INTRODUCTION TO KERALA ARCHAEOLOGY- ARC3COR05

Study Materials for 3rd Semester Integrated Programme in Archaeology and

Material Culture Studies

Kumbodharan S

MODULE I

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF KERALA
➢ Geomorphology is the study of the Earth's landforms and the processes that
shape them.
➢ It examines how natural forces like wind, water, ice, and tectonic activity create
and modify mountains, valleys, rivers, and other features over time.
➢ By understanding geomorphology, we learn about the history of our planet and
how landscapes evolve.

Importance of Geomorphology in Archaeology

➢ Studying geomorphology in archaeology helps us understand how landscapes
have changed over time, which can reveal where ancient civilizations lived and
how they interacted with their environment.
➢ It helps archaeologists identify and interpret sites, understand soil layers, and
reconstruct past climates and natural events.
➢ This knowledge is crucial for locating artifacts and understanding the context
of human activities in the past.

Landform
A landform is a geomorphic unit defined by its surface and location on the landscape.
Categories of Landforms:
1. Structural Landforms:
➢ Created by tectonic movements of Earth's crust.
➢ Tectonic movements occur due to the activity of the Earth's lithosphere, which
is divided into large plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath
them.

Types
➢ Fold Mountains: Formed by the bending and folding of rock layers due to
tectonic pressure (e.g., the Himalayas).
➢ Rift Valleys: Created when the Earth's crust stretches and breaks, causing a
section to drop down between parallel faults (e.g., the Great Rift Valley).
➢ Volcanoes: Formed by the eruption of magma from within the Earth, building
up a mountain over time (e.g., Mount Fuji).
2. Weathering landforms:
Weathering landforms are created by the breakdown and decay of rocks and minerals
over time.

Types
➢ Karst Landscapes: Formed when water dissolves soluble rocks like limestone,
creating features such as caves and sinkholes.
➢ Patterned Ground: Created in cold climates where the freezing and thawing of
soil forms patterns on the ground.
➢ Soil Profiles: Developed as weathering processes break down rocks into soil
layers, showing different compositions and characteristics.

3. Erosional Landforms
Erosional landforms are shaped by the movement and removal of rocks and soil from
the Earth's surface.

Types
➢ River Valleys: Carved by flowing water over time, creating deep valleys and
meandering channels.
➢ Glacial Valleys: Formed by glaciers moving through valleys, scraping and
carving the landscape.
➢ Coastal Erosion: Waves and currents wear away coastlines, forming cliffs,
caves, and beaches.
➢ Wind Erosion: Wind carries and deposits sediment, shaping features like sand
dunes and rock formations.

4. Depositional Landforms:
Depositional landforms are created when natural forces deposit sediment and
materials on the Earth's surface.

Types
➢ Beaches: Formed by waves depositing sand and other materials along the
shoreline.
➢ Floodplains: Created when rivers overflow and deposit nutrient-rich sediment
on adjacent flat areas.
➢ Glacial Moraines: Piles of rocky debris left behind by glaciers as they melt and
retreat.
➢ Deltas: Developed at the mouths of rivers where sediment accumulates and
forms triangular-shaped land.
 Complex Landform

Polygenetic Landforms:
➢ Polygenetic landforms are shaped by multiple processes over long periods of
time.
➢ They result from a combination of different natural forces acting on the Earth's
surface.
➢ Examples include mountains formed by both tectonic movements and erosion,
showing how various processes work together to create complex landscapes.

Polycyclic Landforms:
➢ Polycyclic landforms experience multiple cycles of erosion, deposition, and
other geological processes over time.
➢ Each cycle changes the landform's shape and composition, often leaving layers
of sediment or altered features.
➢ This process illustrates how landforms evolve through repeated natural events,
such as rivers changing course or glaciers advancing and retreating.

Geomorphic Processes in Kerala

Kerala, located in a tropical monsoonal region, experiences alternating dry and wet
seasons, leading to dominant geomorphic processes like weathering and denudation.
Here’s how these processes shape Kerala's landscape:

Weathering and Soil Formation:

1. The state consists mostly of Precambrian crystalline rocks.
2. Climatic conditions influence weathering, soil formation, slope
processes, and river discharge, all of which play a key role in shaping
the landforms of Kerala (Chattopadhyay, 2004).

Lateritisation:
3. This weathering process, typical in tropical regions, significantly affects
the landforms in Kerala, especially in the north where rocks are
lateritised to varying depths.

Fluvial Processes:
1. Rivers and streams that shape the landscape active in all four
physiographic regions of Kerala.
2. Various types of fluvial landforms are associated with the 41 west-
flowing rivers.
 3. Rivers directly emptying into the sea significantly impact coastal
geomorphology.

Aeolian Processes:
1. Wind weathering process, typical in tropical regions, significantly affects
the landforms in Kerala, especially in the north where rocks are
lateritised to varying depths.
2. Alappuzha-Chertala stretch and north of Ezhimala have such examples.

Lithology and Structure:

1. The type and arrangement of rocks influence geomorphic processes.
2. Shear zones and major lineaments, which are cracks and fractures in the
Earth's crust, run in directions like NNW-SSE, NW-SE, E-W, and NE-
SW.
3. These features guide the paths of rivers such as Bhavani,
Bharathappuzha, Periyar, Kallada, and Achankovil. They play a major
role in shaping the landscape.

6.Influence of Climate and Human Activity:

1. Geomorphic processes are also greatly influenced by climate, rainfall,
and human intervention, all contributing significantly to the landform
development in Kerala.

Major Landforms of Kerala

Kerala is a long, narrow strip of land located between the Western Ghats and the
Arabian Sea. This unique position gives Kerala a variety of landforms including;

Mountains: Mountains in Kerala are high-elevation landscapes with narrow summits

and steep sides. They have significant height differences between their lowest and
highest points.

Plateaus: Plateaus are broad, flat areas that are more than 600 meters above sea level.
Unlike mountains, plateaus have flat tops. Streams and rivers often cut deep valleys
into plateaus.

Plains: Plains are flat areas with low relief, meaning they do not rise far above sea
level. They are generally level and have minimal elevation changes.
Sahyadri and Geomorphology of Kerala
The Sahyadri, also known as the Western Ghats, is a chain of lofty mountains that runs
parallel to the west coast of India for about 1600 km. It is the most important
geomorphic feature in Peninsular India and plays a significant role in shaping the
landscape and climate of Kerala.

Barrier Effect: The Sahyadri acts as a natural barrier between Kerala and the rest of
the Indian subcontinent. This mountain range blocks the moist winds from the
Arabian Sea, causing heavy rainfall on the western side. This heavy rainfall has
contributed to the lush green forests and numerous rivers in Kerala.

Climate Control: The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadris, play a major role
in controlling the climate of South India. By blocking the monsoon winds, they ensure
that Kerala receives ample rainfall during the monsoon season. This helps maintain a
moderate climate throughout the year, which is beneficial for both people and
agriculture.

Rivers and Waterfalls: All the 44 rivers of Kerala originate in the Ghats. The steep
westerly slopes of the Ghats control the 41 west-flowing rivers, while the easterly
slopes are gentle. These rivers are crucial for agriculture, drinking water, and
hydroelectric power. Some famous rivers include the Periyar, Bharathapuzha, and
Pamba.

Highest Peak: The mountain chain occupies the eastern boundary of the state and is
a prominent geomorphic feature. The highest peak, Anamudi, has an altitude of 2695
meters. This peak and the surrounding highlands contribute to the distinct
topography of Kerala.

Biodiversity Hotspot: The Western Ghats are one of the world's biodiversity hotspots.
They are home to a wide variety of flora and fauna, some of which are found nowhere
else on Earth. This rich biodiversity contributes to Kerala's natural beauty and
ecological significance.

Soil and Agriculture: The heavy rainfall and dense vegetation of the Western Ghats
contribute to the formation of rich, fertile soil, which is excellent for agriculture. Kerala
is known for its spices, tea, coffee, and rubber plantations, all of which benefit from
the fertile soil.

Tourism and Culture: The scenic beauty of the Western Ghats attracts many tourists.
The mountains, forests, and waterfalls are popular destinations for nature lovers and
adventure seekers. Additionally, the cultural practices and lifestyles of the people
living in the Western Ghats region add to Kerala's rich cultural heritage.

Gaps and Passes

Gaps and passes are natural breaks or low points in mountain ranges that allow for
easier passage through otherwise difficult terrain. They are often used as routes for
transportation and migration and have historically served as vital connections
between regions.

1. Palakkad Gap (Palghat Gap):

Location: Between the Nilgiri Hills to the north and the Anaimalai Hills to the south.
The Palakkad Gap is the only major break in the otherwise continuous Western Ghats,
connecting the west coast with the peninsular region of the east. It is a well-defined
geomorphological feature in South India, extending in an east-west direction over a
distance of 80 kilometers with a width of about 30 kilometers.

Formation: There are differing opinions on the origin of the Palakkad Gap. Some
theories attribute its formation to fluviatile action, structurally-controlled marine and
fluviatile erosion, block faulting, crustal upwarping, and shearing and erosion.

Significance: The Palakkad Gap serves as a major conduit for road and rail transport,
linking Kerala with Tamil Nadu. The gap also influences the climate by allowing the
monsoon winds to pass through, bringing significant rainfall to the region.

Cultural Impact: Historically, the Palakkad Gap facilitated trade and cultural
exchange between the regions on either side of the Western Ghats.

2. Thamarassery Churam:
Location: Connects Kozhikode with Wayanad district.

Significance: This pass is an important route that climbs from the coastal plains to the
hilly regions of Wayanad. The road through Thamarassery Churam is known for its
scenic beauty and hairpin bends.

Cultural Impact: The pass has been a crucial link for the spice trade and has enabled
the movement of people and goods between the highlands and the coast.

3. Bodi Ghat or Bodinayakkanur Pass:

Location: Connects Munnar in Kerala with Bodi in Tamil Nadu.
Significance: Bodi Ghat is known for its steep and winding roads. It provides a vital
link for transporting agricultural produce, especially tea and spices, from the
plantations in Munnar to markets in Tamil Nadu.

Cultural Impact: This pass has played a role in the development of tea estates in
Munnar and has facilitated cultural interactions between the regions.

4. Perambadi Ghat:
Location: Connects Wayanad district in Kerala with Coorg (Kodagu) in Karnataka.

Significance: This ghat road passes through lush forests and coffee plantations,
making it an important route for trade and travel.

Cultural Impact: The Perambadi Ghat has historically been a trade route for spices,
coffee, and other goods, fostering economic and cultural exchanges between Kerala
and Karnataka.

5. Paal Churam:
Location: Connects Iritty in Kannur district with Virajpet in Karnataka.

Significance: Paal Churam is a vital passage through the Western Ghats, facilitating
travel and trade between Kerala and Karnataka. It is known for its steep slopes and
hairpin bends.

Cultural Impact: The pass has historically been an important route for the transport
of spices, coffee, and other goods, fostering economic and cultural exchanges.

6. Periya Ghat:
Location: Connects Mananthavady in Wayanad district with Kannur and Kasaragod
districts.

Significance: Periya Ghat is an important route through the Western Ghats, providing
access to the hill stations of Wayanad and connecting them with the coastal regions of
northern Kerala.

Cultural Impact: The ghat has historically facilitated the movement of people and
goods, contributing to the cultural and economic integration of the region.

3. Aryankavu Pass:
Location: Connects Kollam district in Kerala with Tamil Nadu.
Significance: Aryankavu Pass is an important route for road and rail transport, linking
the southern regions of Kerala with Tamil Nadu. The pass is known for its lush forests
and scenic beauty.

Cultural Impact: The pass has historically been an important trade route, facilitating
the exchange of goods and cultural interactions between the regions.

Importance of Gaps and Passes

Economic Connectivity: Gaps and passes facilitate trade and transportation, allowing
for the movement of goods, services, and people. This connectivity is crucial for the
economic development of regions on either side of the Western Ghats.

Climate Influence: These natural passages influence the climate by allowing winds to
pass through, affecting rainfall patterns and creating microclimates in certain areas.

Cultural Exchange: Historically, gaps and passes have enabled the exchange of
cultures, languages, and traditions, contributing to the rich cultural tapestry of Kerala.

Tourism: Many gaps and passes are popular tourist destinations due to their scenic
beauty, trekking opportunities, and historical significance.

Plateau
In Kerala, the dominant geomorphic processes include denudational, fluvial, and
estuarine-marine activities.

