 of Tutorial Letter 504)
prescribes when the animal must be inspected. Summarise this information below:
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Regulation 79, subregulation (1) of the Red Meat Regulations states who can perform ante-mortem
inspection in a rural abattoir on the one hand, and in low and high throughput abattoirs on the
other. This is set out in section 11(1) of the Meat Safety Act, specifically subsections (i) to (l) of
this section, which also deals indirectly with the ante-mortem inspection at an abattoir. However,
more detailed information is given in the regulations, Part VI Section A, regulations 79 to 83. This
is what the law says:
• At a rural abattoir ante-mortem inspection can be carried out by an inspector who is not a
veterinarian. However, this person must be at least a meat inspector, or if exemption is
granted, a meat examiner.
• In low and high throughput abattoirs, only a registered meat inspector can perform ante-
mortem inspections.
Doing ante-mortem inspection at a high throughput abattoir where hundreds of pigs and/or cattle
are slaughtered per day can be a daunting task. Therefore, in order to do a full inspection in a
short time, you need to be methodical. The approach to clinical examination that you learnt in
Animal Diseases (ZTG1601 and AND1016) also applies to the ante-mortem inspection.
However, you need to keep in mind that if you are working at an abattoir that slaughters
hundreds of animals every day, you need to come up with a method that will enable you to be
thorough during examination. I recommend that you concentrate on assessing the following four
things:
• the general behaviour of animals,

• their nutritional status,
• whether they are clean, and
• whether they show signs of disease or abnormalities.
I will now give you some more detailed guidelines about what you need to look for during
ante-mortem inspection. Look out for:
1. any markings on the animals. Animals that have been branded with a “C” or “T” are
positive for contagious abortion or tuberculosis respectively. These animals should be
separated and slaughtered separately.
2. abnormalities in respiration, for example
• frequency of respiration – if this is abnormal, the animal should be separated and
inspected further.
3. abnormalities in behaviour, for example
• walking in circles, abnormal gait or posture
• pressing the head against the wall
• signs of aggression
• dejectedness
4. abnormalities in gait, for example
• indicative of pain in the legs, chest or abdomen
• a sign of nervous disease
5. abnormal posture, for example
• abdomen may be tucked up
• head may be extended forward and feet stretched out
6. abnormalities in structure, for example
• abscesses or wounds
• enlarged or swollen joints
• umbilical swellings
• enlarged udder (mastitis)
• swollen jaw
• bloated abdomen
7. abnormal discharges or protrusions, for example
• from the nose, excessive saliva from the mouth, or discharge after birth
• protrusions from the vulva
• prolapsed rectum or uterus
• diarrhoea
8. abnormal colour, for example
• black or red areas are indicative of inflamation
• dark blue areas on the udder or skin indicate gangrene
9. abnormal odour (this is difficult to detect during routine inspection, however), for example
• the smell of acetone, indicative of ketosis
If you observe any abnormality relating to any of the above, the animal should be segregated and
inspected further.
Reaching a decision after ante-mortem inspection
Activity 5.6
1. While Sipho is assisting Dr Mkwanazi with the ante-mortem inspection of a
consignment of cattle, he notices a cow that is branded with a “C” on the right-hand
side of the neck. What does this mean, and what appropriate action does Sipho
need to take?
2. Based on your knowledge of animal diseases, for which other disease are animals
branded, and what is the letter that is branded on animals with this disease?
During ante-mortem inspection, one of the things an inspector should look out for is any marking
on an animal. The “C” brand in the scenario above indicates that the animal has been diagnosed
with brucellosis or contagious abortion (B. abortus). Refer to your Animal Diseases study guides
or consult a textbook, the internet or a veterinarian or AHT to refresh your memory about this
disease. Since this is a controlled disease and has zoonotic implications, Sipho needs to inform Dr
Mkwanazi to make sure that the cow was accompanied by a Red Cross permit. If an animal with
a “C” brand is encountered during ante-mortem inspection, it needs to be separated from the other
animals and slaughtered separately at the end of the day’s slaughter. Moreover, a change in the
biosecurity protocol would be required to protect the workers, and this might take time.
The slaughtering of infected animals requires special measures to prevent cross contamination of
equipment and other carcasses or products during the slaughter and dressing processes.
Slaughtering at the end of the day will ensure thorough cleaning and disinfection to prevent cross
contamination.
The other disease is tuberculosis. Like contagious abortion, tuberculosis is a zoonotic disease, and
animals diagnosed with TB are branded with a “T” on the left-hand side of the neck.
Activity 5.7
Read Regulations No 80 to 82 (pages 51–52 in Tutorial Letter 504) and answer the following
questions:
1. During ante-mortem inspection, you as an AHT meat inspector come across an animal that
in your opinion is not fit for slaughter. How would you go about handling such a case?
2. Which characteristics, if detected, could lead to an animal being rejected for slaughter?
3. During ante-mortem inspection you discover that there are animals that have died in the
pen or on arrival. How would you handle such cases?
You will find guidelines on how an AHT should handle a case that is unfit for consumption in
regulation 80, subregulation (1)(a)(b) of the Red Meat Regulations (page 51 of Tutorial Letter
504). Subregulation (2) prescribes who should decide whether such an animal should be
slaughtered or not.
You will find the answer to the second question in Regulation No 80 as well, but in subregulations
(3) and (4).
Regulation 81 of the Red Meat Regulations prescribes what should be done in the case of animals
that are dead on arrival or animals that die in the pen before slaughter.
Write down your answers in the space provided below, or post them on myUnisa on the forum
entitled “Handling animals considered unfit for slaughter”.
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The answers to the questions above are in the last page of chapter 2 of the meat inspector’s
manual (7. Decisions taken during the ante-mortem inspection). The following three decisions
may be taken:
1. Approved for normal slaughter (Example 1)

2. Conditionally approved for slaughter (Examples 2, 3 and 5)
3. Not suitable for slaughter (Example 4)
5.5.2 The slaughter process
After the ante-mortem inspection has been finalised and a decision to slaughter the animal has
been made, the animal then undergoes the slaughter process. We will now look at the steps
involved in the slaughter process, which in effect is the process of turning the animal into a
finished product (fresh meat).
Restraint and stunning

Proper restraint is important to ensure that the stunning process occurs smoothly with minimum
stress on the animal. Therefore, methods of restraint must be applied in a way that does not cause
the animal stress. For example, suspending large cattle by one leg or excessive handling of the
animals before they are stunned and bled may result in unnecessary stress.
The regulations require that animals at the abattoir be rendered unconscious by a method of
stunning before bleeding. However, traditional or religious slaughter is exempted from this
requirement. Stunning the animal prevents pain and suffering and so ensures that the welfare of
the animal is not compromised. There is evidence that stunning not only reduces stress, but also
improves the quality of meat. The following methods of stunning are prescribed by the Meat Safety
Act:
(a) captive bolt method

(b) electrical method
(c) any other method approved by the provincial executive officer
Activity 5.9
• How does stunning improve the welfare of animals during slaughter?
• How do you think stunning improves the quality of the meat?
• It is important to be able to ascertain whether the animal has been properly stunned.
How can you ascertain this?
Read regulation 73(1) of the Red Meat Regulations.

1. What is the responsibility of the owner of the abattoir with regard to the different
methods of stunning animals?
2. What is the recommended rate of stunning animals during slaughter?
Post some of your thoughts on the discussion forum entitled “Stunning and its impact on welfare
and meat quality” so that we can discuss this as a group.
Hoisting and bleeding

Hoisting must follow immediately after stunning, and the animal must be bled within 60 seconds
after stunning. This is because the animal may regain consciousness if there is a long interval
between stunning and bleeding. The animal must be bled by severing the jugular veins and carotid
arteries on both sides of the neck or, in the case of pigs and cattle, by sticking and severing the
anterior vena cava or aorta at the base of the heart.
NB: These techniques will be demonstrated during the meat hygiene practical classes.
Based on regulation 74(1) of the Red Meat Regulations, animals should be bled either in a hanging
position or in a horizontal position. In the case of the former, the regulations require that the animal
be brought into the hanging position immediately after the bleeding incision is made.
Activity 5.10
Read regulation 75 (page 49 in Tutorial Letter 504) and in the table below fill in the time that must
elapse before dressing can start for each of the species.
Species Bleeding time

Cattle
Horses
Calves
Pigs
Sheep
Flaying and evisceration

Activity 5.11
Read regulation 76 (page 49 in Tutorial Letter 504) and summarise sections 1 to 11, which deal
with flaying and evisceration.
One of the aspects of flaying and evisceration that you needed to summarise is splitting of the
carcass. Regulation 76, section 11 prescribes that cattle or horses older than three months and
pigs heavier than 92 kg must be split lengthways through the spinal column before meat
inspection. Most abattoirs use electric carcass saws, as shown in the figure below
Adopted from Study guide for VPH301L (University of South Africa)
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Final washing and quartering

After flaying and evisceration, the next step is final washing and quartering of the carcass. These
actions are described in regulations 77 and 78 of the Red Meat Regulations (refer to page 50 in
Tutorial Letter 504).
Activity 5.12
Summarise final washing and quartering in the space provided below.
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5.5.3 Primary meat inspection

