Fundamentals of Mechanical

Engineering
[Unit-1]

Subject code: BME101/BME201

 Introduction to Mechanics

• Mechanics is the branch of physics that considers the action of forces on bodies or
fluids that are at rest or in motion.
• Engineering mechanics is the branch of engineering that applies the principles of
mechanics to mechanical design (i.e., any design that must take into account the
effect of forces). The primary goal of engineering mechanics courses is to introduce
the student to the engineering applications of mechanics.
• Statics and Dynamics are generally followed by one or more courses that introduce
material properties and deformation, usually called Strength of Materials or
Mechanics of Materials.
 Engineering
Mechanics

Mechanics of Mechanics of
solids fluids

Deformable Statics
Rigid bodies
bodies
Dynamics

Statics Dynamics
Kinematics Kinetics

Kinematics Kinetics
 Kinematics vs Kinetics

Kinematics
• Focuses on how motion can be described geometrically.
• Looks at how something moves through space and time without thinking about the forces
that are moving it.
• Includes: Direction, speed, acceleration, and movement
Kinetics
• It looks at how forces working on an object affect its motion.
• This article talks about the forces that make things move, stop moving, or change direction.
• Includes: Newton's theories of motion, force, mass, and momentum
 Mass, Force and weight

• Mass is an indication of the quantity of matter present within a system.

• Weight is force with which the system is attracted towards the earth.
• Force is an external agent which tends to change the speed, acceleration,
deceleration or direction of a system. Force (vector quantity) may cause following
effects-
• Change of its state
• Acceleration/Deceleration
• Change of shape and size
• Turn/rotate
• Keep in equilibrium
 System of forces
System of forces

Non-coplanar or
Co-planar forces
spatial forces

Concurrent Parallel
Non-concurrent
Concurrent Parallel
Non-parallel
Non-
concurrent/non-
Like Unlike parallel
 Newton’s law of motion

Using modern terminology, Newton’s laws of particle motion may be stated as follows:
1. If a particle is at rest (or moving with constant velocity in a straight line), it will remain at
rest (or continue to move with constant velocity in a straight line) unless acted upon by a force.
2. A particle acted upon by a force will accelerate in the direction of the force. The magnitude
of the acceleration is proportional to the magnitude of the force and inversely proportional to
the mass of the particle.
3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction; that is, the forces of interaction
between two particles are equal in magnitude and oppositely directed along the same line of
action.
 Resultant of Co-Planar concurrent force system

• When a number of concurrent forces act on a body to keep the body in

equilibrium, then resultant of these forces will be the vector sum of all these
forces. The process of determination of resultant in known as composition
of forces. Also from a given force, two forces in two directions can be
obtained, which will produce the same effect as produced by single given
force. This process is known as resolution of a force.
 Parallelogram Law of Forces

• The parallelogram law of forces is used to

determine the resultant of two forces acting at a
point in a plane and inclined to each other at an
angle.
• It states that: "If two forces, acting at a point be
represented in magnitude and direction by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their
resultant is represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
passing through that point."
 Triangle law of forces

• "If two forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented by the

sides of a triangle taken in order, their resultant is represented by the
closing side of the triangle taken in the opposite order."
 Polygon law of forces

• "If a number of concurrent forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented in

magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon, taken in order, then the resultant is
represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon, taken in opposite
order."
Analytical method (principle of resolved parts)

• “The algebraic sum of the resolved parts of

two forces in a given direction is equal to the
resolved part of their resultant in the same
direction"
 Equilibrium of forces

• If any number of forces acting at a particle

are in equilibrium, then the algebraic sum
of their resolved parts in any two
perpendicular directions are separately zero.
• Conversely, if the sum of the resolved parts
in any two perpendicular directions are
separately zero, then the forces acting at any
point are in equilibrium.
 Lami’s Theorem
• If the body is in equilibrium (resultant is
zero) under the action of three coplanar-
concurrent forces, then each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle
between the other two forces.
 Principle of transmissibility of forces

• When the point of application of a force acting on a body is shifted to

any other point on the line of action of the force without changing its
direction, there occurs no change in the equilibrium state of the body.
This implies that a force acting at any point on a body may also be
considered to act at any other point along its line of action without
changing its effect on the body.