Denudation: is a geological process that involves the wearing away of the Earth's
surface by erosion and mass-wasting. It's a crucial part of shaping the Earth's surface,
creating landforms, and reshaping landscapes.

Estuaries: These are areas where rivers or streams meet the ocean, creating brackish
water that's saltier than freshwater but not as salty as the ocean.
Besides the coastal plain and alluviation surfaces, there are two main levels of
planation surfaces, also known as erosional surfaces.

These are represented by the Munnar plateau, Wayanad plateau, Nelliampathi

plateau, and Greater Periyar plateau.
1. Munnar Plateau
The Munnar plateau, the highest planation surface in Kerala, is located in the
Anamalai-Palni-Cardamom hill ranges of the Western Ghats. This extensive plateau
ranges from 0 meters at the lower level to over 2200 meters at the highest level
(Chattopadhyay, 2004). These hill ranges consist mainly of charnockite and are
intersected by the Idamalayar lineament. The general slope of the plateau is towards
the west.

2. Periyar Plateau
In the region of the Cardamom hills, the Western Ghats show a decline in average
elevation and transition to the Periyar plateau, which is at an elevation of 700-1000
meters. The planation surface extends from the Peermade Plateau in the southwest to
the Munnar Plateau in the north. The NW-SE trending eastern border of the plateau
is characterized by steep scarp slopes and coincides with the Kambam lineament,
while Periyar Lake occupies the southern part. The course of the Periyar river and the
drainage pattern indicate structural control in the development of landforms in this
area.

3. Wayanad Plateau
The Wayanad plateau is an extension of the Mysore plateau and forms an extensive
land system drained by the rivers Kabani, Mananthody, and Moyar. Banasuramala is
the highest peak in this plateau, which also includes residual intrusive hills like
Kalpatta and Ambalavayal. Additionally, isolated hills (inselbergs) and exfoliation
domes (bornhardts) are present. There are two planation surfaces, one at 700-900
meters and the other at 1200-1400 meters. The terrain is generally composed of
Precambrian gneisses and metavolcanics, while the residual hills are made of granite.
The plateau has a general easterly slope, and the western fringe is marked by
escarpments incised by deep ravines and gorges.

4. Nelliampathi Plateau
The planation surface located to the south of the Palghat Gap, with the Peringalkuttu
reserve forest as the southern boundary, is called the Nelliampathi plateau. The
general level of the plateau is in the range of 700-900 meters, and it slopes towards the
southwest (Chattopadhyay, 2004). The southern extension of the plateau encloses the
Parambikulam and Sholaiar reservoirs, while the western fringe gradually descends
to the midlands of the Thrissur district.
 PLATEAU ELEVATION (M) TIME SCALE

Munnar 1500-2000 Late Palaeocene

Greater Periyar 700-1000 Late Palaeocene

Wayanad 700-950 Middle Miocene

Nelliyampathi 500-700 Late Eocene

Landforms Made by Rivers

Rivers are one of the most important forces shaping the Earth's surface. The movement
of water in rivers is influenced by gravity and can flow in two ways: laminar (smooth)
or turbulent (chaotic). Rivers create landforms primarily through erosion and the
transport of materials. The materials can be transported in four ways:

Solution: Dissolved minerals carried in the water.

Example from Kerala: The Periyar River carries dissolved minerals from the Western
Ghats into the Arabian Sea.

Suspension: Fine particles floating in the water.

Example from Kerala: During the monsoon season, the Pamba River carries a
significant amount of suspended silt and clay particles downstream.

Saltation: Small pebbles and stones bouncing along the riverbed.

Example from Kerala: In the Chalakudy River, small pebbles are transported through
saltation, especially in the rocky sections of the riverbed near Athirappilly.

Shoving: Larger rocks and debris being pushed along by the water.
Example from Kerala: The Bharathapuzha River during floods pushes large rocks and
debris downstream, reshaping its bed and banks.
When a river carries a lot of suspended material, it has a high transport capability,
meaning it can move more material.

The Shape and Behavior of Kerala Rivers

The shape and behavior of a river, known as its longitudinal profile, depend on several
factors: discharge (amount of water), load (amount of material carried), size of debris,
flow resistance, velocity (speed of the water), width, depth, and slope of the river.
Rivers often deposit coarse material in their beds, creating features called riffles and
bars. Bars can form on alternating sides of the river (side bars) or in the middle (central
bars or islands).
Example from Kerala: The Chaliyar River deposits coarse sand and gravel forming
side bars and central bars, particularly evident near Nilambur.

Channel Features
Rivers can have different types of channels: straight, sinuous, meandering, or braided.

Meandering Channels

Meandering Rivers: Flow in winding curves.

Helicoidal Flow: Water in meanders moves like a corkscrew, causing erosion on the
outer side and deposition on the inner side of the bend.
Meander Belt: The area where meanders form. Meanders try to widen and move
downstream, sometimes forming oxbow lakes when cut off from the main flow.
Examples in Kerala: The Chaliyar River and the Pamba River develop a number of
meanders.
Some stretches of Kerala rivers, though rare, show meandering tendencies due to local
base level changes and movements along longitudinal linear faults paralleling the
coast.

Braided Channels

Braiding Rivers: Have multiple channels and alluvial islands.

Island Formation: Begins with the deposition of a central bar, which grows
downstream and in height, forcing water through channels that deepen and erode the
banks.
Slope: Braiding rivers form where there is a sudden change in slope. They have
steeper slopes compared to meandering rivers.
Examples in Kerala: The Chaliyar River in its upper reaches (Karimpuzha) has
braided stretches. The same river shows meandering stretches downstream around
Nilambur.

Straight Channels

Straight Rivers: Have uneven bottoms with pools and riffles. The flow is sinuous
between the riffles.
Riffle Spacing: The distance between riffles is about 5-7 times the width of the channel.
Examples in Kerala: Most rivers in Kerala have straight-line courses. Each type of
channel shapes the landscape in unique ways, affecting erosion, deposition, and the
overall river dynamics.

Levees, Alluvial Fans, and Deltas

Levees
Formation: When a meandering river in a lowland area overflow during high water
periods, it deposits coarser material close to the riverbed.
Over time, these deposits build up to form natural levees, which are walls of coarse
material on either side of the river.
Example in Kerala: The rivers in Kerala are high-energy rivers, so levee formation is
not commonly observed.

Alluvial Fans

Formation: Alluvial fans form when a river flows from a mountainous area into a
plain. The river deposits sediments in a fan shape with a sharp apex pointing to the
stream mouth, spreading out with a noticeable gradient downstream.
Example in Kerala: An alluvial fan can be seen in the upper reaches of the
Karimpuzha, a tributary of the Chaliyar River.Deltas.

Deltas

Formation: Deltas are formed where the sediment load carried by a river is deposited
in the still waters of the sea, creating a landform. This occurs when wave action and
tidal range are not significant.
Example in Kerala: Present-day deltas are identified along the Kerala coast. The
Kuttanad area is believed to represent an older deltaic alluvium formed by the
combined deposition of the Achankovil, Pamba, Manimala, and Meenachil rivers
(Nair, 1980). This area shows a reticulate drainage pattern, indicating distributary
channels spreading the river's load over the delta surface.

Factors Affecting Delta Formation in Kerala

Sediment Load: Though Kerala's rivers carry a significant amount of sediment during
the rainy season, no prominent deltas have developed.
High Energy Coast: The west coast of Kerala has a high-energy environment that
prevents delta formation.
Steep Continental Slope: The steep continental slope along the Kerala coast is also
not conducive to delta formation.
These features illustrate how rivers shape the landscape in different ways, influenced
by their energy and the environment through which they flow.

Flood Plain

A flood plain is a strip of relatively smooth land next to a stream that gets flooded
during high water periods. A typical flood plain includes several features:
River Channel: The main path where the river flows.
Oxbow Lakes: U-shaped lakes formed when a meander is cut off from the main river.
Point Bars: Deposits of sediment on the inside bends of rivers.
Meander Scrolls: Ridges and troughs formed on the inside of meander bends.
Sloughs: Areas of dead water or slow-moving water.
Natural Levees: Raised banks formed by sediment deposition during floods.
Back Swamp Deposits: Sediments deposited in the low-lying areas behind levees.
Sand Splays: Deposits of sand spread out over the flood plain during floods.

Flood Plains in Kerala

High Energy Streams: Kerala's rivers are high energy, so they don't have extensive
flood plains. Therefore, the features listed above are rarely present.
Narrow Flood Plains: Most rivers in Kerala, except for the Bharathappuzha and
Periyar, have narrow flood plains.

Aggradation

Process: Over time, repeated flooding deposits layers of alluvial material, raising the
elevation of the stream bed. This process is called aggradation.
Effect: Aggradation can increase the frequency of flooding in the river basin.
Understanding flood plains and their features helps explain how rivers interact with
the landscape and how they can change over time through processes like aggradation.

Valleys and Terraces

Valleys
Formation: Valleys are formed by rivers through a process of linear erosion (cutting
down into the terrain) followed by or along with lateral erosion (widening the valley).
Initially, a basin-like form called a "delle" occurs, where rainwater is transported
under the surface between soil particles, eventually converging at a spring. Below the
spring, the real river valley forms.
Valley Shapes:
V-shaped Valleys: Found in the upper part of a river, indicating a young valley.
Mature: Broader with a smoother valley bottom and sides.
Old/Senile Valleys: In the lower parts, characterized by a broad, flat valley floor.
Examples in Kerala: Kerala has only young and mature valleys.

Terraces
Formation: Terraces are formed through processes of renewed erosion or
sedimentation due to factors such as regional uplift, sea-level changes, base level
changes, or climatic changes.
Backward Erosion: Renewed erosion that creates a new incision, often marked by a
sudden change in the river profile, like a rapid or waterfall.
Dissection of Valley Floors: When an old valley floor is dissected by new erosion, it
becomes a terrace.

Types of Terraces:
Degradational Terraces: Result from erosion.
Aggradational Terraces: Result from deposition.
Bedrock Terraces: Formed on solid rock.
Alluvial Terraces: Formed on deposited sediments.
Cut and Fill Terraces: by rejuvenation following valley filling.
Paired or Unpaired: Terraces can occur on both sides of a river at the same level
(paired) or at different levels (unpaired).

Identification: Terraces have flat surfaces bordered by escarpments and run parallel
to the river. They are remnants of old valley floors now lying above the riverbed.

Examples in Kerala: Rivers like Bharathappuzha, Chaliyar, Bhavani, Kabani,

Valapattanam, Chandragiri, and Siruvani display well-developed terraces, mainly of
the cut and fill nature. Terraces are rarely noticed in rivers in the southern part of the
state.
Understanding valleys and terraces helps in comprehending how rivers shape the
landscape over time through processes of erosion, deposition, and rejuvenation.

Landforms Due to Weathering

Definition: Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of materials near the Earth's
surface into products more in equilibrium with new physical and chemical conditions.
Causes: Many rocks originally formed under high temperature and pressure, without
air and water. Weathering occurs as a response to lower temperatures and pressures,
and the presence of air and water.

Laterite Formation
In Tropical Areas: In tropical regions like Kerala, weathering leads to the formation
of laterite, characterized by the removal of silica and the fixation of certain oxides.
Historical Significance: Francis Buchanan first described laterite from Kerala.
Features: Laterite forms a hard duricrust on flat surfaces.

Landforms from Laterite

Mesa and Butte: The horizontal sedimentary formations along the Kerala coast create
landforms called 'mesa' and 'butte’.
Landforms from Laterite
Pediplain: The horizontal retreat of the scarp face develops a plain called 'pediplain',
best observed in the semi-arid areas of Palakkad district.

Exfoliation Domes and Ruwars

Exfoliation Domes: Unloading of sheets of rock due to weathering of dome-shaped

rock exposures leads to the formation of 'exfoliation domes’.

Tors, Penitent Rock, and Inselbergs

Tors
Formation: Tors are small hills or heaps of boulders formed when the basal surface of
weathering is exposed and the softer material of the regolith is washed away. They
typically rise abruptly from the surrounding gentle ground surface.
Height: Usually about 20 to 60 feet.
Examples in Kerala: Tors can be seen at Pandavanpara in Chengannur and in the
granitic rocks of Punalur.

Penitent Rock
Formation: When tors develop in jointed rock, they form penitent rocks.
Examples in Kerala: Notable examples include the rocks at Pandavanpara in
Chengannur and the granitic formations in Punalur.