After the carcass has been split, it has to be inspected by a registered meat inspector or examiner.
Inspection of the carcass is divided into:
• primary meat inspection and

• secondary meat inspection.
According to the Meat Safety Act and the Red Meat Regulations, it is illegal to do anything
further to the carcass before it has been inspected. Refer to Part B of the Red Meat Regulations
and read through regulation 85 (pages 52–53 in Tutorial Letter 504) to acquaint yourself with
activities that cannot be performed on a carcass before it has been inspected.
Primary meat inspection of cattle

During primary meat inspection, the inspector must use three senses, including making
incisions.
Activity 5.13
Read regulation 86, subregulation 1, and list the three senses that the inspector uses when
inspecting a cattle carcass.
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Regulation 86, subregulation (1) (a) to (l) provides a list of the general things that the inspector
needs to look out for when inspecting the whole carcass. I suggest you go through the list and
familiarise yourself with them. You will also go through this list as part of VPH3602 (the meat
hygiene practical module).
After the general inspection of the carcass, the next step is to inspect the whole carcass, and
then to inspect the different parts of the carcass. The steps involved in primary meat inspection
are described in the subregulations of regulation 86.
Activity 5.14
Read through the relevant sections of the Red Meat Regulations and in the space below write
down the different parts of the carcass that you should inspect.
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5.5.4 Most common pathological conditions
During primary meat inspection, you will be looking for pathological conditions. These have been
described in the meat inspector’s manual: red meat, Part II meat inspection (module 4 pathology)
which you can findin Tutorial Letter 503. Find the section entitled “General pathology” on page
99 and read up about some of the pathological conditions you will encounter during meat
inspection. In the table below I have listed some of the most common conditions you are likely to
encounter and the decisions that you must take when you encounter them. Feel free to draw a
similar table in your notebook and summarise all the other pathological conditions.
Condition Decision
Abscess and pyaemia It is often localised. A single abscess may be removed if no further
spread of infection or contamination to the rest of the carcass will
occur. In the case of multiple abscesses in various organs, the whole
carcass must be condemned.
Anaemia It is often associated with a generalised condition, and so the carcass
must be condemned.
Arthritis/Arthrosis A decision will be made based on the extent of the lesions and the
condition of the animal. The associated lymph nodes must also be
inspected. The outcome may be partial pass or total condemnation.
Bruising Bruising is often localised, and trimming is recommended. In a case
where bruising is extensive, the entire carcass could be condemned.
Emaciation Condemnation of the whole carcass.
Calcification Removal and condemnation of the affected parts or the whole

carcass, depending on whether the calcification is localised or
generalised.
Cirrhosis, hepatitis, Condemnation of the liver, with careful examination of the rest of the
carcass, especially the lymph nodes.
Emphysema If there are indications of systemic or generalised lesions, total
condemnation of the carcass is recommended.
Fever, icterus, The entire carcass must be condemned.
septicaemia
5.5.5 Secondary meat inspection

A carcass that does not pass the primary meat inspection for any reason must be marked “detained”
and, in terms of the Meat Safety Act and the Red Meat Regulations, Part VI C, must be subjected
to a secondary inspection by a registered inspector who is a veterinarian. Carcasses and the heads
and organs belonging to them must be kept locked away in a separate part of the abattoir until
further inspection and judgement, which is carried out in chilled and theft-proof facilities.
After inspection the following activities are carried out:
Carcass washing
Bone chips and blood are removed with running water after completion of meat inspection.
However, this process is not a substitute for good hygiene practice during slaughter and dressing!
Marking carcasses
After the meat has passed meat inspection, it receives a stamp of approval. This stamp must reflect
the following: (a) the abattoir registration number and grade, (b) the word “Passed” in at least two
official languages, one of which must be English.
Chilling of the carcass

Carcasses and meat are chilled to slow down bacterial growth and extend the shelf-life of the end
product. The carcass must be chilled to a core temperature of 6 to 7 ºC within 28 to 36 hours in the
case of cattle, 12 to 16 hours in the case of pigs and 24 to 30 hours in the case of sheep. The core
temperature is measured with a probe thermometer inserted deep inside the carcass. A number of
factors have been known to affect the chilling process, namely air speed, relative humidity, loading
capacity of the chiller and loading space between carcasses.
5.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we discussed the layout of the abattoir and emphasised that there must be a
separation of clean and dirty areas. We then looked at the essential units of an abattoir and what
the regulations prescribe for each of these essential units. We also discussed the slaughter
process and inspections that take place both before and after the animal has been slaughtered.
The unit ended with a discussion of the most common pathological conditions you are likely to
encounter and the decision you are expected to reach in the case of each.
Resources
UNIT 2: Meat safety
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Hazards associated with meat
2.2.1 Chemical hazards
2.2.2 Physical hazards
2.2.3 Biological hazards
2.3 Mechanisms by which biological hazards cause adverse health effects
2.4 Food-borne diseases and pathogens
2.4.1 Food-borne pathogenic microorganisms and natural toxins
2.4.2 Spoilage organisms
2.4.3 Minimising bacterial contamination
2.4.4 Sampling and testing
2.5 Factors affecting meat safety
2.6 Summary
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES

• explain the role and the limitations of meat inspection in ensuring safe and wholesome meat
• define the term “hazards” and explain its relevance to meat safety
• identify three categories of hazards affecting meat and give an example of each
• distinguish between biological hazards that cause food-borne infections and those that cause
food-borne intoxications, and give an example of each
• list and discuss food-borne pathogenic microorganisms and natural toxins associated with
meat in terms of the diseases they cause
• list the food-borne diseases and name the causal organism in each case
• discuss the symptoms of various food-borne diseases and explain how these diseases could
be controlled
• identify and discuss factors that affect meat safety
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2.1 INTRODUCTION
Meat has often been associated with food-borne or food-related disease. Recently, however, there has
been a change in the spectrum of meat-related organisms of public health importance. This has been
the result mainly of changes in production and processing systems, as well as consumer demand.
Meat inspection has been widely used to identify animals that are not fit for human consumption,
and thus protect the public from food-borne pathogens. It has therefore contributed significantly to
the control of animal diseases, and it continues to provide information on notifiable diseases and
zoonoses through the information that is collected during examination of animals. However, meat
inspection on its own is not sufficient as a precaution because it is inadequate for identifying
important public health hazards such as Salmonella and Campylobacter and contamination risks
(Berends, Snijders, & Van Logtestijn 1993).
When we consider the fact that increasing numbers of people are living with diseases such as
HIV/AIDS, which weaken the immune system, we realise how important it is to control microbial
hazards that can be transmitted through meat. People whose immune system is compromised are
more prone to infection, and so must avoid meat that is contaminated.
The focus of meat inspection is on the identification of macroscopic lesions associated with food-
related hazards such as tuberculosis and cysticercosis. However, it is not able to monitor or control
microbiological pathogens, and so for this we rely on laboratory techniques.
2.2 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH MEAT

There has been an increase in the number of illnesses associated with meat and products of animal
origin. This has led to increased consumer awareness and hence a change in policy to try and improve
on the safety of meat and products of animal origin.
Meat safety hazards must be identified early during production to ensure that they do not get out of
hand and develop into real risks. These safety hazards include the presence of Salmonella, which
causes gastroenteritis. To prevent microbial hazards found in meat, measures must be taken
throughout the value chain rather than waiting for when the animals arrive at the abattoir to be
inspected to determine whether or not they are safe for consumption.
In the context of food, what is a hazard? It is a physical, chemical or biological agent that has the
ability to cause adverse health effects in consumers of the food containing the hazard. As you already
know, hazards associated with meat are classified into three categories, namely biological, physical
and chemical hazards.
2.2.1 CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Chemical hazards associated with meat are chemicals with the potential to cause adverse health
effects in a person consuming the meat in which they occur. Chemical hazards associated with meat
include residues of veterinary drugs and pesticides, environmental and industrial contaminants
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and growth promoters. These are known to enter the food chain at the level of primary production
(United States Department of Agriculture 1997).
2.2.2 PHYSICAL HAZARDS

Physical hazards associated with meat are foreign materials that may be present in meat and meat-
related products, and have the potential to cause injury or illness in a person consuming these
products. Examples of physical hazards are glass fragments, rubber, jewellery, bone chips, metal
fragments, injection needles, shotgun pellets, stones, insects and grass (United States Department
of Agriculture 1997).
2.2.3 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

Biological hazards associated with meat are living organisms that have the potential to cause food-
borne infections or intoxications. Biological hazards include bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites.
Of the biological hazards, bacteria are the most common.
Although everybody can be affected by biological hazards, people living with conditions such as
HIV/AIDS are particularly prone to this type of hazard. This is because their immune system is weak,
and they are not able to fight off even the slightest infection.
2.3 MECHANISMS BY WHICH BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS CAUSE ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECTS
Biological hazards cause adverse health effects through three different mechanisms:
• The first mechanism is food-borne infections. These occur when a person or animal ingests
pathogenic microorganisms in sufficient numbers to cause an adverse effect.
• The second mechanism is food-borne intoxication. This is caused by the ingestion of
preformed toxins produced by some bacteria.
Refer to section 11.2 of the meat inspector’s manual on page 11 (follow the page numbers in the
bottom right-hand corner of the page) of Tutorial Letter 501: “Foodborne disease mechanisms”,
and summarise the third mechanism in the space provided below:
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In assessing meat and poultry for hazards that pose a risk to humans, we must place pathogenic
bacteria at the top of the list, as they are more frequently implicated in food-borne diseases than any
other hazard (United States Department of Agriculture 1997). This is becoming increasingly
important as the number of people with a compromised immune system increases. These include the
elderly and those living with conditions such as HIV/AIDS.
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2.4 FOOD-BORNE DISEASES AND PATHOGENS
Food-borne diseases are illnesses associated with the consumption of foodstuffs contaminated with
microorganisms or chemicals (hazards).
The general symptoms of food-borne diseases are:

• vomiting
• diarrhoea
• abdominal pain
• fever
• chills
Diarrhoea is the most commonly observed clinical sign, however (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention 2013). Complications such as dehydration, haemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) and
Guillain-Barre syndrome can occur. The last two are rare, however.
The onset of food-borne illnesses is usually sudden and the duration of the illness is usually short,
but this can differ from individual to individual. Although most people tend to recover without
medical intervention, some infections, like botulism, can be fatal if not treated in time. In cases where
complications occur, treatment may be required. Let us now look at some of the most important food-
borne pathogens associated with meat and meat products and known to cause food-borne illness. I
have summarised these for you below.
2.4.1 FOOD-BORNE PATHOGENIC MICROORGANISMS AND NATURAL TOXINS

Pathogens associated with meat or food that have the ability to cause diseases in humans are widely
distributed and are often commensal (in other words, they occur naturally) in the intestinal tract of
vertebrates. They may also be found in the environment, on surfaces and in water sources such as
rivers. Below are examples of organisms that have been linked to food-borne illness in red meat and
poultry products:
a. Salmonella paratyphi
b. Escherichia coli (O157: H7)
c. Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli.
d. Shigella sonnei, S. boydii, S. flexneri, and S. dysenteriae
e. Staphylococcus aureus
f. Clostridium perfringens
g. Listeria monocytogenes
h. Yersinia enterocolitica
i. Clostridium botulinum
These organisms are discussed in the meat inspector’s manual that deals with abattoir hygiene and
microbiology, which is contained in Tutorial Letter 501. Refer to page 13 and read the section entitled
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“Bacteria most frequently associated with foodborne diseases”. For each organism write down the
following:
• Source of the organism
• Mechanism by which it causes disease
• Foods commonly involved
• Symptoms associated with the organism
• How the organism can be controlled and/or prevented
2.4.2 SPOILAGE ORGANISMS

Improper handling of meat during the processing of carcasses leads not only to contamination with
disease-causing organisms, but possibly also to contamination with organisms referred to as spoilage
organisms.
The principal spoilage organisms have been listed for you in the meat inspector’s manual on page 11
of Tutorial Letter 501 (look for the page number at the bottom of the page, not the top). Record the
various spoilage organisms mentioned in the space below. Also record the conditions that are
conducive for the growth of each of the organisms.
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2.4.3 MINIMISING BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION

Every effort must be made to avoid contamination of meat with either pathogenic organisms or
spoilage organisms. In the meat inspector’s manual dealing with abattoir hygiene and microbiology
in Tutorial Letter 501 there is a brief discussion on preventing contamination. Refer to page 11 and
read section 9: “Minimizing contamination during the slaughter process”, and list ways of preventing
contamination in the space below:
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2.4.4 SAMPLING AND TESTING

As part of quality assurance, samples have to be taken and submitted for analysis. However, for this
process to be successful, the sampling procedures must be carried out correctly. In this section, we
will discuss factors to consider when taking samples in the abattoir.
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The sample size, the sample site, and the number of samples determine whether the results you get
accurately reflect the actual hygienic condition of the meat. To get accurate results, we need to base
the selection of sampling sites on a carcass or within the abattoir on predilection sites. Good practices
must be followed, including the use of sterile equipment.
The following sampling techniques may be used:
• agar sausage method

• RHODAC plate method
• Petrifilm plate method
Some of these methods were discussed in the Laboratory Diagnostics module, and so we will not go
into detail here. However, if you are interested in reading more about taking samples, refer to the
inspector’s manual that deals with abattoir hygiene and microbiology in Tutorial Letter 501, pages 18
to 23. (Refer to the page numbers in the bottom right-hand corner of the page, not the top.)
2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING MEAT SAFETY

Hygiene conditions at farm level, including during feeding and housing, as well as hygiene
conditions at the abattoir and personal hygiene of the people employed in slaughterhouses are
important factors that may influence the microbial contamination of meat and meat products.
Furthermore, contaminated skin and water may be the sources of pathogenic organisms such as
Staphylococcus, Escherichia coli and Bacillus cereus during meat processing. Therefore, strict
maintenance of good hygiene practices during slaughter is vital in ensuring good quality and safe
meat. Microbiological testing enables risk managers to estimate the risk associated with a product
and ensure that appropriate measures are taken to protect consumers.
2.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we spoke about hazards and the different types of hazards that can be associated with
meat. I also emphasised that biological hazards are the most common hazards associated with meat.
We then looked at the three mechanisms by which biological hazards cause diseases. After that we
looked at the various food-borne pathogens and the diseases they cause. In addition we discussed
food spoilage organisms and how to minimise contamination of meat. We also touched on sampling
and testing, including the various tests that we can use to collect samples for testing. We ended the
unit by considering the factors that influence meat safety.
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UNIT 4: STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF ABATTOIRS
CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Terminology used in veterinary public health and meat hygiene
4.3 The best site for an abattoir
4.4 Evaluation and approval of abattoir structures
4.5 Essential National Standards
4.6 Classification of abattoirs
4.7 Requirements for the registration of red meat abattoirs
4.8 Structural requirements
4.9 Summary
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• discuss the requirements for the layout and construction of an abattoir as prescribed in
the relevant South African legislation
• identify the “dirty” and “clean” areas of an abattoir and the processing line
• explain why there are separate areas in the abattoir called dirty and clean areas
• discuss the quality of water that can be used in the abattoir and explain why potable water
is used in an abattoir
• distinguish the different grades of abattoirs in terms of South African legislation
• identify the requirements for the different grades of abattoirs as stipulated in the legislation
• given a case study and layout of a basic abattoir, appropriately evaluate the abattoir layout
• discuss the abattoir hygiene principles associated with structural design
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A number of factors are crucial in ensuring that when an abattoir is built it is not a potential source
of physical, chemical and microbiological hazards when it starts operating. They are:
1
• location
• design
• layout
• construction
If any one of the factors is ignored, this may lead to poor functioning of the abattoir, which in
turn could compromise abattoir hygiene. This could then lead to contamination of meat and
products of animal origin produced there. A poorly functioning abattoir will result in an
inefficient slaughter process, meat of poor quality, and compromised meat safety. An
example of something that could compromise meat safety is a lack of soap in the toilets for
workers to use to wash their hands after using the facilities. Also, inadequately designed toilets
may lead to contamination of meat with microbial hazards such as E. coli, which is a faecal
contaminant.
In this unit we are going to look at the terminology used in VPH and meat hygiene and also at
factors to consider when planning to build an abattoir.
4.2 TERMINOLOGY USED IN VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH AND MEAT

HYGIENE
Like all other fields of study, VPH and meat hygiene have their own terminology, which you will
need to master. For example, you will need to understand and be able to use terms such as
“approved meat” and “condemned area” correctly.
The Red Meat Regulations of the Meat Safety Act provide you with definitions of words commonly
used by VPH practitioners working as meat inspectors. These definitions are found on pages 18
and 19 of the regulations in Tutorial Letter 504 (refer to the page numbers at the bottom of the
page). There are also some more definitions in the Meat Safety Act (see pages 1 and 2 of Tutorial
Letter 504). Please read both the Act and the regulations to get the full list of definitions. Some
definitions appear in the Act but not in the regulations.
Please take the time to familiarise yourself with these terms and know how to use them correctly
and in context. Try to define each one in such a way that you will be able to remember it. Some
of them are straightforward, and you should be able to recall them easily, so concentrate on those
you find difficult and new to you. Jot them down in the space provided below.
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Activity 4.1
Refer to the Red Meat Regulations Part I, General Section 1 (d) on page 18 of Tutorial Letter 504.
Define “clean areas”.
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Define “dirty areas”.
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Note that in defining “clean” and “dirty” areas, the Red Meat Regulations include areas that belong
in each of these categories.
Did you list these areas when you wrote down each of the definitions? If not, please do so now
and make sure you know what they are, because at some stage during your studies or after you
have completed your studies and you are working, you could be asked to name them.
4.3 THE BEST SITE FOR AN ABATTOIR
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Activity 4.2
Before an abattoir is constructed, a decision has to be made as to where it will be located. Of the
two locations listed below, which do you think would be the best place for an abattoir?
• In the middle of a city

• Near a residential area
Actually, neither of the two areas listed above would be suitable for an abattoir! In the middle of
the city there is a lot of dust and pollution in the air due to traffic, which could lead to contamination,
while in a residential area, residents would find the smell of the waste products from the abattoir
offensive.
In the meat inspector’s manual developed by DAFF, which you received as Tutorial Letter 501,
the factors that must be considered when deciding on a suitable site for an abattoir are discussed
in detail on pages 31 and 32. These factors have been placed into two categories, namely
environmental factors and services factors. Make sure that you are familiar with them, and jot
them down in the space below for easy reference in future.
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4.4 EVALUATION AND APPROVAL OF ABATTOIR STRUCTURES