• Consider a force P acting at point A on rigid body (Fig). B is another

point on the line of action of force P. At point B, apply two oppositely
directed forces (P, and P₂) equal to and collinear with P. Such an
application will in no way alter the action of given force P. At point A,
forces P and Pare equal but opposite and accordingly cancel each other.
That leaves a force P₂ = P at B. This implies that a force acting at any
point on a body may also be considered to act at any other point along its
line of action without changing its effect on the body.
 Free body diagram

The free-body diagram (FBD) of a body is a sketch of the body showing all forces that act on it. The term free implies
that all supports have been removed and replaced by the forces (reactions) that they exert on the body.
The following is the general procedure for constructing a free-body diagram.
1. A sketch of the body is drawn assuming that all supports (surfaces of contact, supporting cables, etc.) have been
removed.
2. All applied forces are drawn and labeled on the sketch. The weight of the body is considered to be an applied
force acting at the center of gravity. The center of gravity of a homogeneous body coincides with the centroid of its
volume.
3. The support reactions are drawn and labeled on the sketch. If the sense of a reaction is unknown, it should be
assumed. The solution will determine the correct sense: A positive result indicates that the assumed sense is correct,
whereas a negative result means that the correct sense is opposite to the assumed sense.
4. All relevant angles and dimensions are shown on the sketch.
 Non-concurrent coplanar force system

• A coplanar non-concurrent force system consists of a set of forces that lie in the same plane but the
line of action of all forces do not meet at a single point.
 Moment

• The Moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to cause a body to rotate about a specific point or axis. This is
different from the tendency for a body to move, or translate, in the direction of the force. In order for a moment to
develop, the force must act upon the body in such a manner that the body would begin to twist. This occurs every
time a force is applied so that it does not pass through the centroid of the body. A moment is due to a force not
having an equal and opposite force directly along it's line of action.
• It is defined as the product of the force (F) and the moment arm (d). The moment arm or lever arm is the
perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the center of moments.

Moment = Force x Distance or M = (F)(d)

• The Center of Moments may be the actual point about which the force causes rotation. It may also be a reference
point or axis about which the force may be considered as causing rotation.
• A clockwise rotation about the center of moments will be considered a positive moment; while a counter-clockwise
rotation about the center of moments will be considered negative.
• The moment of a force about a point O is the cross product of r and F, where r is the position vector of any
point on the line of action of force with respect to O.
M=r×F
Graphical representation of moment
 Couple

• A special case of moments is a couple.

A couple consists of two parallel forces
that are equal in magnitude, opposite in
sense and do not share a line of action. It
does not produce any translation, only
rotation. The resultant force of a couple is
zero. BUT, the resultant of a couple is not
zero; it is a pure moment that’s why it
causes rotation.
• The magnitude of the moment generated
by the couple of the forces F, relative to
the pin in the illustration, is equal to
(F)(d/2) + (F)(d/2) = (F)(d)
 Varignon’s theorem

• Moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of the
components of that force about the same point.
• To prove this theorem, consider the force R acting in the plane of the body shown in
Fig. The forces P and Q represent any two nonrectangular components of R. The
moment of R about point O is M0= r × R
• Because R = P+Q, we may write
• r × R = r × (P +Q)
• Using the distributive law for cross products, we have M0 = r × R = r × P + r × Q
which says that the moment of R about O equals the sum of the moments about O of its
components P and Q . This proves the theorem.
• Varignon's theorem need not be restricted to the case of two components, but it
applies equally well to three or more. where we take the clockwise moment sense to
be positive.
 Static equilibrium conditions

• Σ𝑭𝒙=𝟎(Summation of all forces and reactions in x-direction is zero)