Inselbergs
Formation: Inselbergs are isolated hills rising from plains, but they are larger than
tors.
Examples in Kerala: Banasuram Peak, Kalpatta, and Ambalavayal in Wayanad are
good examples of inselbergs.

Structural Domes
Any landform determined by more or less ovoid rising contours and gently arched
cross-section
Formation: These geomorphic forms originate from the structure of the earth,
resulting in basins and domes.
Examples in Kerala: Iron ore structures of Korattimala, Nanminda, Parvatimala, and
Sankumala in the Munnar area, Charnockite formations in Nedumangad Gneisses in
Walayar.

Ridges
A ridge is a long, narrow, elevated geomorphologic landform, structural feature, or a
combination of both separated from the surrounding terrain by steep sides.
Formation: Some ridges are of intrusive origin.
Examples in Kerala: Dolerite dykes in the Kuthuparamba area and the Idanakayar
dyke.
Other forms of intrusive origin include the granites of Peralimala, Ezhimala, Munnar,
Pathanamthitta, and Chengannur.

Coastal Geomorphology

Definition: Coastal geomorphology is the study of the shapes and features of

coastlines, and the processes that create and modify them. It examines how waves,
tides, currents, and human activities affect the coastal landscape, leading to the
formation of beaches, dunes, cliffs, and other coastal features. This field helps us
understand coastal dynamics, erosion, deposition, and the impact of sea-level changes
on coastal areas.
➢ Kerala's coastline is 560 km long, with 360 km of it being very dynamic and
changing with the seasons.
➢ Although the coastline generally runs straight from north-northwest to south-
southeast, it has many irregularities, especially around headlands.
➢ However, active coastal erosion smooths out many of these minor irregularities
on this high-energy coast.
➢ The stretches of shoreline between the headlands are typically sandy beaches
and are generally straight.
Marine Erosional Land Forms

Sea Cliffs
Definition: A sea cliff is a steep face of rock and earth that forms along the edge of a
coastline, created by the erosive action of waves.
1. Soft-Rock (Laterite)
2. Hard-Rock (Crystalline Rocks)
3. In many places, the edge of the coast is marked by a sea cliff.
Examples of sea cliffs can be found in Warkala, Chovvara, and
Kannur.
➢ In areas with semi-permeable materials, like Tertiary sedimentary rocks, sea
cliffs form through a process called "basal sapping," where waves erode the
base of the cliff. This erosion causes the upper part to eventually collapse.
➢ In hard crystalline rocks, such as those found in Kovalam, Ezhimala, and
Bekkal, steep cliffs called plunging cliffs are well-developed.

Wave-Cut Bench/Shore Platforms

Definition: A wave-cut bench, or shore platform, is a flat, often rocky area that extends
seaward from the base of a sea cliff.
➢ This bench can be bare rock or covered with temporary deposits of sand, gravel,
and pebbles, which are called a beach. Wave-cut benches form as sea cliffs
recede due to wave attack.
➢ When these benches are elevated and mark former high sea levels, they are
called marine terraces.
➢ You can find such platforms on laterites around Quilandy and on crystalline
rocks around Tellicherry and Ezhimala .
➢ Retrogression Morphology

➢ When waves erode the shoreline and move it landward, the process is known
as retrogression. The rate of sea cliff recession varies along the coast, depending
on the resistance of the rocks and how exposed the shore is to wave attack. This
differential erosion can create various coastal features:

➢ Coves, Bays, and Bights: Small indentations in the coast formed by less
resistant rocks.

➢ Headlands or Promontories: Projections of more resistant rocks, such as those

seen around Kovalam.

➢ Sea Arches and Caves: Formed in headlands attacked by waves from two sides.
 ➢ Stacks, Chimneys, or Islands: Detached portions of headlands, found around
Dharmadam, Kovalam, Tellicherry, and Mahe.

Hanging Valleys
➢ When retrogression is rapid, small streams may not be able to erode their
valleys quickly enough to keep up with the retreating cliffs.
➢ As a result, these streams can enter the sea from elevated positions, creating
"hanging valleys," like those seen around Varkala.

Marine Depositional Land Forms

Beaches
Definition: A beach is a temporary layer of rock debris, sand, shingle, or organic
matter that forms on a wave-cut bench or flat coastal area.
➢ Examples of beaches can be found in Trivandrum, Alleppey, Quilon, and
Thrikkarippur.
➢ Beach material is always in motion. During extreme storms, the beach can
become thinner as waves remove material. Conversely, during calm periods,
the beach can grow as more material accumulates. Thus, beaches often indicate
calm conditions along a coastline that is expanding seaward.

Bars and Spits

Definition:
Bars: Bars are submerged or emergent embankments of sand and gravel built on the
sea floor by waves and currents.
Spit: A spit is a type of bar that is attached to the land at one end and extends into
open water at the other end.
➢ When a bar or spit connects an offshore island to the mainland, it is called a
tombolo.
➢ For example, the Ezhimala hill was once connected to the mainland by a
tombolo.
➢ Along the central coast of Kerala, from Calicut to Karunagappalli, there are
many spits and bars, especially at the mouths of rivers that flow into the sea.
These features are also seen north of Ezhimala and are known as bay mouth
bars.
Barrier Beaches, Ridges, and Swales

Definition: Barrier beaches or ridges are sand ridges that run parallel to the shore and
rise slightly above the high tide level.
➢ They are separated from the coast by a lagoon or swale.
➢ These ridges represent successive positions of the sea as the shoreline advances.
➢ The height and spacing of these ridges vary.
More than three sets of such ridges can be found around Ezhimala, Alleppey, and
north of Kollam. The crests of these ridges gradually descend towards the sea,
indicating the progradation, or seaward growth, of an emerging coastline.

Coastal Sand Dunes

Definition: Coastal sand dunes are straight sand ridges running parallel to the
shoreline, separated by troughs. However, their orientation can vary, with low
depressions known as "blow outs. “
➢ The formation of coastal dunes requires strong onshore winds, abundant sand
supply, low near-shore slopes, and a large tidal range that exposes wide
expanses of sand that dry at low tide.
➢ In parts of Trivandrum, Alleppey, and south of Bekal Fort, coastal dunes have
locally overtaken the beach ridges. The red sands, or Teris, found in
Trivandrum and Nileswaram near the coast are believed to be ancient dunes,
or palaeodunes.

Estuaries and Lagoons

Definition:
Estuaries: Estuaries are submerged river mouths that are wider near the coast and
perpendicular to it.
➢ They are typically found along the cliff stretches of the coast and are well-
developed around Kollam and Thalassery.
Lagoons: Lagoons are vast stretches of water running parallel to the shoreline before
joining the sea or being partially cut off by bars.
➢ They are well-developed in the sandy stretches of Alappuzha-Eranakulam,
Kayamkulam, and north of Kannur.
One of the most remarkable features of the Kerala coast is the widespread presence of
estuaries and lagoons, locally known as "kayals.“
Estuaries and lagoons represent the submergent and emergent aspects of the coast,
respectively.
Mud Flats and Tidal Flats
Definition: Mud flats and tidal flats form in places with large tidal ranges and where
they are protected from strong waves.
➢ These areas collect sediments and create mud flats and salt marshes.
➢ You can usually find them in sheltered spots, like behind spits, barrier islands,
and within estuary channels.
➢ They are common along the coast, though often in smaller areas.

Shoreline Evolution
The nearly straight coastline of India's west coast, including Kerala, is thought to be
part of the ancient Gondwanaland breakup. After this separation, a part of the west
coast dropped down, forming a depression or graben. This caused some coastal areas
to sink, leading to the deposition of sediments, like those seen in the Warkalli beds.
Later, parts of the coast emerged, followed by changes in sea levels, such as rising and
falling sea beds. Evidence of this tectonic evolution includes old beach ridges,
submerged river valleys, and the presence of down-faulted laterite offshore.
Kerala's coast is described as a "compound coastline." It includes two main types of
segments:

Erosional Segments: These areas are characterized by features like sea cliffs,
headlands, stacks, shore Platforms, and estuaries. They are slowly receding or
"retrograding.

Depositional Segments: These areas include wide beaches, bars, ridges, swales,
dunes, and lagoons. They are expanding or "prograding.
"The coast is constantly changing due to tectonic activity and wave action, leading to
significant erosion and surface loss. The long-term trend is for headlands to become
less prominent and for erosional segments to extend, while depositional areas shrink.
Eventually, this process leads to a stable or "equilibrium" coastline.

Geology of Kerala
➢ Kerala's geology forms part of the South Indian Precambrian terrain,
comprising various rock types such as granulites, gneisses, granites, and
greenstones.
➢ The granulites and associated gneisses in this region date back to the
Precambrian period.
➢ Earlier Meso-Cenozoic dikes and pegmatites intruded into late Precambrian
rocks, while the tertiary sedimentary formations belong solely to the Neogene
period (Soman, 2002).
TYPE OF TIME OF GEOLOGICAL LOCATION OTHER DETAILS
ROCK ORIGIN TIME IN KERALA
(MILLION
YEARS)
Granulites ~2500–600 Precambrian Found Associated with
And Gneisses Ma throughout lineaments and
Kerala, faults; pyroxene-
especially bearing granulites
midlands and and gneissic rocks.
Western Ghats

Charnockites ~2500–600 Precambrian Western Ghats Oldest rock units of

And Ma and midlands Kerala.
Charnockitic
Gneisses

Khondalites ~2500–600 Precambrian Southern Linked with garnet-

Ma Kerala biotite gneiss and
garnetiferous
quartzofeldspathic
gneiss.

Dikes And ~2500–1600 Lower-Middle Throughout Hydrogeologically

Pegmatites Ma Proterozoic Kerala important; include
water-bearing
fractures.

Newer ~1600–1000 Middle Various Part of intrusive

Granite Ma Proterozoic locations developments.
Formations
Dolerite ~1000–500 Later Proterozoic Various Later-stage intrusives
Dikes Ma locations .
Deccan ~66–65 Ma Cretaceous- Sporadic Associated with
Basalts Paleocene magmatism during
this time.

Tertiary ~23–2.6 Ma Neogene Western Kerala Includes Alleppey,

Sedimentary (Tertiary) Vaikom, Quilon, and
Formations Warkalli beds.

Lateralized ~23–2.6 Ma Neogene Midland Effective aquifers

Tertiary (Tertiary) regions alongside crystalline
Formations formations.

Alluvial ~2.6 Ma– Quaternary Coastal regions Recent deposits of

Deposits Present (Modern) modern origin.

➢ The state's oldest rock units are Charnockites and Charnockitic gneisses,
primarily located in the Western Ghats and midland areas.
 ➢ Here, pyroxene-bearing granulites, granulitic gneisses, and other gneissic rocks
are spatially associated with lineaments and faults (Soman, 2002).
➢ In southern Kerala, khondalites are predominant, often linked with garnet-
biotite gneiss and garnetiferous quartzofeldspathic gneiss.
➢ Intrusives, such as dikes and pegmatites, are essential hydrogeologically, as
they create zones of water-bearing fractures.
➢ This intrusives development includes Lower-Middle Proterozoic dikes, Middle
Proterozoic pegmatites, newer granite formations, and later dolerite dikes,
along with Cretaceous-Paleocene Deccan Basalt magmatism.
➢ The western parts of Kerala contain sedimentary formations from the Neogene
and Quaternary periods, comprising four distinct beds: Alleppey, Vaikom,
Quilon, and Warkalli.
➢ In the midland regions, lateralized Tertiary and crystalline formations act as
effective aquifers. Along the coastal areas, recent alluvial deposits of modern
origin are also found.

Soils of Kerala
Kerala's diverse topography and lithological sequence, combined with variations in
rainfall, temperature, and alternating wet and dry conditions—from the western coast
to the high ranges in the east—have shaped distinct types of natural vegetation and
soil across the region. The swift-flowing rivers in Kerala further contribute to this
diversity. The soils in Kerala can be broadly classified into the following types:

1. Coastal Alluvium
2. Mixed Alluvium
3. Acid Saline
4. Kari (Black peaty soils)
5. Laterite Red Soil
6. Hill Soil
7. Black Cotton Soil
8. Forest Soil

These soil types reflect Kerala's unique environmental conditions and play a crucial
role in supporting the region's varied ecosystems and agricultural practices.