Now that you are familiar with the terminology used by meat inspectors, and you know how to
determine where an abattoir should be located, let us discuss registering an abattoir. (If you need
to refresh your memory about the definition of an abattoir, you will find this on pages 1 and 2 of
the Meat Safety Act (Section 1(1)(i)).) From the definition you will have realised that a slaughter
facility qualifies to be an abattoir only if it is registered or approved by the provincial executive
officer. Furthermore, nobody is allowed to slaughter an animal from any place other than the
abattoir (see section 7(1)(a), (b) and (c) of the Meat Safety Act). So how does one go about
registering an abattoir?
Before an abattoir is approved, the design drawings of the proposed construction must be
submitted to the provincial executive officer for evaluation and approval.
Refer to section 8(1) (a) of the Meat Safety Act and explain below what the applicant needs to
submit when applying for registration of an abattoir.
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According to section 8(1)(b), (c) and (d), who issues the certificate of approval, and once the
certificate of approval has been issued, for how long does it remain valid?
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4.5 ESSENTIAL NATIONAL STANDARDS

When approving a slaughter facility to function as an abattoir, the national executive officer must
make sure that the abattoir meets the essential national standards and other requirements that
will ensure that the abattoir produces meat and animal products that are safe for human and
animal consumption (see section 2(1–5)). The essential national standards can be found in
section 11(1)(a–s) of the Meat Safety Act, which is reproduced on pages 6 and 7 of Tutorial Letter
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504. Read through these essential national standards before reading the scenario below and
answering the questions that follow.
Activity 4.3: Case study
Someone I know who has a farm in the Free State Province decided to convert one of the structures on
his farm into a slaughter facility, where he slaughters some of his own farm animals and those of other
farmers in the area. They sell the meat and meat products such as feet, heads and intestines to the
locals. They also supply meat to two butchers’ shop in the closest town. On one occasion, while I was
visiting his farm, I observed that farmers were bringing in animals that were already dead to the
slaughter facility. Other animals brought to the slaughter facility were pulled by a truck and chased by
dogs. I looked around to see if anyone who going to examine the animals before they were slaughtered,
but there was no one to carry out this responsibility. The water that was being used was from a nearby
stream frequently used by local people for doing their washing and to water their animals. After the
animals had been slaughtered, I saw the farm owner perform an inspection of the meat before it was
carried away to the butchers and sold off.
Based on your knowledge of the essential national standards, list some of the unacceptable
practices described in the scenario.
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• First and foremost, the farm owner should not be slaughtering animals on his farm because
the facility is not registered. The essential national standards state that a slaughter facility has
to be registered in order to operate as an abattoir.
• The farm owner has never applied for the registration of his slaughter facility with the provincial
executive officer.
• The farm owner has not engaged services of a meat inspector to perform meat inspection. It
is unethical for him to be performing meat inspection at his own slaughter facility.
Those are just of a few practices that are wrong. There are many others that you should be able
to point out if you have read the essential national standards.
Activity 4.4: Discussion forum
Please go to the discussion forum entitled “Essential national standards” for this module on
myUnisa, and, based on the scenario, make a posting in which you identify at least one more
unacceptable practice that is taking place. Justify your answer.
4.6 CLASSIFICATION OF ABATTOIRS

One of the things that the provincial executive officer considers when determining whether or not
to approve an abattoir is the grading of the abattoir in accordance with the essential national
standards. The grade of the abattoir is indicated on the certificate. According the regulations of
the Meat Safety Act, abattoirs are divided into three main categories, namely:
• rural red meat abattoirs

• low throughput red meat abattoirs
• high throughput red meat abattoirs
Refer to pages 20 to 24 of Tutorial Letter 504 for VPH3601, and read [section 11(1)(a)], Regulation
No. 4-6 of the Red Meat Regulations. Summarise the differences between the three categories
of abattoirs in the space provided below.
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4.7 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE REGISTRATION OF RED MEAT ABATTOIRS
Part II of the Red Meat Regulations, specifically section 11(1)(a) (Tutorial Letter 504, pages 20 to
24), is dedicated to the requirements for the different grades of abattoirs. Read though this section
and familiarise yourself with the registration requirements for the different grades of abattoirs.
A number of principles outlined in the Red Meat Regulations apply to all three grades of abattoirs.
These include the following:
• The area must be fenced off.

• Pens must be available to accommodate livestock.
• Provision must be made for the humane handling of animals during offloading.
• There must be bleeding and dressing areas. Structures may differ depending on the grade
of the abattoir.
• There must be handwashing and sterilising facilities.
• There must be chilling facilities.
There are, however, also distinct differences between the three categories of abattoirs, and these
include the number of animals (also referred to as units) to be slaughtered. Consult Tutorial Letter
504, pages 20 to 24, to read section 11A of the Red Meat Regulations and indicate the number
of units that can slaughtered in each class of abattoir.
• Rural abattoir (section 4, page 4):_________________________

• Low throughput (LT) (section 5, page 5):
(i) cattle, horses or sausage pigs larger than 90 kg ____________
(ii) sheep or goats _________________________
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(iii) pigs_____________________________
• High throughput (HT) (section 6, page 6):_________________
Other differences that you should have identified by reading the Red Meat Regulations include
the following:
• Separate entry for emergency slaughter in LT and HT, but not in rural abattoirs.
• Separate door must be available for dispatch in LT and HT, but not in rural abattoirs.
• Separate rooms are required for inedible material, detained carcasses, and paunch and
intestinal content emptying in LT and HT.
• In HT abattoirs there must be a separation of dirty and clean areas and functions.
• In HT abattoirs there must be a facility for sanitising vehicles.
• In HT abattoirs there has to be access to laboratory facilities.
4.8 STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS

We will now discuss in detail the structural requirements for an abattoir as prescribed by the law.
The law clearly sets out the requirements of the slaughter facility that is to be registered as an
abattoir. These requirements are set out in the Red Meat Regulations (see Tutorial Letter 504,
pages 26 to 38, Part 1, Section B).
I will not summarise all the structural requirements for you because they are quite straightforward
and set out clearly in the Red Meat Regulations. Refer to Tutorial Letter 504, pages 26 to 38, and
summarise each for yourself.
Here is a hint: Structural requirements can be grouped as follows:
• General requirements
• Requirements for premises
• Cross flow
• Requirements for interior of a building and rooms
• Requirements for equipment
• Requirements for toilets and change rooms
• Sterilisers
• Hand washing basins
• Apron-on wash-cabinets
• Water supply
• Containers for inedible, condemned and refuse material
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• Additional requirements for low and high throughput red meat abattoirs
REFLECTION EXERCISE
For further reading on the requirements for abattoirs, also refer to pages 32 to 39 of Tutorial Letter
501. Reflect on the difference between the requirements set out in the Red Meat Regulations
(Tutorial Letter 504, pages 26–38) and inspector’s manual (Tutorial Letter 501, pages 32–39).
Are there differences between the two sets of requirements? Go to myUnisa, and in the discussion
forum entitled “Reflecting on the requirements in Tutorial Letters 504 and 501” make a posting in
which you state what you think the differences are between the two sets of requirements.
Below I talk about the importance of avoiding cross flow/cross contamination. Avoidance of cross
flow/cross contamination is one of the structural requirements for abattoirs, and it has significant
implications for meat safety and hygiene.
Cross flow/cross contamination