• Σ𝑭𝒚=𝟎(Summation of all forces and reactions in y-direction is zero)
• Σ𝑴=𝟎(Summation of all clockwise and anti-clockwise moments is zero)
These are the conditions are used to determine unknown reactions at different points in
statically determinate beams.
Types of support and reactions
 Types of loading

Concentrated Loads: If a load is acting on a beam over a very small length, it

is approximated as acting at the mid point of that length and is represented by
an arrow as shown.
Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL): For example, in the beam shown in
Fig., the given load may be replaced by a 20 × 4 = 80 kN concentrated load
acting at a distance 2 m from the left support.
Uniformly Varying Load (UVL): The load shown in Fig. varies uniformly
from C to D. Its intensity is zero at C and is 20 kN/m at D. Hence the area of
the triangle represents the total load and the centroid of the triangle represents
the centre of gravity of the load.
External Moment (M): A beam may be subjected to external moment at
certain points. In Fig., the beam is subjected to clockwise moment of 30 kN-m
at a distance of 2 m from the left support.
 Important mechanical properties

• Elasticity: It is property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load is enabled to return to its original dimension when the load is
removed i.e. body regains its shape and size.
• Homogeneous materials: If a material has same composition thought the body is called homogeneous material. Elastic properties may not be
same in all the directions but are same at each and every point.
• Isotropic materials: Elastic properties are same in all the directions.
• Anisotropic : Elastic properties are not same in all the directions.
• Plasticity: It is opposite to elasticity. When load is applied, material gets permanent deformation.
• Ductility: it permits a material to be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced section when tensile load is applied. % elongation or % reduction in
area are the measure of ductility. Example: structural steel, copper etc.
• Brittleness: It can not be drawn out by tension. If doesn’t show significant deformation. Example: ceramics, glass, cast iron etc.
• Malleability: it permits materials to be extended in all the directions without rupture and can be formed into sheet. These are highly plastic
materials. Example: forging, rolling etc.
• Toughness: it is ability to absorb energy without fracture. It is energy measure of energy required per unit volume. It is area under stress-strain
curve.
• Hardness: it is ability of material to resist indentation or surface scratch.
• Strength: It is resistance from fracture under the load. It is expressed in the unit of stress. It is named as ultimate stress (for brittle materials) and
yield strength (for ductile materials).
 Simple Stresses and Strains
Expressions for stresses and strains is derived with the following assumptions:
• For the range of forces applied the material is elastic i.e. it can regain its original shape and size, if the
applied force is removed.
• Material is homogeneous i.e. every particle of the material possesses identical mechanical properties.
• Material is isotropic i.e. the material possesses identical mechanical property at any point in any
direction.
STRESS:
When a member is subjected to loads it develops resisting forces. To find the resisting forces developed a
section plane may be passed through the member and equilibrium of any one part may be considered.
Each part is in equilibrium under the action of applied forces and internal resisting forces. The resisting
forces may be conveniently split into normal and parallel to the section plane. The resisting force parallel
to the plane is called shearing resistance. The intensity of resisting force normal to the sectional plane is
called intensity of Normal Stress. Stress at any point may be defined as resistance developed per unit area. At the
equilibrium load applied and resistance developed are same so mathematically stress is denoted as load per unit area. It is
represented as sigma (σ).
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 (𝑃) 𝑃
Stress = = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴) 𝐴

• When Newton is taken as unit of force and millimetre as unit of area, unit of stress will be N/mm2.
The other derived units used in practice are kN/mm2, N/m2, kN/m2 or MN/m2. A stress of one
N/m2 is known as Pascal and is represented by Pa.
• Hence, 1 MPa = 1 MN/m2 = 1 × 106 N/(1000 mm2) = 1 N/mm2.
• Thus 1 Mega Pascal (MPa) is equal to 1 N/mm2 has been used as Mega Pascal (MPa or N/mm2).
 Kinds of stresses

Normal stress : Stress acts in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface

(sectional plane).
Tensile stress: when a body is stretched by the force P, the resulting stresses are
tensile stresses. (Positive)
𝑃
σ=
𝐴
Compressive stress: When a body is compressed by the force P or F, the resulting
stresses are compressive stresses. (Negative)