Coastal Alluvium: These soils of marine origin are identified along the coastal plains
and basin lands as a narrow strip. The elevation of the coastal area is generally below
5m MSL. The area has high water table and in some areas it reaches above the surface
during rainy season. The soils of the coastal plains are very deep with sandy texture.
The texture generally ranges from sand to loamy sand with greyish brown to reddish
brown and yellowish red colour. Sand content ranges from 80% and clay up to 15%.
Even though these soils have high water table, the water holding capacity is poor due
to the predominance of sand. Coconut is the major crop in the area. Cashew and other
fruit trees are also grown.

Mixed Alluvium: These soils are developed from fluvial sediments of marine,
lacustrine and riverine sediments or its combinations. They occur below 20m MSL in
the lowland plains, basins, valleys and along the banks of major rivers. The mixed
alluvium is mainly noticed close to coastal alluvium, Kuttanad and adjacent area and
kole lands of Thrissur district. The soils are frequently flooded and submerged. The
soils of depressions and broad valleys are subject to occasional flooding and
stagnation. The ground water table of these soils is generally high and it reaches above
the surface during rainy season. A wide variation in texture is noticed in these soils.
Sandy clay loam to clay is the predominant texture. Sandy loam soils are also met
with. Light grey to very dark brown is the common colour of the soil. Paddy, other
annuals and seasonal crops like banana, tapioca and vegetables are grown here.

Acid Saline: Acid saline soils are present throughout the coastal area in patches with
very little extent. Major area of this soil is identified in the coastal tract of Ernakulam,
Thrissur and Kannur districts. The area under these soils comprises of low-lying
marshes, waterlogged and ill drained areas near the rivers and streams, which are
subject to tidal waves. Sea and backwater tides make these soils saline. During
monsoon season, when rainwater and fresh water from rivers enter the fields, salinity
is partially washed off. The area under these soils occurs mostly on plains at or below
sea level. A wide variation in texture from sandy loam to clay is noticed with dark
grey to black colour. Paddy is the only crop that can be cultivated.

Kari (Black peaty soils): Kari soils are seen in Alappuzha & Kottayam districts in
marshy areas lying below Mean Sea Level. Kari soils have poor drainage, high acidity,
salinity and decomposed organic matter at lower layers. The high amount of
decomposed organic matter and wood debris in the subsoil and intrusion of sea water
into the area are the main source of extreme acid conditions. The soil texture ranges
from sandy clay to clay with intermediate textures of silty clay loam and clay loam.
Sand pockets are frequented in the solum.

Laterite Red Soil: Laterite and laterite soil are the weathering products of rock in
which several courses of weathering and mineral transformations take place. This
involves removal of bases and substantial loss of combined silica of primary minerals.
In laterite and laterite soils, over acidic rocks, induration and zonation are more
pronounced. This induration is greater if the iron content is higher. These soils mainly
occur in the midlands and part of lowlands at an elevation of 10 to 100m above MSL
as a strip between the coastal belt and hilly midupland. The area comprises of mounds
and low hills with gentle to steep slopes. Laterite soils are generally suitable for most
of the dryland crops. It is mainly cultivated with coconut, arecanut, banana, tapioca,
vegetables, yams, pepper, pineapple, fruit trees etc. The percentage of gravel content
in the soil and reduced soil depth limits the choice of crops. In laterite outcropped area
with shallow soils, only cashew can be grown with vegetables.

Hill Soil: The hill soils mostly occur above an elevation of 80m MSL. The area is hilly
and has highly dissected denudational hills, elongated ridges, rocky cliffs and narrow
valleys. The general slope range is above 10%. The texture of these soils generally
ranges from loam to clay loam with average gravel content of 10 to 50%. In addition,
stones and boulders are noticed in the subsoil. These soils have reddish brown to
yellowish red/strong brown colour. Generally, increase in clay content is noticed
down the profile. The depth of the soil varies considerably from 60 to 200 cm
depending on the lie of the land, erodibility of soil and past erosion. These soils are
mostly friable and subject to heavy soil erosion. The area is suitable for all dryland
crops like rubber, coconut, arecanut and fruit trees based on the topography. Crops
such as banana, pepper, pineapple, vegetables can be grown in foot slopes.

Black Cotton Soil: These soils are identified in alluvial plains, terraces and undulating
plains of Chittur taluk in Palakkad district in patches. The elevation of the area ranges
from 100 to 300m above MSL with gentle to moderate slope. These soils are developed
on Khondalite suite of rocks traversed by lenticular bands of crystalline limestone and
calc-granulites. These soils are very deep, black and calcareous. The texture of the soil
ranges from clay loam to clay. They possess high shrink-swell capacity and hence
exhibit the characteristic cracking during dry periods. A variety of crops such as
coconut, sugarcane, cotton, chilly, pulses and vegetables are grown here.

Forest Soil: These soils are developed from crystalline rocks of archaean age under
forest cover. They occur along the eastern part of the State, generally above an
elevation of 300m above MSL. The area is hilly and mountainous with steep slopes,
escarpments, elongated rocky summits and narrow ‘V’ shaped valleys. The depth of
the soil varies considerably depending on erosion and vegetative cover. The soils are
generally immature due to slow weathering process. Rock outcrops and stones are
noticed on the surface. Gneissic boulders under different stages of weathering are
noticed in the subsoil. The texture of the soil ranges from sandy clay loam to clay with
reddish brown to very dark brown colour. Forest trees, shrubs and grasses are grown
here
Soil Limitations
Impeded drainage, Toxic concentration of soluble salts, Extreme Acidity (pH<4),
Presence of toxic compounds and elements, Low fertility

Management Measures
Limiting the generation of acidity by avoiding disturbance of the subsoil ,Pre flooding
to allow reduction of acidity possible before planting the crop, Double cropping of
rice (or even shrimps as in our traditional Pokkali lands) which shortens the period of
soil drying, Frequent flushing of the surface with good quality water and practicing
Intensive shallow drainage, either by broad, shallow ditches between broad raised
beds where flooding with good water will help in leaching of acidity and salts without
deep drainage.

Prehistory of Kerala

Tool Morphology

When making stone tools, most natural cobbles or nodules have an outer layer called
a cortex, which covers the unweathered inner material. Flakes, or pieces struck off the
core, can be identified by the amount of cortex on their dorsal (upper) surfaces.

Primary Flakes: These have dorsal surfaces entirely covered with cortex, indicating
they came from the initial stages of tool-making.
Secondary Flakes: These have some cortex remaining on the dorsal surface, showing
they are from the middle stages of tool-making.

Tertiary (Interior) Flakes: These lack any cortex and come entirely from the interior
of the core, typically associated with the later stages of tool-making, such as
retouching and shaping.
In summary, primary and secondary flakes are linked to the early stages of breaking
down the stone, while tertiary flakes are connected to the finer work of refining and
finishing the tool.

Prehistory

Prehistory literally means the time before written history. It refers to a period when
there were no written records or documents about the human past. There is also a term
called protohistory, which refers to a time when writing existed, but the script has not
yet been deciphered. Generally, prehistory is associated with the Stone Age period of
the world.
 ➢ Paleolithic
➢ Mesolithic
➢ Neolithic
Paleolithic Period
The Paleolithic period, also known as the Old Stone Age, is the earliest and longest
phase of human history, lasting from about 2.5 million years ago to around 10,000
BCE. During this time, early humans developed basic tools and lived as hunter-
gatherers, relying on wild animals and plants for food.

Lower Paleolithic (around 2.5 million to 300,000 BP)

Oldowan Technology
Timeframe: Approximately 2.5 million to 1.6 million years ago.
Tools: Simple stone tools created by striking rocks to produce sharp edges.
Users: Associated with Homo habilis and early Homo erectus.
Key Characteristics: Choppers, scrapers, and flakes used for cutting, chopping, and
scraping.

Acheulean Technology:
Timeframe: Approximately 1.6 million to 300,000 years ago.
Tools: Bifacial tools like hand axes and cleavers with more refined shapes and edges.
Users: Associated with Homo erectus and early Homo heidelbergensis.
Key Characteristics: Symmetrical, teardrop-shaped hand axes used for a variety of
purposes, including butchering animals and woodworking.

Middle Paleolithic (around 300,000 to 40,000 BP)

Mousterian Technology
Timeframe: Approximately 160,000 to 40,000 years ago.
Tools: More advanced flake tools made using the Levallois technique.
Users: Associated with Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens.
Key Characteristics: Diverse tools, including scrapers, points, and denticulates, made
by preparing a stone core and striking flakes from it. Tools were often retouched to
enhance sharpness and utility.

Upper Paleolithic (around 40,000 to 10,000 BP)

Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean,

& Magdalenian Technologies:
Timeframe: Approximately 40,000 to 10,000 years ago.
Tools: Highly specialized and varied tools, including blades, burins (for engraving),
and microliths (small, sharp blades).
Users: Homo sapiens.
Key Characteristics:
Aurignacian: Long blades, bone points, and the first examples of figurative art.
Gravettian: Small pointed blades and burins, often used for making elaborate carvings
and figurines.
Solutrean: Finely crafted leaf-shaped points, indicating advanced knapping
techniques.
Magdalenian: Tools made from bones, antlers, and ivory, as well as harpoons, needles,
and artwork like cave paintings and carvings.

Mesolithic Period

The Mesolithic period, also known as the Middle Stone Age, bridges the gap between
the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone Age). It generally dates
from around 10,000 BCE to 5,000 BCE, though the exact timeframe can vary by region.
This period was marked by significant environmental changes as the last Ice Age
ended, leading to the development of new lifestyles and technologies.

Tool Culture
Microliths
Description: Small, flint or stone blades that were often used as components of
composite tools.
Use: Mounted on wood, bone, or antler handles to create tools like sickles, arrows, and
harpoons.
Technology: The microlith technique involved creating small, precise blades from a
larger stone core, allowing for more versatile and efficient tools.

Fishing and Hunting Tools

Harpoons and Fishhooks: Made from bone, antler, or stone, reflecting an increased
reliance on aquatic resources.
Bow and Arrow: Improved hunting efficiency and allowed for greater mobility.

Other Tools
Ground Stone Tools: Such as adzes and axes, used for woodworking and other tasks.
Pottery: In some regions, early forms of pottery began to appear, used for storing and
cooking food.
Human Species: Homo Sapiens
Lifestyle: Mesolithic humans were hunter-gatherers, but their diets became more
varied as they exploited a wider range of environments, including forests, rivers, and
coastlines.
Settlements: They began to establish more permanent or semi-permanent settlements,
often near water sources. Evidence of dwellings, such as huts and shelters, has been
found.
Social Structure: Increased social complexity, with evidence of trade networks,
communal activities, and ritual practices.

Neolithic Period

The Neolithic period, also known as the New Stone Age, spans from around 10,000
BCE to 2,000 BCE, varying by region. This era marks a significant transformation in
human history with the advent of agriculture, which led to the establishment of
permanent settlements and the development of complex societies.

Tool Culture

Polished Stone Tools

Axes and Adzes: Used for clearing land and woodworking. These tools were ground
and polished to create sharp, durable edges.
Chisels and Hammer: Made for constructing homes and other structures.

Agricultural Tools
Sickles: Equipped with microlithic or polished stone blades for harvesting crops.
Grinding Stones: Used to process grains into flour.

Textile Tools
Spindles and Looms: Used in weaving textiles, reflecting the importance of clothing
and trade goods.

Key Characteristics of the Neolithic Period

Agriculture: The domestication of plants (like wheat, barley, and rice) and animals
(such as goats, sheep, and cattle) revolutionized food production, allowing for surplus
and storage.
Permanent Settlements: People built more permanent structures, leading to the
development of villages and, eventually, urban centers.
Social Complexity: Societies became more complex, with the emergence of different
social classes, division of labor, and organized trade.
Technological Advances: The creation of polished stone tools, pottery, and textile
production marked significant technological progress.
Cultural Developments: Increased artistic expression, including pottery decoration,
figurines, and the construction of megalithic structures like Stonehenge. Rituals and
religious practices also became more elaborate.

Prehistory of Kerala

Prehistoric studies in India began in 1863 with Robert Bruce Foote's discovery of the
first Palaeolithic tools at Pallavaram in Madras. Since then, many prehistoric sites
across India have been explored and excavated. Some sites have provided scientific
dating, suggesting human presence as far back as 500,000 BP, although dating
methods can be prone to errors.
Despite significant progress in uncovering India's prehistoric heritage, many regions
remained unexplored until recently, including Kerala. Until 1974, it was believed that
Kerala was outside the range of Palaeolithic habitation. This belief stemmed from
Foote's hypothesis that Kerala's heavy rainfall, dense forests, segmented terrain, lack
of quartzite, and inhospitable environment made it less attractive compared to other
regions in India. His view discouraged archaeologists from exploring Kerala, leading
to the misconception that it was isolated and uninhabited during the Old Stone Age.