According to the Red Meat Regulations, an abattoir must be constructed in such a way that
products and processes flow in one direction.
Can you think of a reason for this requirement?
For feedback, read the scenario below.
Activity 4.5
Sipho and his best friend Mandla are both employed at a municipal abattoir in a medium-sized town
that is surrounded by farms and small villages. Sipho works at the offloading ramp, and he is responsible
for the management of animals in the lairages, or holding pens. Mandla supervises the chilling rooms.
As they have to use different staff facilities, they do not see each other in the morning before work or
during their breaks. On one particular occasion Sipho needed to speak to Mandla urgently, so during a
quiet time at the lairages, he quickly walked through the processing hall and into the chilling room to
meet his friend. There was dung on his shoes, but he did not pay too much attention to this, as he didn’t
think that the dung on his shoes would affect the safety of the carcasses hanging in the chiller.
Would you agree with Sipho that the dung on his shoes would have no effect on the safety of the
carcasses because they are hanging, and not on the floor? Give reasons for your answer.
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I definitely do not agree with Sipho! In the previous units we discussed the fact the environment
in which the production and processing of meat occurs could result in contamination of meat with
microbial hazards, and these microbial hazards are known to cause food-borne illnesses.
Lairages are often contaminated with dung from animals that defecate while waiting for slaughter.
This dung has been known to contain high levels of bacteria, including highly pathogenic
organisms such as E. coli 0157. It is highly probable that the same dung would have been
transferred onto Sipho’s shoes. As he walked through the slaughter hall, the dung on Sipho’s
shoes could have been transferred to the floor and resulted in contamination of the environment.
The majority of microbial hazards that cause spoilage and food-borne illness are able to survive
and multiply at room temperature. The high temperature in the abattoir is favourable for bacterial
growth that is of concern in relation to food safety and quality.
Furthermore, the floor and the carcasses are hosed down frequently with water, so splashing from
water and any material on the floor is inevitable. As a result, small pathogenic particles may
therefore land on surfaces that workers in the clean area touch. From there, these
microorganisms will be transferred onto the workers’ hands and equipment (e.g. knives), and will
finally contaminate the carcasses or meat.
The scenario in Activity 4.5 clearly demonstrates that contamination of the clean product can
occur as a result of cross flow in the processing line. In meat hygiene, we refer to this as cross
contamination. To prevent this from occurring, all movements in an abattoir must be in one
direction: from dirty to clean. This is because as the product moves from where the slaughtering
takes place, after each step the product is cleaner than it was during the previous step, until it
reaches the final stage of production. Correct design of the abattoir in line with the requirements
of the regulations is extremely important. Deviation such as you read about in the scenario in
Activity 4.5 could result in cross contamination due to cross flow of products, processing steps or
staff, resulting in food-borne illness.
To further prevent cross contamination at the abattoir, in terms of the Red Meat Regulations of
the Meat Safety Act, the slaughter floor is divided into “clean” and “dirty” areas, with single-
direction flow from clean to dirty, not the other way around. To help you visualise the areas
mentioned in the activities above, please have a look at the process flow diagram below. The
same flow diagram appears in the inspectors’ manual.
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If you look at the diagram, you will notice a thick, solid line in the middle of the page
between the three columns. This line divides the processing into dirty and clean areas of
the abattoir: all boxes and activities above the line belong to the dirty area and everything
below the line belongs to the clean area. To make it easier for you to see the line, you
may want to use a coloured pen.
4.9 SUMMARY
In this unit I introduced you to the terminology used by VPH practitioners employed as
meat inspectors, and I have every confidence that you are now able to explain the terms
commonly used by meat inspectors. We then discussed the registration of abattoirs. We
looked mainly at what the abattoir owner needs to submit to have the abattoir registered,
and who approves abattoirs in South Africa. I asked you to consult the Meat Safety Act
to see how long the certificate of approval remains valid. You will have noticed that it is
valid for five years. This means that registration of an abattoir has to be renewed every
five years. We also touched on the essential national standards that apply to all abattoirs.
These are the things the provincial executive officer considers when reviewing application
for registration of an abattoir. This was followed by a discussion of the classification of
abattoirs, and the characteristics of each class of abattoir. We ended the unit with a
discussion of the structural requirements for an abattoir. Here we went into detail about
the different aspects that the abattoir owner needs to consider when constructing an
abattoir.
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UNIT 3: PRIMARY PRODUCTION
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The food value chain for meat
3.3 Primary production
3.3.1 What is primary production with reference to meat?
3.3.2 The role of primary meat production in the production of safe food
3.3.3 Animal feed
3.3.4 Traceability
3.3.5 Animal health
3.3.6 Animal welfare
3.3.7 Farm environment management
3.3.8 Transport of animals
3.4 Summary
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• discuss all the steps in the food production chain and highlight good and bad practices
• discuss the importance of primary production in food safety
• draw up basic guidelines for farmers to ensure food safety during primary production
• recommend appropriate basic measures for maintaining food safety in the production
chain
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The complex interaction of various factors at every stage of production has the potential to increase the
risk of food-borne illnesses. All precautions must be taken at all stages of production to improve food
safety. This responsibility lies with everyone involved in the meat production process and during
• production on the farm

• processing at the abattoir
• distribution during transportation to butcheries
• preparation and consumption
The process of ensuring that meat is safe for human consumption needs to be dynamic and flexible. It
should allow for adaptation to constant changes in the types of food consumed, the geographic origins
of food products and the ways in which different foods are processed.
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3.2 THE FOOD VALUE CHAIN FOR MEAT
As an AHT, you may at some point be called upon to perform meat inspection tasks, which will place an
enormous responsibility on your shoulders. Why is this responsibility so great? What issues are involved?
The following scenario or case study may give you a clue.
A case study:
Occurrence of Taenia solium cysticercosis in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa
Studies show that Taenia solium (pig tape worm) infestation in humans results in high financial cost in the
Eastern Cape Province. I will not go into the details of the life cycle of this worm because we discussed it
in detail in the Animal Diseases modules (read up on the life cycle of T. solium to refresh your memory if
you need to). In brief, when humans carrying this parasite defecate in the open veld or in areas where
pigs have access to human faeces, the pigs pick up the parasite when they eat the faecal matter. The
parasite then forms cysts (intermediate stage of the parasite) in the muscles of the pigs. When these pigs
are slaughtered and humans eat the meat, the cysts develop into full grown tapeworms, which lay eggs
that pass out as proglottids in human faeces. When humans accidentally ingest eggs of Taenia solium due
to contamination of food by people with taeniasis, the eggs hatch and the cysts (intermediate stage of the
tape worm) become lodged in various parts of the body, including the brain. When this happens, the
person develops a condition known as neurocysticercosis. One of the symptoms of this condition seen in
affected people is epileptic seizures.
Reflect on the following:
1. Think of any other diseases that could result from eating meat, be it poultry, pork or beef. (Refer to
unit 2 of this study guide, and the Animal Diseases modules and Laboratory Diagnostics modules for
information.)
2. How can neurocysticercosis be controlled?
3. If neurocysticercosis occurred, would it be correct to put the blame solely on meat inspectors?
4. At what stages in the meat value chain do you think neurocysticercosis could be controlled and
prevented from occurring in humans?
Below are preventive measures that could be taken to control the spread of neurocysticercosis in human
beings.
• So as to break the life cycle of the parasite, pigs should not be exposed to human faeces.
• The abattoir and meat inspectors must not allow meat containing cysts to be sold to the public.
• Consumers must maintain a high level of personal hygiene, for instance by always washing their hands
before eating.
All measures such as these are linked in an entire “food chain” and have a role to play in protecting the
health of the public. Therefore, based on this, I am sure you now realise that paying careful attention to
food safety throughout the production chain is a priority for meat production.
The European Commission states that
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The biological and chemical agents which cause food poisoning are many and varied but they almost
all have one feature in common: They accompany the animal from the “stable to the table” or from
“farm to fork”. For this reason, any attempt to maintain a high level of protection of consumers
without taking account of what is happening throughout the whole production chain is doomed to
failure (European Commission 1996).
Activity 3.1: Carefully re-read the statement by the European Commission above, and underline
the key words.
Then briefly note down the essence of the statement in your own words – in other words, what is
it really saying about food safety?
Based on my understanding of food hazards, I would have underlined the terms biological and chemical
agents. Also, based on my understanding of food-borne diseases, I would have underlined the words food
poisoning and protection of consumers as well. In reference to the production of food, I would have
underlined the whole production chain. However – in the context of what we have been discussing – the
most important part of the statement is actually the phrases from farm to fork and stable to the table.
Let us now take a closer look at the meaning and importance of the European Commission statement
quoted above. Animal diseases, environmental hygiene, veterinary drugs, pesticides and so forth have
the ability to affect the safety of meat during production. Therefore, meat safety is not something you
only inspect at the abattoir or processing plant. Instead, it is something you build in throughout the value
chain from “farm to fork” – and this means that even at home we need to take care to avoid having food
cause harm to those who consume it. The expression “from farm to fork” describes an approach to food
safety that includes all steps that could influence food as the end product at every level of the production
chain from “stable to table”.
Activity 3.2
Imagine you have a delicious, succulent piece of steak or a chop in front of you.
Before you take a bite, consider the following:
• Where does the production of this piece of meat actually start?

• Where does it end?
Draw a flow diagram in which you include all the steps involved in the production of meat.
Your diagram should look something like this:
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Figure 3.1: The food production chain and directions of communication (adapted and
modified from: Federation of Veterinarians of Europe: Food safety: The farm to fork
approach)
• Did you notice the arrows in the diagram above?