Shear stress or tangential stress (τ): It is one which acts parallel or tangential to the
surface. When equal and opposite transverse forces P and P’ of magnitude P are applied to a
member AB, shearing stresses τ are created over any section located between the points of
application of the two forces.
These stresses vary greatly across the section and their distribution cannot be assumed to be
uniform. However, dividing the magnitude P referred to as the shear in the section, by the
cross-sectional area A, the average shearing stress is:
 Strain
No material is perfectly rigid. Under the action of forces a rubber undergoes changes in shape and
size. This phenomenon is very well known to all since in case of rubber, even for small forces
deformations are quite large. All the materials including steel, cast iron, brass, concrete, etc.
undergo similar deformation when loaded. But the deformations are very small and hence we
cannot see them with naked eye. There are instruments like extensometer, electric strain gauges
which can measure extension of magnitude
The change in length per unit length is known as linear strain. Thus, ∆
Tensile Strain =
L
Change in Length Final length−Original Length
Linear Strain = =
Original Length Original Length
When changes in longitudinal direction is taking place changes in lateral direction also take place.
The nature of these changes in lateral direction are exactly opposite to that of changes in
longitudinal direction i.e., if extension is taking place in longitudinal direction, the shortening of
lateral dimension takes place and if shortening is taking place in longitudinal direction extension
takes place in lateral directions (See Fig.). The lateral strain may be defined as changes in the lateral dimension
per unit lateral dimension. Thus,
Change in Lateral Dimension
Lateral Strain =
Original Lateral Dimension
Since deformation and length are expressed in the same units, the normal strain obtained by
dividing δ by L (or dδ or dL or dx or ∆ by initial length) is a dimensionless quantity.
∆
Strain is denoted by epsilon (ϵ). Compressive Strain =
L
 Nominal (Engineering) stress and true stress

• So far, our discussion on direct stress is based on the value obtained by

dividing the load by original cross-sectional area. That is the reason why
the value of stress started dropping after neck is formed in mild steel
(or any ductile material) as seen in Fig. But as material is stressed its
cross-sectional area changes. We should divide load by the actual cross-
sectional area to get true stress in the material. To distinguish between
the two values, we introduce the terms nominal stress and true stress
and define them as given below:
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
Nominal (Engineering) Stress (σ) =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔−𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
True Stress (σt) =
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔−𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
• So far discussion was based on nominal stress. That is why after neck
formation started (after ultimate stress), stress-strain curve started
sloping down and the breaking took place at lower stress (nominal). If
we consider true stress, it is increasing continuously as strain increases as
shown in Fig.
 Nominal (engineering) strain and true strain

• Many scientists use all the values of L that they have recorded. Dividing each increment dL of the distance between the gage
marks by the corresponding value of L , the elementary strain Δє= ΔL/L . Adding the successive values of Δє , the true strain ϵt
is
 Hooke’s law

Robert Hooke, an English mathematician conducted several experiments and concluded that stress is
proportional to strain up to elastic limit This is called Hooke’s law Thus Hooke’s law is, up to elastic
limit,
𝜎∝𝜀
(Stress ∝ Strain)
i.e.
𝜎 =𝐸𝜀
(Where E is the constant of proportionality of the material, known as modulus of elasticity or Young’s
modulus)•
However, present day sophisticated experiments have shown that for mild steel the Hooke’s law holds
good up to the proportionality limit which is very close to the elastic limit • For other materials
Hooke’s law does not hold good However, in the range of working stresses, assuming Hooke’s law to
hold good, the relationship does not deviate considerably from actual behavior Accepting Hooke’s law
to hold good, simplifies the analysis and design procedure considerably Hence Hooke’s law is widely
accepted
Since, 𝜎=𝑃/𝐴 and 𝜀 =Δ/𝑳
So
Extension (Δ) =𝑷𝑳/𝑨𝑬 (Since, 𝜎=𝜀𝐸)
 Poisson’s ratio