Early Prehistoric Findings from Kerala

However, early evidence of Stone Age habitation in Kerala had been discovered as
early as the mid-19th century. Todd found a hoard of microliths at Chevayur in
Kozhikode District, placing Kerala on the world prehistory map for its Late Stone Age
relics. This discovery contradicted the isolation hypothesis.
Further evidence emerged in 1973 when Padmanabhan Thampi discovered Mesolithic
cave art and microliths at Marayur, confirming the presence of Late Stone Age culture
in Kerala. The hypothesis of Kerala's inhospitable environment was finally disproved
in 1974 when Rajendran discovered Palaeolithic tools at Kanhirapuzha in Palakkad
District. Despite these findings, Kerala still has limited archaeological data, requiring
archaeologists to rely on comparative evidence from similar sites.

Palaeolithic Culture in Kerala

Subsequent exploratory studies in Kerala have unveiled significant archaeological

evidence from both the Pleistocene and Holocene periods. These include Stone Age
sites from the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic eras in districts such as Kannur, Wayanad,
Calicut, Malappuram, Palakkad, Kottayam, Kollam, and Thiruvananthapuram.
Key Sites and Discoveries:
Palakkad District: Sites at Kanhirapuzha, Tenkara, and Mukkali.
Malappuram District: Sites at Kunnathubhalu, Valluvasseri, Karimpulakkal, and
Karalikkot.
Kottayam District: Kunnonni
Kollam District: Kuvakkad and Abhayagiri.
These sites are primarily located in the basins of rivers like Kanhirapuzha, Bhavani,
Ponnani, Beypore, Meenachil, and Kallada. The Palaeolithic tools found at Abhayagiri
and Valluvasseri were from lateritic surfaces, while tools from other sites were
collected from gravel beds.

Palaeolithic Tool Characteristics

The Palaeolithic tools in Kerala are mostly made from locally available river-worn
quartz pebbles, with some use of gneiss pebbles and flakes. These tools are typically
unifacially or bifacially worked and belong mainly to the Chopper-Scraper-Flake
tradition. Sites such as Valluvasseri, Karimpulakkal, and Kunnathubhalu in the
Beypore river basin, Tenkara and Kanhirapuzha in the Bharathapuzha basin, Mukkali
in the Bhavani basin, Kunnonni in the Meenachil basin, and Abhayagiri in Kollam
have yielded these tool types made of quartz.

Palaeolithic Tools: Comparative Analysis

Elsewhere in India, similar tools are made of quartzite, which is absent in Kerala.
However, the quartz Chopper-Scraper-Flake tools in Kerala show morphological,
typological, and technological similarities with Lower Palaeolithic tools from other
parts of India. Recent discoveries of a few hand axe types from Tenkara in the
Palakkad District indicate that Kerala's Palaeolithic industries also include Acheulian
elements, which are rare on the west coast of India, south of the Narmada River.

Chopper Tradition
The Chopper-Scraper-Flake industry in Kerala aligns with similar traditions found in
India and Sri Lanka. The concentration of Chopper tools is significant in many parts
of India, with a notable presence in the Soan Valley.

Chopper Tradition
It is widely accepted that India had two main Palaeolithic traditions: Chopper-
Chopping and Bifacial. In the south, the percentage of Choppers decreases while hand
axes increase. The presence of both tool types in Kerala suggests a typological unity
with other South Indian sites.
Dating and Subsistence
Dating the Palaeolithic culture in Kerala is challenging due to a lack of relics suitable
for scientific dating. Based on comparative archaeology, the tools are tentatively dated
to be comparable to those found in Sri Lanka, which are over 70,000 years old. The
tools in Kerala are primarily Choppers made of pebble material, with bifacial and
unifacial flaking to create sharp edges.

Scrapers and Flake Tools

Scrapers, mostly made of flakes, are the next most common tool type. These tools are
smaller than pebble tools and often retain the cortex. The flake tools show
characteristics typical of Lower Palaeolithic culture.

Living Conditions
Palaeolithic peoples were entirely dependent on their environment for subsistence,
which involved big game hunting and gathering. Though there is no concrete
evidence specific to Kerala, it is likely that Palaeolithic humans in the region had
similar subsistence strategies, living in natural rock shelters and using river valleys
for tool-making and hunting. Their population was probably low, but their activities
were widespread.

Environmental Adaptations
The Palaeolithic inhabitants of Kerala adapted to various environmental conditions.
They utilized natural resources like river-worn quartz pebbles for tool-making. Living
in high-altitude rock shelters, they descended to river valleys to hunt and gather food,
indicating a wide range of activities across different terrains. The tools found in gravel
beds and lateritic zones suggest that they had a flexible approach to tool-making,
utilizing available materials to meet their needs.

Comparative Sites and Broader Implications

The discovery of hand axe types in Kerala, which are rare on the west coast of India,
highlights the unique aspects of the region's Palaeolithic culture. These findings align
Kerala with other significant Palaeolithic sites in India and Sri Lanka, emphasizing the
broader connections and similarities in prehistoric human activities across these
regions. The Chopper-Scraper-Flake industry in Kerala shares common features with
similar industries in Sri Lanka, suggesting parallel development and adaptation
strategies.

Challenges and Future Research

Despite the significant discoveries, the Palaeolithic culture in Kerala is still not fully
understood due to the limited archaeological data. Future research is needed to
uncover more sites and artifacts, which could provide a clearer picture of the region's
prehistoric past. The comparative study with other South Indian and Sri Lankan sites
offers a framework for understanding Kerala's place in the broader context of
Palaeolithic archaeology.
The Palaeolithic culture in Kerala is characterized by the discovery of Chopper-
Scraper-Flake tools made primarily of quartz, showing significant similarities with
other Lower Palaeolithic tools in India. Recent discoveries have added to our
understanding of these early humans' subsistence strategies and living conditions,
though much remains to be learned about their cultural practices. The adaptation to
various environmental conditions and the wide range of activities indicate a complex
and dynamic Palaeolithic culture in Kerala. Future research will continue to shed light
on this fascinating period of human history.

Mesolithic Culture
Since 1974, twenty-four Mesolithic sites, including rock shelters, have been discovered
in various regions. Some key sites are:
Kannur District: Niramalagiri
Palakkad District: Walayar, Malampuzha, Podippara, Mankara, Kulappalli,
Cherakkalppađi, Ayannur, Agali, Narasimokkai, and Chirakkadavu
Malappuram District: Chellur and Pandikkad
Wayanad District: Chempara and Kuppakkolli
Kollam District: Tenmala and Odanavattom
Thiruvananthapuram District: Ankode and Neyyar
Most of these sites, except Narasimokkai, Tenmala, Walayar, Mankara, and Ankode,
are on lateritic surfaces. The rock shelters at Odanavattom, Tenmala, and Ankode have
prehistoric carvings. The Mesolithic sites primarily yielded quartz implements, with
few exceptions at Malampuzha and Ankode, where some tools were made of chert.

In coastal Kerala, unlike central and northern India, Mesolithic artifacts were mainly
flakes rather than nodules, pebbles, and blades. The use of locally available quartz,
seen in various forms like boulders, cobbles, pebbles, gravels, and veins, was
prominent. The Mesolithic people in Kerala mastered quartz, a material often
considered inferior, selecting the best quality quartz for their tools.

Mesolithic Tools and Technology

Mesolithic tools in Kerala were mostly flakes, including bifacial points, blades,
lunates, borers, burins, backed knives, scrapers, discoids, and small choppers.
Geometric shapes like triangles and trapezes were absent, but bifacial points were
common. Lunate tools were present at almost every site, and unifacial choppers made
from small pebbles were unique to Kerala.
The tool assemblage was dominated by flakes, although blade technology was
present, evidenced by fluted cores and blades. Scrapers made from flakes highlighted
the industry’s richness. Mesolithic culture in Kerala peaked in the early Holocene and
continued until around 3000 BC. The high usage of quartz, despite its lesser presence
in other parts of South India, was due to the lack of alternative raw materials in Kerala.

Mesolithic Cultural Context

The absence of quartzite or other cryptocrystalline materials did not hinder early
human habitation in Kerala. The exclusive use of locally available quartz, often found
as riverbed pebbles and outcrops, is a unique feature of Kerala’s prehistoric cultures.
The aesthetic and functional Mesolithic implements, such as bifacial points, lunates,
backed knives, burins, borers, and small pebble choppers, demonstrated their
technological skill.
During this period, the number of sites increased, indicating a rise in population and
possibly the division of larger groups into smaller tribes or clans. Hunting-gathering
remained the main subsistence strategy, with a shift from hunting large game to
smaller animals and birds. Evidence of fishing and artistic activities, such as
petrographs and petroglyphs, highlights non-material aspects of their culture.

Mesolithic Sites and Subsistence

Fishing in the South Indian littoral tracts has ancient roots. The Allchins associated
sand dunes on the east coast, south of Madras, with hunters or fishermen. The
majority of finished tools from these sites were made on flakes or raw material chips,
characteristic of a microlithic industry. This suggests that such sites were suitable for
fishing and camping, similar to other Late Stone Age sites.
The unique features and tools of the Mesolithic culture in Kerala, such as bifacial
points and small choppers, are rarely found elsewhere in India, except in Tamil Nadu.
This highlights the distinct technological and cultural practices of the Mesolithic
people in Kerala.

Neolithic Culture
The Neolithic culture, also known as the New Stone Age, is a significant period in
human history that began globally around 10,000 BCE and in the Indian subcontinent
as early as 8,000 BCE at sites like Mehrgarh. This period marks a major transition from
a nomadic lifestyle of hunting and gathering to a more settled life based on agriculture
and animal domestication.
The Neolithic period is characterized by:
Agriculture: The cultivation of crops, which led to stable food supplies and permanent
settlements.
Domestication of Animals: Animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats were tamed for
food, clothing, and labor.
Pottery: The creation of earthen pots for storing food and water.
Textile Production: The development of weaving techniques to produce cloth.
Use of Fire: Fire was used not only for warmth but also for cooking, which improved
nutrition and health.
These advancements marked the Neolithic Revolution, a fundamental change in
human society that led to the rise of the first stable communities and civilizations.

Neolithic Culture in India and Kerala

In India, the Neolithic period began around 8,000 BCE, with the earliest sites in South
India dating back about 2,500–4,000 BCE. However, in Kerala, there is no precise
dating for the Neolithic culture, and no major habitation sites have been discovered
so far. The information we have about Kerala's Neolithic culture comes mainly from a
few stray finds of tools and rock art.
Philip Lake was the first to discover Neolithic axes in Kerala, specifically at the foot
of the Kannyakad hills. Later, other discoveries were made:
Logan and Fawcett collected quartz flakes, a fragment of a Neolithic celt, and a couple
of beads from the Wynad area (Fawcett, 1901).
P Rajendran: Polished stone axes and beads typical of the Neolithic period were
reported from Kalpatta and Pulppalli in the Wynad District and the riverbeds of the
Periyar River in Aluva.
Stray finds of hand axes were collected from various locations: Thamarassery (1975),
Puthady (1978), Parambikkulam (1983), and Kundurmedu (1986).
In 1989, a Neolithic axe was discovered in Mantrothuruth in the Kallada basin in
Kollam District, marking the first discovery of a Neolithic tool from southern Kerala
(Rajendran, 1990).

Neolithic tools, though limited in number, have been found across Kerala's three
physiographical zones: lowlands, midlands, and highlands. However, most of these
discoveries were made on the surface, often as objects carried away by people, making
it difficult to know their exact origins or stratified context. The Neolithic axes found
in Kerala were typically made from locally available gneiss or granite.

Characteristics of Neolithic Tools in Kerala

The Neolithic tools found in Kerala, though few in number, represent the typical
technology of the period, despite differences in the raw materials used. These tools
include stone axes, flakes, blades, and beads. The stone axes were crafted using
techniques like flaking, pecking, grinding, and polishing. The finished axes were
symmetrical in shape, with well-polished working edges. Some axes even show use
marks, such as striations at the convex working edge on the right angle.
Additionally, some of the rock art in Edakal, Ankode, and Marayur might be linked
to the Neolithic culture, providing a glimpse into the artistic expressions of the people
during this period.