• What do you think they imply?
The arrows indicate that there should be communication between the different sections or role-players
in the production of meat, and that the communication should be two-way. For example, the farmer
should communicate with the producers of farm feeds if he or she encounters any problems with the
feeds, and likewise if there are any changes in the feed, the manufacturer should inform the farmers.
Here is another example. If the manufacturer includes some ingredients that would make it necessary for
the farmer to withdraw the feed some days before the animal is slaughtered, this needs to be
communicated to the farmer so that he or she is able to take the necessary steps to protect consumers.
So, two-way communication and interaction between the various role-players is crucial to ensure the
safety of food. Important information needs to pass from the farm to veterinarians and VPH workers at
all stages of the production chain.
• Why do you think this is important?
It will ensure that any findings during the meat inspection at the abattoir are reported to the farmer and
to the veterinarian responsible, making it possible to deal with the underlying problem appropriately.
Think back to the case study on cysticercosis that we discussed above. If you were working at an abattoir
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in the Eastern Cape, and you started seeing lots of pigs with cysts at the predilection sites, you would have
to inform the department and consequently the farmers about the problem so that appropriate steps
could be taken.
As an AHT working in the field, do you now realise the huge responsibility you carry as a role-player at
primary production level? You are expected to inform the people who carry out the slaughtering and
processing about any negative findings on the farm. Similarly, it is the responsibility of meat inspectors at
the abattoir to communicate their findings to you as an AHT about any adverse findings they make when
they inspect meat at the abattoirs.
3.3 PRIMARY PRODUCTION

3.3.1 WHAT IS PRIMAY PRODUCTION WITH REFERENCE TO MEAT?
“Primary production” is a recognised term in meat hygiene. It is defined by the Codex Alimentarius Commission
(2005) as: “All those steps in the food chain constituting animal production and transport of animals to the
abattoir, or hunting and transporting wild game to a game depot”.
3.3.2 The role of primary meat production in the production of safe food
Meat must be produced from healthy animals under generally accepted conditions.
What does that mean?
It means that good hygiene practices must be applied right from farm level, as only then can the risk of
introducing various hazards into the meat production chain be reduced, and meat that is produced from
such farms can be safe and suitable for human consumption.
Activity 3.3 Discussion forum
Refer back to my diagram above and specifically to the second block, which reads “Primary
production”.
1. In the case of the production of a beef steak, which activities and steps would probably fall
under the primary production of meat?
2. Briefly discuss the importance of each.
Here is a hint that may simplify these questions for you:
One of the activities involved in the primary production of meat is, of course, keeping animals healthy.
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Primary production includes the following:
• animal feed
• identification of livestock
• animal health and
• animal welfare
Let us look at each of these elements in detail and talk about the role they play in the production of meat
that is safe for human consumption.
3.3.3 ANIMAL FEED

Farm animals are the major reservoirs of microbial food safety hazards, which include Salmonella spp.,
Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli and Campylobacter spp. These organisms can contaminate feed,
and often animals acquire these pathogens by ingesting contaminated feed. This also applies to known
biological hazards such as pesticides. A high level of hazards in feed can be transmitted through meat and
meat products and cause food-borne illnesses. However, of concern is not just the presence of hazards,
but the unacceptable levels in feed that pose a food safety risk. This is not limited to microbial hazards –
it also includes essential nutrients.
You probably remember this from your Nutrition module. For example, when certain essential nutrients
are above the recommended levels in an animal feed, this can lead to illness in animals and humans. The
best example here is selenium toxicity, which can result from the exposure of animals to high levels of
selenium, even though it is an essential nutrient in feed.
Another example involves bone meal. The use of bone meal in farm animal feed has been linked to the
spread of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle, and BSE-infected meat has been associated
with variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) in humans. It is therefore the responsibility of the farm to
ensure that feed offered to animals does not contain hazards at levels that pose a risk to human health.
3.3.4 TRACEABILITY
How can we ensure that animals are traceable, and why is traceability important?
a) Identification of livestock
As we discussed in ZTG2601, it is important for farmers to identify their animals. Animal identification is
a tool that managers can use to respond to potential risks that occur in meat and meat products and that
allows them to trace these back to their source in order to prevent contaminated products from reaching
consumers. On-farm traceability and identification systems must be secure, clearly visible, easy to apply
and tamper-proof. They must be kept up to date. Imagine a situation where a zoonosis is detected during
meat inspection and the farm of origin needs to be alerted so that the remaining animals can be treated.
Would this be possible if the animal cannot be identified, and its origin cannot be traced?
Only a reliable identification and record-keeping system will ensure speedy investigation where this is
needed.
b) Record-keeping
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Record-keeping during primary production is essential for the supply of safe meat throughout the
production chain. In the event of a disease outbreak, records enable us to identify the source of the
animal. Basic records kept on the farm should include the following:
• All livestock on the farm

• Records of input resources such as feed and sources of animals if the farm is not a closed farm
• Records of veterinary visits and treatments
• Food safety programmes
3.3.5 ANIMAL HEALTH

I am sure you will agree that good quality products can only be derived from healthy animals. Therefore,
the health and wellbeing of animals is a key aspect of primary production. The following steps must be
taken to ensure that animals are healthy before slaughter:
• Sick or injured animals must be treated immediately and cared for by properly trained people.
• Animals need to be regularly vaccinated and treated prophylactically against internal and external
parasites.
• Monitoring and surveillance of animal diseases must be carried out (e.g. bovine tuberculosis and
brucellosis schemes).
• Notifiable diseases must be reported as required.
3.3.6 ANIMAL WELFARE

Animal welfare and animal health are closely linked. What do we mean by animal welfare? The most
widely used definition is based on the principles known internationally as “the five freedoms” of animal
welfare. They are:
• freedom from hunger and thirst

• freedom from discomfort
• freedom from pain, injury or disease
• freedom to express normal behaviour
• freedom from fear and distress
The five freedoms of animal welfare must be ensured throughout primary meat production. This has a
positive influence on the quality of meat, as in many cases poor animal welfare results in production and
economic loss. Animals whose welfare is compromised are more likely to develop diseases and less likely
to produce to their full potential. For example, pale, soft, exudative (PSE) meat resulting from high stress
prior to slaughter is a poor-quality product that consumers do not find appealing. Furthermore, when
animals are stressed, they tend to shed pathogens, which leads to cross-contamination and contamination
of meat.
3.3.7 FARM ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT

The hygiene of the environment is directly linked to food safety. Therefore, good farming practices will
limit the contamination of meat during production. Animals should not be farmed in areas where there
are hazards present in the environment, as this could lead to unacceptable levels of contamination of the
meat.
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A contaminated environment and water contamination increase the risk of animal-to-human transmission
of pathogens. Therefore, farmers must ensure that stocking rates and grazing are managed in a manner
that reduces the impact on the environment and reduces the risk of pathogen transmission. Where
possible, poisonous plants in the environment should be identified and removed or fenced off from
pastures, and carcasses must be disposed of in a way that does not pose a risk of spreading disease
pathogens or contaminating the environment. Refer to the National Environmental Management Act 107
of 1998 (you will find this on the internet). You will find a summary of the legal requirements for
appropriate carcass disposal on page 54 of Tutorial Letter 501. Refer to section 2 on page 54 and
familiarise yourself with how to properly dispose of carcasses so as to prevent environmental
contamination.
3.3.8 TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS

Transport can have a negative impact on the health and wellbeing of animals if it is not carried out
properly. Therefore, the health and wellbeing of animals must be constantly monitored during
transportation. To ensure the health and wellbeing of animals during transportation:
• Vehicles used for transporting animals must be appropriate and safe.

• Loading densities and resting periods must be observed.
• The staff involved must be adequately trained.
Before we conclude our discussion of the transportation of animals and its impact on the quality of meat,
you may be wondering how putting an animal on a truck and transporting it to the abattoir could affect
its health and wellbeing, and ultimately the quality of meat. Moving animals out of their usual
environment causes a lot of stress, and this stress is more likely to result in microbial contamination of
meat.
For example, a subclinical infection with Salmonella spp. (in other words, the animal is infected with
Salmonella but is not showing symptoms of infection) can become a clinical infection in distressed
animals, resulting in the bacteria being excreted in large amounts with the faeces. The dung will
contaminate the transport vehicle, as a result of which the animals and carcasses will become
contaminated during the slaughtering process.
Activity 3.4: Discussion forum
Good hygiene practices on farms are important for the production of safe meat.
Go to the discussion forum entitled “Hygiene practices on the farm: implications for food safety”
and discuss your experience on any farm you have visited that you think is not able to produce
safe meat.
If you do not have this kind of experience, base your discussion on the literature and tell us
about one practice that can either prevent or lead to contamination of meat with hazardous
substances at farm level.
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NB: You can jot down some of your answers to the above question in the space below:
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Activity 3.5
A salmonella outbreak on 8 poultry farms has resulted in the cull of 60 000 birds. The Department of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries has indicated that no human cases have been reported. The species
associated with the outbreak is Salmonella enteritidis. The epidemiology of the disease outbreak
indicates that there were two clusters, which seem to be unrelated. It is speculated that the source of
the infection was a consignment of chicks from a hatchery which was contaminated.
Questions
1. List the areas on the farm where Salmonella can be found.