• When a material undergoes changes in length, it undergoes changes of opposite nature in lateral directions. For example, if abar
is subjected to direct tension in its axial direction it elongates and at the same time its sides contract (Fig.)
• If we define the ratio of change in axial direction to original length as linear strain and change in lateral direction to the original
lateral dimension as lateral strain, it is found that within elastic limit there is a constant ratio between lateral strain and linear strain. This
constant ratio is called Poisson’s ratio (μ or υ or 𝟏 𝒎 , ) (μis named as mu, υ is named as nu) . Thus,

• For most of metals its value is between 0.25 to 0.33. Its value for steel is 0.3 and for concrete 0.15.
• For multi axial loading, strains
 Factor of safety

In practice it is not possible to design a mechanical component or structural component permitting stressing up to ultimate stress for the following reasons
1. Reliability of material may not be 100 per cent There may be small spots of flaws
2. The resulting deformation may obstruct the functional performance of the component
3. The loads taken by designer are only estimated loads Occasionally there can be overloading Unexpected impact and temperature loadings may act in the
lifetime of the member
4. There are certain ideal conditions assumed in the analysis (like boundary conditions) Ideal conditions will not be available and, therefore, the calculated
stresses will not be 100 per cent real stresses. Hence, the maximum stress to which any member is designed is much less than the ultimate, and this stress is
called Working Stress. The ratio of ultimate stress to working stress is called factor of safety. Thus,

In case of elastic materials, since excessive deformation create problems in the performance of the member, working stress is taken as a factor of yield stress or
that of a 0 2 proof stress (if yield point do not exist) Factor of safety for various materials depends up on their reliability The following values are commonly
taken in practice
a) For steel 1 85
b) For concrete 3
c) For timber 4 to 6
 Stress-strain Diagram

• The stress –strain relation of any

material is obtained by conducting
tension/compressive test in the
laboratories on standard specimen.
Different materials behave differently
and their behavior in tension and in
compression differ slightly. These are
done on Universal testing machine
(UTM).
 Stress-strain Diagram

Load divided by original cross-sectional area is called as nominal stress or simply as stress. Strain is obtained by dividing
extensometer readings by gauge length of extensometer (L1) and by dividing scale readings by grip-to-grip length of the
specimen (L2). Right side figure shows stress vs strain diagram for the typical mild steel specimen. The following salient
points are observed on stress-strain curve:
(a) Limit of Proportionality (A): It is the limiting value of the stress up to which stress is proportional to strain.
(b) Elastic Limit: This is the limiting value of stress up to which if the material is stressed and then released (unloaded) strain disappears
completely and the original length is regained. This point is slightly beyond the limit of proportionality.
(c) Upper Yield Point (B): This is the stress at which, the load starts reducing and the extension increases. This phenomenon is
called yielding of material. At this stage strain is about 0.125 per cent and stress is about 250 N/mm2.
(d) Lower Yield Point (C): At this stage, the stress at par to same, but strain increases for some time.
(e) Ultimate Stress (D): This is the maximum stress the material can resist. This stress is about 370–400 N/mm2. At this
stage cross-sectional area at a particular section starts reducing very fast. This is called neck formation. After this stage load
resisted and hence the stress developed starts reducing.
(f) Breaking Point (E): The stress at which finally the specimen fails is called breaking point. At this strain is 20 to 25 per cent. If
unloading is made within elastic limit the original length is regained. If unloading is made after loading the specimen
beyond elastic limit, it follows a straight line parallel to the original straight portion as shown by line FF′ in Fig. Thus, if it
is loaded beyond elastic limit and then unloaded a permanent strain (OF) is left in the specimen. This is called permanent
set.
 Stress-strain Diagram ductile materials under tension

• Consider a typical tensile test specimen of mild steel (ductile).