Neolithic Life in Kerala

The Neolithic people in Kerala likely lived in small kin-based villages, possibly
practicing a combination of gathering, primitive farming, and hunting or fishing.
Unlike other parts of South India, pastoralism was not a major subsistence strategy in
Kerala, particularly in the highlands where pastures were limited. The only extensive
pastures in Kerala are found in the high-altitude mountain ranges of the Idukki
District, which could explain the indications of a pastoral base in the Neolithic rock
paintings at Marayur.
However, due to the absence of excavated habitation sites, much about the social,
ethnic, and ritual aspects of Neolithic life in Kerala remains unknown. It is assumed
that the earliest Proto-Dravidian speaking communities in Kerala may have lived
during this time.

Transition to the Chalcolithic and Iron Age

In other parts of India, the Neolithic Age was followed by the Chalcolithic Age,
characterized by the use of copper tools along with stone tools. However, a distinct
Chalcolithic phase has not been clearly identified in Kerala. A few bronze or copper
artifacts have been found at several sites, but since they are often found alongside iron
artifacts, it’s unclear whether they represent a separate stage between the Neolithic
and the Iron Age.
Some human bones from urn burials in Kerala show greater antiquity in their
fluorine/phosphorus analysis, which could indicate a Chalcolithic phase (Rajendran
and Kishirsagar, 1993). It is important to note that bronze and copper products were
used in pre-Iron Age sites elsewhere in India.

Conclusion
The Neolithic period marks a crucial stage in the history of Kerala, characterized by
the transition from a nomadic to a settled way of life. Although evidence from Kerala
is limited, the tools and rock art discovered suggest that the region was part of the
broader Neolithic culture in South India. These developments laid the groundwork
for the later Iron Age and the rise of ancient civilizations in the region.
MODULE - II
Prehistoric Art and Cave Paintings: A Comprehensive Overview

Significance of Prehistoric Rock Art

1. Cultural Insights:
o Rock art is a vital source for understanding prehistoric cultures.
o Reflects the emotional and material responses of prehistoric people to
their environment.
o Provides insight into their mental world, including beliefs, magic,
rituals, and social structures.
2. Human Creativity:
o Art distinguishes humans from animals, embodying divinity and
intellectual expression.
o Acts as a non-verbal language, transcending time and culture.
o Offers a glimpse into prehistoric life and complements archaeological
understanding, such as the use of tools.

Historical Context of Rock Art Studies

1. Global Beginnings:
o Pioneering research started in the late 19th century.
o Marcelino de Sautuola's discovery at Altamira (Spain) in 1879
introduced the significance of prehistoric art.
2. Indian Contributions:
o John Archibald Carlyle and Cockburn brought India's rock art into focus
in 1883.
o F. Fawcett discovered the Edakal rock shelter in Kerala in 1894, marking
the beginning of Kerala's rock art studies.
o Indian scholars like V.S. Wakankar, V.N. Misra, and Mathpal have
significantly advanced research in the field.
3. Global Scholars:
o Contributions from scholars like Breuil, Alimen, Graziosi, and others
have expanded the understanding of rock art worldwide.

Characteristics of Prehistoric Rock Art

1. Locations and Contexts:
o Found on cave walls, ceilings, rock cliffs, and open shelters.
o Often located at inaccessible heights, suggesting the use of tools or
scaffolding.
2. Themes and Motifs:
 o Universal themes include animals (e.g., deer, bison, mammoth) essential
for survival.
o Rare depictions include fish, birds, and boats.
o Abstract signs and human figures appear later, during the protohistoric
period.
3. Techniques and Phases:
o Primeval Phase: Black outline drawings with monochrome fillings.
o Second Phase: Two-color modelling with outlines.
o Third Phase: Polychrome paintings with advanced techniques.
o Use of natural light and rock contours enhanced the visual impact.

Rock Art in Kerala

1. Key Discoveries:
o Edakal: Noted for petroglyphs at high, inaccessible spots.
o Marayur: Petrographs found in open shelters and rock niches, dating
back to the Mesolithic period.
o Tovari and Ankode: Feature Neolithic to Iron Age art.
2. Chronology:
o Mesolithic: Around 4000 B.C.
o Neolithic and Iron Age: Superimposed depictions.
o Surviving art spans from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Medieval period
(12,000 B.C.–300 A.D.).

Dating and Interpretation

1. Challenges:
o Dating rock art is difficult due to overlapping and superimposed layers.
o Scientific techniques like infrared photography and spectrographic tests
are rarely applicable.
2. Relative Chronology:
o Based on tool correlations, pigment composition, and style.
o Content analysis provides insights, such as identifying Neolithic scenes
of domestication.
3. Kerala’s Rock Art Context:
o Largely Mesolithic, with Neolithic and Iron Age additions.
o Superimposition continued into the medieval period.

Global Parallels
1. Universal Similarities:
o Art styles and themes share remarkable similarities across continents.
 o Examples include Altamira (Spain), Lascaux (France), and Marayur
(India).
2. Cultural Continuities:
o Rock art often illustrates the transition from hunting-gathering to
domestication and pastoralism.
o Comparative studies with Anatolian sites like Çatalhöyük strengthen
chronological and cultural interpretations.

The Painted Rock Shelters at Marayur

The painted rock shelters at Marayur, Kerala, are significant for understanding
prehistoric art and cultural evolution in India. These shelters, located in the Anjanad
Valley, include three prominent sites: Koodakkad (Ezhuthala), Pallanad (Attala), and
Champakkad (Purachi Ala), all within the Marayur Panchayat. Each shelter exhibits
unique artistic and cultural elements, making them crucial for archaeological studies.

1. Koodakkad Shelter (Ezhuthala)

• Location & Geomorphology:

o Coordinates: 77°05'E, 10°15'N.
o Elevation: ~3,280 feet above mean sea level (MSL).
o The site is characterized by tilted and fractured rock formations, with a
large granite boulder resembling a serpent’s hood towering 12 meters
high and 10 meters wide.

• Artistic Features:
o Paintings cover three-fourths of the concave rock surface.
o Depictions include animals (horse, bull, antelope, elephant, etc.),
human figures (seated saints, ritual dancers), auspicious symbols, and
palm impressions.
o Colours Used: Red-ochre, grey, pinkish buff, saffron, and brownish
yellow.
o Styles and Themes:
▪ Animals in dynamic poses (jumping, grazing, moving).
▪ Realistic portrayals with remarkable attention to anatomy.
▪ Layers of superimposed paintings suggest multiple cultural
phases.
▪ The most prominent depiction: a tiger-like animal in the
innermost layer.
 • Comparative Analysis:
o Similarities to Proto-Egyptian and Middle Eastern art.
o Comparable to rock art of the Stone Age in India.

• Significant Findings:
o Microlithic tools and red ochre nodules (used as pigments).
o Bone tools, possibly used as painting implements.

2. Pallanad Shelter (Attala)

• Location & Geomorphology:

o Coordinates: 77°05'E, 10°00'N.
o Elevation: ~5,500 feet above MSL.
o The shelter resembles the open mouth of a giant lizard, with paintings
located on the ceiling.

• Artistic Features:
o Paintings exclusively in white pigment.
o Over 400 depictions, including:
▪ Human figures in domestic and ritualistic postures.
▪ Animals: Elephants (with and without mahouts), birds, lizards,
and other reptiles.
▪ Symbolic representations: Geometric designs (rectangles,
triangles), ideographic motifs, and boat-like forms.

• Stylistic Observations:
o Asymmetrical arrangement of figures.
o Mesolithic-style paintings alongside symbolic and ideographic art.

• Notable Themes:
o Suggestive of ancient marine or navigational activities.
o Possible ritual and ceremonial significance.

3. Champakkad Shelter (Purachi Ala)

• Location & Geomorphology:

o Coordinates: 78°00'E, 12°35'N.
o Elevation: ~2,000 feet above MSL, adjacent to the Chinnar River.
o Features a large interior hall capable of accommodating ~10 families,
with a divided inner surface and debris.
 • Artistic Features:
o Paintings on sidewalls using white lime-like pigment.
o Figures are small, measuring 9–12 inches in height.
o Main portrayals include:
▪ Human figures and cattle.
▪ A long-horned humped bull with cows, stylistically similar to
Neolithic/Iron Age rock art in South India and Sri Lanka.
▪ Overlapping depictions of human figures and animals indicate
multiple cultural layers.

Stylistic and Cultural Analysis

1. Four Painting Styles in Marayur:

o Animal depictions: Bulls, antelope, and horse in grazing or dynamic
poses.
o Human activities: Rituals, combat scenes, and domestic life.
o Symbolic motifs: Geometric patterns and ideograms.
o Superimposed layers suggest artistic evolution over time.

2. Cultural Sequence:
o Mesolithic: Antelope, cattle, and horse paintings (~7,000 BCE).
o Chalcolithic: Human figures (~2,000 BCE), though some scholars debate
its presence in Kerala.
o Iron Age: Elephant riders and decorative motifs (~1,000 BCE).
o Early Historic Period: Armed elephant riders (~300 BCE).

3. Notable Features:
o Influence of ceramic decorations from the Iron Age.
o Presence of maritime themes in Pallanad shelter.
o Use of natural pigments like hematite for vibrant colours.

Archaeological Evidence

1. Microlithic Tools:
o Found near shelters, reinforcing their Mesolithic origins.

2. Red Ochre and Hematite:

o Suggests indigenous production of pigments for wall paintings.
 3. Bone Tools:
o Likely used for applying pigments.

Conclusion
The painted rock shelters of Marayur provide invaluable insights into prehistoric life,
artistic traditions, and cultural transitions in South India. Their stylistic diversity,
thematic richness, and archaeological significance make them a vital subject of study
in understanding India's prehistoric and protohistoric art. The interplay of
naturalistic depictions and symbolic motifs reflects the artistic and cultural
sophistication of the communities that inhabited the region over millennia.

The Edakal Rock Engravings: An Overview

Location and Physical Features

• Edakal Rock is situated atop Ambukuthi Mala in the Western Ghats,
approximately 4600 feet above sea level, and about 10 km southwest of Sultan
Battery in Wayanad District, Kerala.
• The site comprises a natural rock shelter formed by three massive boulders.
One rests on the other two, creating a roof-like structure. The term Edakal
translates to "a stone in between."
• The shelter consists of two natural chambers:
o Lower chamber: Accessible via a small opening (5 x 4 feet), measuring
18 feet long, 12 feet wide, and 10 feet high.
o Upper chamber: Accessed through another opening (7 x 5 feet), it
measures 96 feet in length, 22 feet in width, and 18 feet in height, with
ample light entering through gaps between the boulders.

Historical and Archaeological Significance

• Discovered in 1894, the site was identified as a Neolithic habitat by Fawcett
(1901), who noted engravings created using Neolithic celts.
• Despite its uniqueness, the site remains under-researched, with minimal
archaeological studies or systematic interpretations of its engravings.
• The lack of comparative studies and use of modern tools like computerized
databases has limited deeper understanding.

Engravings and Representations

• Wall 1 (Left Wall):

o Features include:
▪ Human figures with elaborate headgear and decorations.
 ▪ Animal depictions like elephants, peacocks, wild dogs.
▪ Geometric designs, such as crosses, triangles, squares.
▪ Objects like a wheeled cart and plants.

• Wall 2 (Right Wall):

o Includes:
▪ Geometric signs.
▪ Male and female human figures.
▪ Representations of human figures in carts.
▪ A human figure with a conical attachment.

Artistic Styles and Evolution

• Two distinct styles are evident:

1. Primary Style: Basic linear geometric forms like canoes, crosses, and
triangles.
2. Evolved Style: Incorporates mediating signs (e.g., circles and volutes),
suggesting more complex imagery.

• Progression in Representation:
o Earlier depictions are simpler, often using primary signs.
o Later depictions show advanced techniques, possibly involving iron
tools.
o The wheeled cart, with spoked wheels, signifies advancements beyond
the Neolithic.

Interpretations and Cultural Context

• The engravings may represent scenes of ritual festivity, tribal life, or
interaction between Neolithic and early Iron Age cultures.
• Key Figures:
o A prominent human figure (possibly a deity or chief).
o Ritual dancers and animals symbolizing the forest environment.
o A wheeled cart, indicative of trade or cultural exchange.
• The art reflects societal transitions:
o The core imagery relates to Neolithic culture.
o Peripheral imagery suggests influence from Megalithic societies.
o These overlapping elements tentatively date the site to the late first
millennium BCE.
Anthropological Insights
• Prehistoric art was likely created as part of a socially necessary activity, rather
than for aesthetic purposes.
• The depictions may have served practical functions linked to subsistence,
rituals, and societal organization, rather than being purely decorative.