2. What are the clinical signs of salmonella in chickens?
3. What are the public health concerns associated with an outbreak of salmonella?
4. What measures should be taken to control a salmonella outbreak on a farm?
5.
9
1. Bacteria of the genus Salmonella are primarily intestinal. They are widespread in the
environment and are commonly found in farm effluents, human sewage and in any material
subject to faecal contamination.
2. Most food animal species, including chickens, are asymptomatic. However, gastrointestinal
diseases have been reported.
3. Since most animals are asymptomatic, the infection may spread between flocks and become a
cause of human food-borne infection. Meat and eggs or their products may be contaminated
and be a source of food-borne illnesses.
4. We discussed salmonella in the Animal Diseases module. It might a good idea for you to refer to
your notes for answers on how to control a salmonella outbreak on poultry farms. Alternatively,
you can consult any veterinarian or AHT working with poultry.
3.4SUMMARY
In this unit we discussed the food production chain, with special emphasis on primary production and how
it influences the production of meat that is safe for human consumption. You will have noticed that
primary production entails all activities on the farm, including transporting animals to the abattoir. In the
next unit we will discuss abattoir activities that AHTs are responsible for. By now you should have a clear
idea of the role of VPH and meat hygiene in the protection of human health.
QUESTIONS TO THINK ABOUT

• What have you learnt in this unit, and what insights have you gained by studying it?
• Consider the approach to food production followed by farmers and other role players. Can you think
of everyday practices relating to the production and handling of food that you now consider unsafe
or unhygienic in terms of food safety?
If you can identify any such practices, describe them and indicate what you would do to change these
practices and make farmers aware of possible dangers associated with them.
• On the other hand, have you observed or experienced any good hygiene practices on farms that you
would encourage farmers to continue with? If so, describe these.
10
UNIT 6
FOOD SAFETY MANAGEMENT AND QUALITY CONTROL
Contents
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Quality control and quality assurance
6.3 Hygiene management and evaluation systems
6.3.1 Hygiene assessment system checklist: NARS-HAS01
6.3.2 The HACCP system
6.3.3 Principles of HACCP
6.3.4 ISO 22000:2005 and good practices
6.4 Summary
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• distinguish between quality assurance and quality control

• name at least two hygiene management and evaluation systems that are commonly used in
abattoirs in South Africa
• discuss the elements of the Hygiene Assessment System Checklist: NARS-HAS01
• discuss the seven principles of hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP)
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Food safety is the concept that ensures that food produced and prepared for human consumption is
hygienic and safe. Inefficient and ineffective mechanisms of control and management of food hazards
during production may cause food-borne illness. Therefore, a food safety management system (FSMS)
offers an effective approach to identifying, preventing and reducing food-borne hazards and minimising
the risk of food-related illnesses. Globally the most commonly used FSMS are
a) hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP),
b) ISO 22000:2005 and
c) good practices.
Studies indicate that consumers are concerned primarily about chemical residues such as antibiotics and
pesticides in food. However, the potential risks posed by these substances are smaller than those posed
by microbiological contaminants. For example, in recent years, increasing prevalence of food-borne
diseases associated with organisms such as Salmonella spp., E. coli O157:H7, Listeria spp., Campylobacter
spp. and Clostridium botulinum has been observed. There is even a classification of these diseases into
emerging and re-emerging diseases. This makes the implementation of FSMS such as an HACCP system
important in reducing incidence of food-borne illnesses and zoonotic diseases.
6.2 QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
In VPH, there is a clear difference between quality control and quality assurance. Quality control
involves testing or inspection of meat and meat products to ensure that they fulfil their intended role.
Quality assurance, on the other hand, is a system of steps taken by the management of the abattoir to
ensure that production of meat and meat products is adequate.
6.3 HYGIENE MANAGEMENT AND EVALUATION SYSTEMS
Regulation 49 of the Red Meat Regulations of the Meat Safety Act states that the owner of an abattoir
must, with a relevant officer, develop a documented hygiene management system containing detailed
information on control measures or programmes to be used to monitor identified control points.
Regulation 53 of the Red Meat Regulations of the Meat Safety Act requires that the owner must also
prepare a list of all potential biological, chemical or physical hazards that may occur at each step of the
process using the hygiene assessment system (HAS).
In South Africa, the most commonly used hygiene management and evaluation system is the Hygiene
Assessment System Checklist: NARS-HAS01. The form covers:
• ante-mortem inspection
• slaughter and dressing
• meat inspection and marking
• chilling and dispatch
• offal processing
• sanitation and pest control
• staff
• general conditions
• structural requirements and maintenance
• hygiene management system and non-conformance
• corrective action and clearance report
6.3.1 HYGIENE ASSESSMENT SYSTEM CHECKLIST: NARS-HAS01
We will now look at each of the different elements of the Hygiene Assessment System Checklist, and what
is considered during quality assurance.
i. Ante-mortem inspection
Ante-mortem inspection is performed in order to ensure that only apparently healthy, physiologically
normal animals are slaughtered for human consumption. Therefore, during ante-mortem inspection,
animals are assessed for freedom from disease of public health significance. Each animal or group of
animals must be accompanied by a declaration of health certificate. This provides information about the
sources of the animals, their health status and previous veterinary treatment. The inspector must make
sure that the health declaration contains all the information required in terms of the Meat Safety Act.
During ante-mortem inspection, the habitus, nutritional status, cleanliness and any abnormal behaviour
of the animal must be assessed. Abnormalities which may be assessed during examination include:
• abnormal breathing,
• lameness,
• abnormal discharge from orifices, and
• abdominal posture.
Possible outcomes of the ante-mortem inspection are: passing an animal for routine slaughter, emergency
slaughter, conditional pass for slaughter, and condemnation. Any judgement other than passing the
carcass requires the opinion of a veterinarian (this means that if an animal is suspected of having any
condition that would render the meat derived from it unfit for human consumption, it must be referred
for further investigation by a veterinarian).
As part of this process, inspection of transport, offloading, lairage conditions and emergency slaughter
facilities is done. The facilities are inspected in terms of design and maintenance, as these elements should
have minimum negative impact on the health and wellbeing of the animals before slaughter. In addition,
the protection of staff in terms of reducing occupational health risks must be emphasised.
ii. Slaughtering and dressing
Stunning: To ensure humane slaughter of animals, correct stunning procedure must be followed. The
inspector must evaluate the maintenance status of instruments such as the captive bolt gun. Animals must
be slaughtered not more than 60 seconds after stunning. This is to ensure that the animals do not recover
before they are bled.
Bleeding: During slaughter, both sides of the jugulars and carotids must be severed, and in addition,
sticking must be performed to sever the anterior vena cava or aorta at the base of heart. The estimated
bleeding time must not be less than 6 minutes.
Flaying and evisceration: During flaying and evisceration, heads and feet must be matched with carcasses.
All organs, including the viscera, must be inspected. All lactating udders and reproductive organs not for
commercial purposes must be condemned. The intestines must remain intact. The carcasses of cattle
older than three months must be split lengthways through the spinal cord. In addition, the uterus and
urinary and gall bladders must remain intact.
All the equipment used for flaying and evisceration must be sterilised (≥ 82 oC). If there is accidental
contact with meat, the affected area must be trimmed under supervision of an inspector. Staff are not
allowed to wash the affected area of the carcass.
Final washing: The water used during final washing of carcasses must conform to SANS 241 Class II
standards. It must not contain any insecticide or antibiotic substance, and no substance which is intended
to prevent the spoilage of the carcass, meat or animal product by inhibiting the activities of insects, or by
preventing the development of bacteria or mould, or for any purpose, should be applied to any carcass,
meat or animal product.
iii. Meat inspection/marking
Meat inspection must be carried out continuously during slaughter, and lighting must be adequate for this
purpose. We discussed how to perform primary meat inspection in the previous unit. Condemned
material must be placed in a theft-proof container clearly marked “CONDEMNED”, in letters not less than
10 cm high. If condemned materials are not removed continuously, a holding area or a room or dedicated
chiller must be provided. The dedicated chiller must be at a temperature of minus 2 °C or lower. In terms
of the approved government policy, only a veterinarian can carry out secondary meat inspection.
All stamps must be under the inspector’s control, and when they are not in use they must be kept in a
secure place. Only ink approved for use on foodstuffs may be used.
iv. Chilling/dispatch
In the chiller, there must be enough space between the carcasses to prevent excessive condensation. No
mixing of cold and warm carcasses must occur, and no non-food item or product other than meat must
be stored in the chillers. Edible products must not be placed directly on the floor. The temperature of all
chilled meat must be below 7 °C, and the chiller temperature must be monitored every 12 hours. The
chillers and the equipment used must be sanitised before fresh meat is loaded into the chiller.
Trucks used to dispatch the carcasses must comply with the R918 regulations. In addition, hygiene of
staff in contact with the carcasses must comply with the Health Act. The temperature in the loading area
should be below 12 °C at all times.
v. Offal processing
Both red offal and rough offal must be washed under clean running water. Hooks must be available to
ensure that the offal drips dry. Both red and rough offal must be handled and packaged hygienically.
There should be no mixing of red and rough offal in the chillers and the dispatch areas. If the product is
not continuously removed within 4 hours, it must be chilled to below 7 °C within 16 hours, or chilled at
minus 2 °C. Adequate facilities and procedures must be available to continuously remove all ruminal and
intestinal contents from the rough offal room effectively and dispose of them correctly.
vi. Sanitation and vermin control
After all animals to be slaughtered on the day have been slaughtered and the inspection has been
completed, an effective detailed sanitising programme must commence immediately, and microbiological
monitoring of surfaces as a control measure must be implemented. All chemicals used must be stored in
a secure room. As previously stated, all the instruments must be sterilised. The following water
temperatures must be maintained:
• for sterilisers: 82 °C
• at hand wash basins for hands: 40 °C
In addition to continuous cleaning and monitoring, there must be vermin control programmes in place in
the abattoir.
vii. Staff
Protective clothing
All the protective clothing worn by staff must be clean and in good repair, and must be stored in a locker
intended for this purpose only. Staff must not wear their protective clothing outside the premises, and
there must be no contact between protective clothing and staff members’ own clothes.
A general code of conduct regarding hygiene practices must be followed. There must be no movement of
staff between clean and dirty areas or functions. Staff may not wear any jewellery, including traditional
objects, in an area where edible products are handled. Staff must keep their fingernails short, clean and
free from nail varnish. All staff must undergo a medical examination at the start of the day. All cuts,
abrasions and sores must be covered by a waterproof dressing. Change rooms, toilets and dining facilities
must be well maintained and hygienic.
viii. General conditions
The registration certificate of the abattoir must be valid and available on request. The area around the
abattoir must be fenced off, with access control. Roads and walkways must be adequately maintained,
and kept free of dust and mud. There must be a separation of clean and dirty areas and functions, and
this must be well managed to prevent cross flow. Vehicle loading and offloading areas for meat must be
paved, kerbed, drained and roofed. There must be a protocol for disposal of waste and condemned
material.
ix. Structural requirements and maintenance
The following facilities must be maintained in accordance with the requirements of the Meat Safety Act:
• lairages
• trucks
• slaughtering and dressing area
• detention facilities and condemn room
• freezer
• chiller
• dispatch area
• offal room and facilities
• change rooms
• dining facilities and office accommodation
x. Hygiene management system (HMS)