Its ends are gripped into universal testing machine.
Extensometer is fitted to test specimen which measures
extension over the length L1, shown in Fig. The length over
which extension is measured is called gauge length. The load
is applied gradually and at regular interval of loads extension
is measured. After certain load, extension increases at faster
rate and the capacity of extensometer to measure extension
comes to an end and, hence, it is removed before this stage is
reached and extension is measured from scale on the universal
testing machine (UTM). Load is increased gradually till the
specimen breaks. Cup-cone breaking is observed.
 Stress-strain Diagram

Stress-strain relation in Aluminium and high strength steel Stress-strain relation in brittle material
In these elastic materials there is no clear-cut yield point. The necking The typical stress-strain relation in a brittle material like cast iron, is
takes place at ultimate stress and eventually the breaking point is lower shown in Fig. In these material, there is no appreciable change in
than the ultimate point. The typical stress-strain diagram is shown in Fig. rate of strain. There is no yield point, and no necking takes place.
Ultimate point and breaking point are one and the same. The strain
The stress 𝜎 or p at which if unloading is made there will be 0.2 per cent
at failure is very small.
permanent set is known as 0.2 per cent proof stress and this point is
treated as yield point for all practical purposes.
 Percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area

Percentage elongation Percentage reduction in area

• It is defined as the ratio of the final extension at rupture to original • It is defined as the ratio of maximum changes in the cross-sectional area to
length expressed, as percentage. Thus, original cross-sectional area, expressed as percentage. Thus,

Length at rupture−Original length Percentage Reduction in Area (r) =

Percentage Elongation = ×100 (Original cross−sectional area)−(Final cross−sectional area)
Original Length
×100
(Original cross−sectional area)
L −L
Percentage Elongation (EL) = f o ×100
Lo
A − A𝑓
Percentage Reduction in Area = 𝑜 ×100
Ao
where Lo = original length, Lf = length at rupture (final length). Where Ao= original cross-sectional area, Af = Final (minimum)
cross-sectional area
 Volumetric strain

• When a member is subjected to stresses, it undergoes deformation in all directions. Hence,

there will be change in volume. The ratio of the change in volume to original volume is called
volumetric strain.

• It can be shown that volumetric strain is sum of strains in three mutually perpendicular
directions. i.e.,
Volume, V= Lbd
ϵv= ϵx+ ϵy+ ϵz
• Now, consider a circular rod of length L and diameter ‘d’ as shown in Fig.
 Elastic constants and their relationships

• Modulus of elasticity, modulus of rigidity and bulk modulus are the three elastic constants. Modulus of
elasticity (Young’s Modulus) ‘E’ has been already defined as the ratio of linear stress to linear strain within
elastic limit. Rigidity modulus and Bulk modulus are defined in this article.
• Shearing strain (𝝓): Shearing stress (τ) tends to distort the element to position AB’C′D from the original
position ABCD as shown in Fig. This deformation is expressed in terms of angular displacement and is called
shear strain. Thus
BB′
Shear strain(φ or 𝝓)= AB = tanφ = 𝝓 (Since angle φ is small)

Symbols φ or 𝜙 are named as phi.

• Modulus of Rigidity (G): It is defined as the ratio of shearing stress (τ) to shearing strain (ϕ)within elastic limit and is
usually denoted by letter G or N. Thus,
G=N=τ/ϕ
• Bulk Modulus(K): When a body is subjected to identical stresses σ or hydrostatic pressure P in three mutually
perpendicular directions (Fig.), the body undergoes uniform changes in three directions without undergoing
distortion of shape. The ratio of change in volume to original volume has been defined as volumetric
σ 𝑃
strain(ϵv). Then the bulk modulus, K is defined as, K = ϵ = ϵ
v v
 Elastic constants and their relationships

• Relationship between modulus of elasticity (E) and modulus of rigidity (G)

E = 2G(1 + μ)
Proof:
• Relationship between modulus of elasticity (E) and bulk modulus (K)
E = 3K(1 –2μ)
Proof:
• Relationship between modulus of elasticity (E), modulus of rigidity (G) and bulk modulus (K)
9𝐾𝐺
E=
3𝐾+𝐺
• Proof:
Thank you…