Challenges in Interpretation
• The meanings of the engravings are elusive, rooted in the worldview of
prehistoric societies.
• Modern interpretations risk projecting contemporary assumptions onto ancient
art.
• Scholars like Abbe Breuil and Leroi-Gourhan offer varying perspectives, from
hunting magic theories to structured cultural expressions.

Conclusion
The Edakal Rock Engravings provide a unique glimpse into a transitional society
navigating between the Neolithic and Iron Ages. Their layered meanings, reflecting
both utilitarian and symbolic purposes, make the site an invaluable cultural and
archaeological landmark. However, much remains to be unraveled about its historical
importance and broader connections to prehistoric life. Future studies using modern
tools and methodologies could shed light on this enigmatic site.

Engravings at Tovari

The Tovari engravings, locally known as Ezhuthupara, are located on the slopes of
Tovari Hill, within close proximity to the renowned Edakkal Rock Art site in
Ambalavayal Taluk. This site lies in the same Panchayat and holds significant
archaeological and cultural value. The engraved rock is situated a few meters below
the hill’s summit, featuring a cluster of three to four massive boulders. These boulders
are overlain by a large slanting rock, creating a natural shelter or pantal. The
engravings are found on the surface of a supporting rock to the left and on the ceiling
of the slanting rock.

Key Features of the Engravings

1. Geometric Figures
o The engravings primarily include geometric motifs such as triangles,
squares, and circles.
o A notable depiction is a square divided into eight sections.
 o Repeated triangles and stylized shapes resembling tools are unique
aspects of this site.

2. Symbolic Representations
o Some geometric figures, like the square, circle, and triangle in
combination, are interpreted as symbolic tools.
o For instance:
▪ A figure emerging from the divided square resembles a hoe, an
agricultural implement used in terrace farming.
▪ Stylized arrows are associated with circles and triangles, possibly
indicating their use in primitive hunting or rituals.

3. Economic and Cultural Implications

o The engravings reflect the economic activities of the primitive
inhabitants, such as terrace cultivation and hunting.
o They also hint at magical or ritualistic practices, with certain figures
resembling mandala-like designs believed to hold mystical significance.

Stylistic Variations
The engravings display two distinct stylistic groups based on the depth and width of
the lines
:
1. Shallow and Narrow Lines
o These lines suggest the use of small stone blades for engraving,
indicating fine and careful work.

2. Broad and Deep Lines

o These figures were likely created using larger stone tools, resulting in
deeper and wider strokes.

The nature of the lines and strokes clearly indicates the process of rubbing and
engraving with stone tools of varying sizes.

Unique Features of Tovari Art

1. The depiction of tools, such as hoes and arrows, within geometric figures is a
unique characteristic of Tovari art.
2. The eco-climatic suitability of the region suggests a direct connection between
the art and the local subsistence practices like agriculture and hunting.
3. The association of tools with geometric figures points to their magical or
ritualistic significance, reflecting the cultural beliefs of the community.
Conclusion
The Tovari engravings stand as a remarkable testament to the ingenuity and symbolic
expression of primitive societies. They provide valuable insights into the economic,
cultural, and spiritual life of the region’s early inhabitants, adding to the rich legacy
of Kerala's rock art traditions.

Ankode (Pandavampara): An Archaeological Overview

Ankode, locally known as Pandavampara (the rock of the Pandavas), is situated at an

elevation of 1,000 feet in Perumkadavila village, Neyyattinkara Taluk,
Thiruvananthapuram District, Kerala. The site spans approximately 96 cents and is
considered a suitable location for early human habitation or temporary camping due
to its geographical and geomorphological features.

Key Features of the Site

1. Geographical Context
o Coordinates: 77° E and 8° N.
o The site is a dyke-type rock formation with flattened stone alignments
undergoing rapid weathering.

2. Geomorphology
o The rock, similar to Tovari, is heavily weathered, with a surface
conducive to deep engravings.
o Tools and artifacts were recovered from a depth of 15 cm, indicating
possible Neolithic activity.

Engravings at Ankode
The petroglyphs at Ankode are deeply engraved, reflecting the use of sharp stone
tools, possibly Neolithic hand axes. These engravings are:
• 1.9 cm deep and 1.5 cm wide.
• Created with precision, but in much smaller volume and diversity compared
to Edakal's art.

Key Depictions

1. Exterior Wall Designs

o Decorative floral patterns at the entrance.

2. Interior Motifs
 o Human Figures: Depicted in a hunting posture, armed with bows and
arrows.
o Geometrical Patterns: Including sun symbols, possibly indicative of
ritualistic or symbolic meaning.

Archaeological Evidence
1. Tool Assemblage
o Mesolithic tools were collected from a stratified context, though not in
large quantities.
o The tools suggest the site’s use during the Mesolithic and possibly
Neolithic periods.

2. Dating Challenges
o The absence of clear correlative evidence makes it difficult to date the
engravings reliably.
o Heavily disturbed debris precludes excavation, further limiting the
possibility of precise dating.

3. State of Preservation
o The petroglyphs are now completely chipped off, rendering a fresh
assessment impossible.
Comparison with Edakal and Tovari

• While Ankode shares some similarities with Tovari in terms of deeply

engraved designs and weathered rock surfaces, its scale and diversity are
significantly smaller.
• Unlike Edakal, Ankode lacks the intricate and voluminous depictions that
define the former's artistic richness.

Conclusion
Ankode offers a glimpse into the lives of early inhabitants through its petroglyphs,
tools, and geomorphological features. Despite its limited diversity and the challenges
in preservation and dating, it stands as a significant archaeological site contributing to
our understanding of primitive habitation and artistic expression in Kerala.

Carvings of Tenmala Shelter

The Tenmala rock shelter, located in Kollam District (formerly Quilon), Kerala, is a
significant prehistoric site notable for its carvings and Mesolithic cultural artifacts.
This site adds valuable information to the understanding of prehistoric cultural
continuity in the region.

Key Features of the Tenmala Shelter

1. Rock-Shelter Carvings
o The carvings include geometrical patterns such as:
▪ Triangles
▪ Circles with spoke-like marks resembling a wheel
▪ Squares
▪ A flower motif
o The rock surface is extensively covered with parallel incisions,
comparable to those found at Edakal.

2. Archaeological Deposits
o The site has yielded Mesolithic tools found at a depth of 35 cm,
accompanied by wood charcoal.
o These tools and deposits reflect the shelter's use by Mesolithic
communities.

3. Dating and Context

o The charcoal samples were dated using Carbon-14 analysis, yielding an
age of 5210 ± 110 years BP (Before Present) (Rajendran, 1989).
o The presence of Mesolithic tools and artifacts in both surface and
stratified contexts suggests that the carvings were created by Mesolithic
people.

Cultural and Archaeological Significance

1. Prehistoric Cultural Continuity

o The findings at Tenmala reflect a distinct progression through Kerala's
Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods.
o These carvings demonstrate the continuity of prehistoric culture in the
region, with adaptations tailored to the local environment.

2. Technological Development
o The tools and carvings highlight significant technological innovations,
allowing prehistoric communities to thrive in diverse ecological settings.
 o These advancements show a unique cultural identity rather than
influences from large-scale migrations or interactions with adjacent
regions.

3. Geographical Distribution
o Prehistoric sites in Kerala, including Tenmala, are scattered across the
region in limited numbers, showing no evidence of concentrated
settlement or migration through gaps in the Western Ghats.

4. Adaptation to the Environment

o The prehistoric communities of Kerala exhibited a deep dependence on
and adaptation to their local environment, which influenced their tools,
art, and lifestyle.

Conclusion
The Tenmala shelter carvings and associated Mesolithic tools are a testament to the
ingenuity and adaptability of prehistoric communities in Kerala. With unique artistic
expressions and evidence of technological advancements, this site underscores the
region’s independent cultural evolution. The findings affirm Kerala’s role as a hub of
prehistoric cultural diversity and continuity, shaped by its geography and
environment rather than external migrations or widespread mobility.

Megaliths of Kerala

Terminology
➢ The term "megalith" was first used in 1849 by British antiquarian Algernon
Herbert to describe Stonehenge.
➢ The word "megalith" comes from two Greek words: "megas," meaning huge,
and "lithos," meaning stone.
➢ People used the term "megalith" to refer to large, uncut stones that were used
to construct structures or monuments, either alone or with other stones.
➢ Megaliths are large stone structures found all over the world, dating back
thousands of years. They were built during the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and
Bronze Age periods and served various cultural, religious, and ceremonial
purposes.
➢ These purposes include marking burial sites, performing rituals, and serving
as memorials.
➢ Megaliths are often arranged in specific patterns or structures, demonstrating
the advanced engineering skills of ancient societies.
Some Problems in Defining the Megalithic Culture as the Iron Age

In India, most megalithic monuments are associated with the Iron Age, so the
megalithic culture in the subcontinent is generally considered part of this period.
However, some megalithic sites in India predate the Iron Age. For example, in the
Deccan region, the earliest megalithic graves, dating between 1100 BCE and 800 BCE,
have roots in Neolithic/Chalcolithic traditions or in the transition to the Iron Age.
Examples of such sites include Maski, Hallur, Brahmagiri, and Nagpur. Meanwhile,
in many other parts of India during the same period, megaliths are often found either
with a clear association with iron or without any connection to Neolithic or
Chalcolithic periods.

Therefore, rather than strictly associating megalithic structures with the

Neolithic/Chalcolithic or Iron Age, we can roughly say that megalithic building in the
Indian subcontinent began around 1300-1200 BCE. In its early stages, this tradition
encountered Chalcolithic, Neolithic, pure Iron Age sites, or transitional phases to the
Iron Age. However, it fully developed its characteristic features during the Iron Age,
which is why it is often identified as part of this period.

Iron Age in India and Megaliths

➢ Scholars often refer to the Megalithic culture as part of the Iron Age in the
Indian subcontinent.
➢ Bridget Allchin and Raymond Allchin identified different stages of Iron use in
India:
➢ Period I (1300 BCE - 1000 BCE): Western Borderland and Karnataka
➢ Period II (1000 BCE - 800 BCE): Doab and Middle Ganga Valley
➢ Period III (800 BCE - 500 BCE): Most regions across India

➢ According to Ghosh, the Iron Age in India can be divided into four geographic
zones:
➢ Indo-Ganges region: Associated with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
level, between the Post-Chalcolithic and Pre-Northern Black Polished
Ware (NBPW) stages.
➢ Middle and Lower Ganga Valley.
➢ Peninsular India (Mostly Megalithic Sites)

Classification of Vibha Tripathi

➢ Vibha Tripathi classified the Iron Age cultures of India into five main zones:
 ➢ Zone A: North-Western India
➢ Zone B: PGW Culture of the Ganga Basin
➢ Zone C: Black and Red Ware Culture
➢ Zone D: Megalithic Culture of the Vidarbha Region
➢ Zone E: Other Megalithic Sites, including those in Kerala

The Megalithic culture of Kerala falls under Zone E in Vibha Tripathi's classification.

Megaliths of Kerala

➢ The history of archaeological research in Kerala can be divided into two main
phases: the Pre-Independence phase (before 1947) and the Post-Independence
phase (after 1947).
➢ Pre-Independence Phase: This period is generally known for antiquarian
activities, where early explorers and scholars were more focused on collecting
artifacts and documenting sites. However, some works from this period, like
Logan's research in northern Kerala in 1887, stand out for their academic
excellence and logical interpretations.
➢ Post-Independence Phase: This phase is recognized for more problem-oriented
and systematic research. However, not all research conducted during this time
was academically rigorous; some were similar to the earlier antiquarian efforts.