This is a system used to audit hygiene in an abattoir. It looks at the following during hygiene
management assessment in an abattoir:
• General requirements of the HMS, including the control and management of potential hazards
and documentation on recalls
• Schematic plans or drawings that show all areas, including temperature-controlled and water
distribution areas
• Flow diagrams of the slaughter process showing product flow from receiving to dispatch in a
sequential manner
• Detailed hygiene management programmes for:
a. ante-mortem inspection
b. slaughter and dressing
c. meat inspection
d. personal hygiene of workers
e. medical fitness of workers
f. sterilisers
g. soap, toilet paper and paper towels
h. sanitation and continuous cleaning
i. water quality and availability
j. vermin control
k. waste disposal (including condemned material)
l. contact wrapping and packaging material
m. maintenance of structures and equipment
n. thermal (temperature) control
• Specific protocols approved by the provincial executive officer (PEO) for the cutting of warm meat,
and the handling and treatment of cysticercosis carcasses
• Standard operating procedures for different types of slaughter, including emergency slaughter,
preferential slaughter and provisional slaughter in the case of “C” or “T” branded cattle
• Keeping of the following records:
a. traceability records
b. staff training records relating to hygiene and other courses
c. sanitation and water quality records
d. vermin control records of inspections and corrective actions
e. staff records, including medical certification and daily fitness checks records
f. thermo control records
g. meat inspection records
• Approval of HMS by PEO
6.3.2 THE HACCP SYSTEM
The hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) system is used in the food industry to identify
potential physical, chemical, and biological food safety hazards. In this system, the areas where steps need
to be taken to reduce or eliminate potential risk are called critical control points (CCPs). CCPs are identified
throughout the value chain, including primary production and processes, packaging and distribution. This
system seeks to prevent potential contamination of products rather than emphasising the inspection of
the final product.
As a tool for FSMS, the HACCP has been adapted from international to traditional inspection methods,
and it is recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. HACCP plans allow the food industry to
allocate its resources efficiently in ensuring safe and good quality products. The WHO/FAO has published
guidelines governments can use to deal with the issue in small and less developed food businesses. In
South Africa, food handling establishments are expected to implement HACCP in accordance with the
WHO/FAO guidelines.
Activity 6.1
1. Considering what we have discussed in this module so far, can you think of possible biological hazards
related to meat and meat products?
2. Post your answers on the myUnisa discussion forum entitled “Quality assurance and quality control”.
The answer will be provided during the discussions on the discussion forum.
6.3.3 PRINCIPLES OF HACCP
The HACCP system is based on the following seven established principles:
Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis
Abattoirs identify food safety hazards and preventive measures that can be applied to control them. These
hazards may be either biological, chemical, or physical.
Principle 2: Identify critical control points
A CCP may be a point, step, or procedure in a food process pathway at which a control is applied that
results in the prevention, elimination, or reduction to an acceptable level of a food safety hazard.
Principle 3: Establish critical limits for each critical control point
A critical limit is the maximum or minimum value to which a physical, biological, or chemical hazard must
be controlled at a CCP to prevent, eliminate, or reduce it to an acceptable level. It is used to distinguish
between safe and unsafe operating conditions at a CCP, and should not be confused with operational
limits which are established for reasons other than food safety.
Principle 4: Establish procedures to monitor the critical control points

Monitoring is a planned sequence of observations or measurements to assess whether a CCP is under
control and to produce an accurate record for future use in verification. Each monitoring procedure and
its frequency should be listed in the HACCP plan.
Principle 5: Establish corrective actions
Corrective actions are actions to be taken when monitoring indicates a deviation from an established
critical limit. A plant’s HACCP plan must identify the corrective actions to be taken if a critical limit is not
met. Corrective actions are intended to ensure that no product injurious to health or otherwise
adulterated as a result of the deviation enters commerce.
Principle 6: Establish verification procedures
Verification ensures that the HACCP plan is adequate, and that it is working as intended. Verification
procedures may include activities such as the review of the HACCP.
Principle 7: Establish record-keeping and documentation procedures
The HACCP regulation requires that all plants maintain certain documents, including a hazard analysis and
written HACCP plan, and records documenting the monitoring of critical control points, critical limits,
verification activities, and the handling of processing deviations.
Activity 6.2
1. Imagine that a simple version of the HACCP system is to be applied in a small stock abattoir in a region
where high levels of Salmonella have been recorded in sheep from a certain communal area.
2. Using the seven principles of HACCP, complete the information in the second column in the table
below.
Example of how the principle could

HACCP principle
be applied in the abattoir
Conduct a hazard analysis 1. Salmonella infection is one of the most important
hazards. It is a hazard.
Identify critical control points 2. One critical control point for Salmonella infection in
this abattoir would be
Establish critical limits for each critical 3. A critical limit applicable to this situation is
control point
.
Establish procedures to monitor the 4. One procedure that could be used here is
critical control points
.
Establish corrective actions 5. A corrective action that could be implemented
here is .
Establish record-keeping procedures 6. One way of keeping records in this abattoir is

.
Establish procedures for ensuring that the 7. One procedure that could be applied is
HACCP system is working as intended
.
6.3.4 ISO 22000:2005 and good practices
Just like the two hygiene management systems (HACCP and the Hygiene Management and Evaluation
System) discussed above, ISO 22000:2005 and good practices can also be used in abattoirs to ensure
quality. However, we will not go into detail about them here. Conduct your own research if you are
interested in knowing more about quality assurance and quality control.
6.4 SUMMARY
In this unit, I introduced you to the principles of quality control and food safety programmes. In addition,
I introduced you to the HAS, which is one of the most commonly used auditing or hygiene assessment
systems. Although you are not expected to establish or evaluate an HACCP system at this point, as this
requires specialised training, it is important to familiarise yourself with the principles of HACCP. Although
there is no single perfect quality assurance and control system, you nevertheless need a clear
understanding of the purpose, advantages and importance of such systems in relation to food safety and
veterinary public health.

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UNIT: 1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 What is veterinary public health?

1.3 International custodians of veterinary public health

1.4 Aspects of veterinary public health

1.5 Meat hygiene and veterinary public health

1.6 Role-players in meat hygiene

1.6.1 Local role-players

1.7 Legislation governing meat hygiene in South Africa

1.3 INTERNATIONAL CUSTODIANS OF VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

Match the following organisations to their respective functions.

1.4 ASPECTS OF VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

1.5 MEAT HYGIENE AND VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH

What is meat hygiene?

How is meat hygiene achieved?

1.6.1 LOCAL ROLE-PLAYERS

1. Directly promoting animal health

Here you would be involved in

• monitoring animal diseases in animal populations at district, provincial or national level

2. Contributing to enhancing the health of the public

Here you would be involved in

3. Promoting food/meat hygiene and safety

Here you would be involved in

1.6.2 INTERNATIONAL ROLE-PLAYERS

1.7 LEGISLATION GOVERNING MEAT HYGIENE IN SOUTH AFRICA

DEPARTMENT ACT SUMMARY

Feedback on Activity 1.4

5.2 Layout of the abattoir

5.3 Essential facilities at an abattoir

5.4 Units of the abattoir

5.5 The slaughter process and meat inspections

5.5.1 Ante-mortem inspection

5.5.2 The slaughter process

5.5.3 Primary meat inspection

5.5.4 Most common pathological conditions

5.5.5 Secondary meat inspection

• describe the essential features of the layout of an abattoir

5.2 LAYOUT OF THE ABATTOIR

5.3 ESSENTIAL FACILITIES AT AN ABATTOIR

An abattoir must have the following essential facilities:

• a resting place for animals before slaughter

The reception area

Feedback on Activity 5.3

Please read through the regulations and answer the following:

1. What do you think is the role of stunning in the slaughter process?

Reflect on the following. You do not have to postyour thoughts on myUnisa.

Rough offal room

5.5 THE SLAUGHTER PROCESS AND MEAT INSPECTIONS

5.5.1 ANTE-MORTEM INSPECTION

• the general behaviour of animals,

Reaching a decision after ante-mortem inspection

Feedback on Activity 5.7

Feedback on Activity 5.8

1. Approved for normal slaughter (Example 1)

Restraint and stunning

(a) captive bolt method

Read regulation 73(1) of the Red Meat Regulations.

Hoisting and bleeding

Species Bleeding time

Flaying and evisceration

Feedback on Activity 5.11