➢ Various terms have been used to describe the Megalithic period in Kerala,
including:

➢ Pandoo Coolies (Babington, 1823)

➢ Death Houses (Logan, 1887)
➢ Prehistoric Monuments (Iyer, 1929)
➢ Pandukal Complex (Leshnik, 1974)
➢ Early Iron Age Culture (Satyamurthy, 1992)
➢ Protohistoric Culture (Rajendran, 1999)
➢ Iron Age-Early Historic Culture (Krishnan, 2017)

Pre-Independence Phase of Iron Age Research in Kerala

➢ First Discoveries: The earliest recorded discovery of Megalithic burials in

Peninsular India was made by J. Babington in 1819 at Chattanparamba in the
Kozhikkode district. Babington also documented other Megalithic sites in
Malabar, including urn burials, rock-cut chambers, and umbrella stones.
 ➢ Subsequent Research: Notable scholars like Logan (1879, 1887), Ward and
Conner (1863), Robert Sewell (1882), and others conducted further studies and
published their findings. While some early publications made baseless
attributions—such as Walhouse (1882), who claimed the remains were linked
to virgin sacrifices—many researchers, like Longhurst (1915) and Babington,
made significant contributions by documenting and preserving the artifacts.

➢ Documenting and Preserving: These early antiquarians were keen on not only
documenting the Megalithic remains but also ensuring their preservation. For
example, Longhurst (1915) took steps to transfer artifacts to the Madras
Museum for safekeeping. Babington’s (1823) detailed reports included
drawings that are still useful for studying these ancient cultures.

➢ Connecting Megalithic Burials to Literature: Some scholars, like Joseph (1928)

and Codrington (1930), attempted to link Megalithic burials with burial
practices mentioned in ancient Tamil Sangam literature, which described
ancient Tamil regions that included parts of Kerala.

➢ Scientific Studies: Early scientific analyses, such as Plenderleith’s (1930) study

of the black glaze on pottery from Wayanad, represent some of the first uses of
scientific techniques in Megalithic research in Kerala.

Post-Independence Phase of Iron Age Research in Kerala

Problem-Oriented Research: After 1947, research became more focused on specific

problems, such as establishing the chronology of Megalithic sites. Thapar (1952) was
among the first to date urn burials at Porkalam, connecting them to the third century
BCE to the first century CE based on typological similarities with Wheeler's
excavations at Brahmagiri.

Typological And Contextual Studies: Krishnaswami (1949) developed a

comprehensive typological classification of Megalithic burial monuments, and
Sharma (1956) made significant contributions to the study of Rock-Cut Chambers in
Cochin.

University Contributions: The first university-level contribution to Megalithic

archaeology in Kerala came from George (1975), who conducted extensive excavations
at sites like Machad and Pazhayannur. Leshnik (1974) and McIntosh (1985) worked on
typological comparisons, while Nayar (1989) offered interpretative insights into
Umbrella Stones.
Significant Discoveries: Satyamurthy's (1992) excavation of urn burials at Mangadu
in Kollam was notable for providing radiocarbon dates that pushed back the timeline
of Megalithic practices in Kerala to the early first millennium BCE.

Ongoing Research: The post-1990s period saw numerous doctoral studies focusing
on regional aspects of Megalithic culture, such as those by Paulose (1990), Rajan
Chedambath (1997), and others. Research topics ranged from intra-site variability to
the distribution and interpretation of Megalithic monuments.

Challenges And Limitations: Despite advances in research, challenges remain. Non-

archaeologists conducting informal excavations have sometimes damaged valuable
archaeological evidence. Additionally, the quality and consistency of data
presentation in some studies, including PhD dissertations, have been criticized. The
incomplete survey data from the French Institute of Pondicherry's "Historical Atlas of
South India" project highlights the need for more thorough and systematic surveys.

Megalithic Typology

➢ Comparing to other south Indian states; the Megalithic monuments in Kerala

had some unique characteristics in the case of typology.
➢ The natural settings, geomorphology and monsoon rainfall were played
significant role in the development of distinct and unique Megalithic tradition
in Kerala.
➢ Geological resources of the Western Ghats were well utilized by megalithic
hominids; they used laterite, granite and gneissic formations for erecting
megalithic monuments.
➢ Laterite rock is a type of sedimentary rock which is rich in iron and aluminium;
formatted in hot and wet tropical areas. Hardness of the laterite rocks is 2 in
Moh’s scale, so it is ideal for upright there cultural monuments like rock-cut
chambers, hood stones and umbrella stones.
➢ Megalithic people also used granite for building tombs for their deceased ones.
The common varieties of such tombs are cists, dolmens, dolmenoid cists, stone
alignment, cairn circle and menhir (Peter 2002). The important megalithic
monuments in Kerala are:

Rock Cut Chambers

Rock cut chambers are one of the characteristic monuments among the megaliths in
Kerala and it is excavated in the lateritic beds. Laterite is formed from the leaching of
parent sedimentary rocks and comparatively these kinds of rocks are of very less
hardness. Due to the specialties of the laterite rocks it is widely used for making rock-
cut tombs. The monuments are made by tunnelling the laterite surface vertically
where a small rectangular entrance is noticed; the opening may 2x2feet size or of 2 feet
diameter. In certain cases, a few steps were carved into the entrances; the steps may
rudimentary or well carved. According to the architectural features, these monuments
have a hemispherical arched dome which is usually sealed with a granite capstone.
The chambers may be rectangular, circular or semicircular in profile. Sometimes the
Rock cut chambers are identified with multi-chambers and a standing pillar
separating the chambers within the monument. On the basis of architectural features
the monuments generally divided as single and multichambered. Sharma has again
classified the rock-cut chambers into four, they are:

➢ Cave with a central pillar

➢ Cave without central pillar
➢ Cave with a top opening and
➢ Multi-chambered caves

Rock-cut chambers may occur as single or with the association of umbrella stones,
dolmens, cist and urns. Most of the rock-cut chambers are identified during quarrying
activities on the laterite surface. The grave goods are generally Black and Red Ware
pottery in the shape of bowls, pots, lids and ring stands. These artefacts were kept
over the burial benches carved inside the caves. Similar burials were reported from
Kerala sites like Umachipoyil, Porkkalam, Eyyal, Kattakambal, and Chovvanur (Peter
2002).

Kudaikkal or Umbrella Stone

Kudaikkals or Umbrella stones are one among the unique monuments which are
available only in Kerala. In Malayalam the term kuda or kudai means umbrella and
kallu means stone; as the name refers the architecture of themonument is like an
umbrella. Babington translated and termed this monument as umbrella stone. Simply
the architecture of umbrella stone is a palm leaf like or a domical capstone is placing
over a combination of three or four clinostats. The umbrella stones have a very limited
distribution and they are only available in central and northern Kerala. Kantanassery,
Kotakkalparambu, Alattur, Vengara, Ariyannoor, Atholy and Koduvally are some of
the important umbrella stone discovered sites (Peter 2002).

Toppikkal or Hat Stone

Toppikkal or Hat stones are the simple version of the Kudaikkals and the only
difference is the capstone orthostat of the umbrella stone is rests directly on the floor
without any association of clinostats. In Malayalam the term toppi means hat and
kallu means stone and the name Toppikkal indicates its physical appearance. The
major associated artefact of the Toppikkal is urn burial; commonly the Toppikkals are
entombing perhaps an urn burial. One toppikal with the association of Umbrella stone
was reported from the site Cherumangad in Trissur district. These kinds of
monuments are identified from the sites of central Kerala like Ottappalam, Eranad,
Talappally and Mannarkkad (Peter 2002).

Urn Burials
Urn burial is a typical Iron Age monument that has been found widely in the state.
The urns are huge terracotta handmade jars which are directly buried in a pit and
covered it with a stone slab; even some cases the hat stones were placed over the
buried urns. In addition to the hat stones, cist, dolmens, hood stones and rock-cut
chambers were found along with the urns. In some cases the urns were bounded or
landmarked by some cairn circles of granite boulders (Gurukkal & Varier 1999: 111).
Comparatively the urns are mostly identified from the laterite terrains in midland and
low land areas of the state. The huge terracotta jars sometime contain associated
materials like copper implements, iron tools, Black and Red Ware etc. The urns
regionally termed as Mutumakkattazhi, Nannangadi and Mizhav. Peter (2002)
classified the urn burials from Kerala into three divisions on the basis of ceramic
typology, they are:

➢ Three legged or four legged burial jars

➢ Pointed urn or Pyriform burial jars and
➢ The globular pot with a wide mouth

The legged jars distributed widely on the northern and central Kerala region and these
kinds of materials are found from the sites like Perumkulam and Kattakambal.

Sarcophagus
Sarcophagi are the terracotta coffins with an animal face and legs in other words the
sarcophagus are zoomorphic in appearance and the megalithic people generally show
the tendency of imitating the features of animals, mostly bovines and insects in them
(Gurukkal & Varier 1999: 111). Basically sarcophagi are a variant of urn burial and
they were the legged potteries which were commonly found along with the rock cut
caves (Peter 2002).

Cists Burials
Cists are simply buried coffins which are made of granite rocks and generally
rectangular and square in shape. In certain cases these kinds of burials are covered
with a long capstone; actual form of a cist contains a combination of four orthostats
and it covered with a rectangular capstone. In certain cases one of the side slabs of the
cists has a circular port hole and sometimes it may cut in ‘U’ shape from the top of the
slab (Gurukkal & Varier 1999: 114). Cists may erect as single or multi-chambered and
mostly contain Black and Red Ware pottery, iron, copper objects and associated
materials. According to Dr. Peter (2002) ‚the grave goods are kept inside the cists in
neatly arranged pots on rock benches suggesting similarity with the rock-cut caves‛.
These monuments are distributed in the highland and midland regions of Kerala
mostly in the plains of Ponnani, Periyar and Vamanapuram river valleys.

Dolmens
Dolmens are the variant form of the cist burials and the main difference between the
two monuments is; the cists are completely buried below the surface level and the
dolmens are the granite coffins which completely projected over the earth. Comparing
to the cists; dolmens definitely have four balancing orthostats and one capstone (Peter
2002). In certain cases the dolmens also has a circular or ‘U’ shape port hole like the
cists. Regionally the monuments are known as Muniyara or the shelters of monks and
a number of architectural variations can be found in dolmens. Dolmens are generally
found from the highland area or the granitic outcrops and the rocky platforms. These
kinds of monuments are widely distributed over the high ranges of northern and
central Kerala districts Malappuram, Kannur, Idukki, Palakkad and Trissur (Gurukkal
& Varier 1999: 114).

Dolmenoid Cist
As the name refers the Dolmenoid-cists are a variant of Cist and Dolmen. The
architectural features differentiate the Dolmenoid cists from Dolmen and Cists. These
kinds of monuments are also burials coffins made of granite rocks and the key
difference between the cist and dolmen is the upper half portions of the burial coffin
is projected over the earth surface and lower half is buried under the earth. These
kinds of monuments mostly distributed over the midlands of the southern, central
and northern Kerala districts such as Thiruvananthapuram, Kannur, Palakkad and
Malappuram (Peter 2002).

Menhirs
Menhirs are huge elevated single stones which are commonly erected over the relics
of dead people. These kinds of monuments are frequently composed over an urn
burial but some cases it is found in association with cist burials. Certain excavations
yielded Menhir with the association of no relics; which indicates the symbolic nature
of these burials. These gigantic monoliths are basically made of granite or laterite
depending on the availability of geological resources of the surrounding area. In the
case erection of Menhir; how much of the orthostat is projected over the earth that
much also been buried under the soil, in other words the half portion of the monument
is visible from the outer surface and the remaining portion is covered with soil. The
menhir can be seen as single or multiple. Regionally the Menhirs are known as
nattukal or installed stone and puracchikkal. The term pulacchi was derived from the
Tamil word puratchi, literally it means fame. Essentially the Menhirs are fame stone
or commemorate stone of deceased. Menhir sometimes may indicate the virakallu or
hero stones; similar to the menhirs some kind of lithic-commemorations was widely
extended on southern India during the Early Historic period or the Sangam era. Rajan
identified seven kinds of hero stones from the literary evidence such as Tolkapiyam.
Peter (2002) was also identified some ethnical extension of the hero stones or menhir
practice among the tribal groups of the Attappadi region in Palakkad district till 7th
CE. These monuments are widely distributed over southern, central and northern
Kerala region.

Hood Stones or Alignments

The hood stones are the spherical alignments of five to twelve lateritic clinostats and
they seem to be the clinostats of umbrella stones but comparatively big and which
have no domical capstone on the top. Stone alignments are sometimes made of granitic
rocks and they are also looks like the hood stone and commonly distributed outside
of the state. The hood stones may appear as single or with the association of other
megalithic types like Hat stone, Umbrella stones and Urn burials. From
Cherumangad, the hood stones were reported with hat stone and umbrella stone. A
new site known as Nannangadikkunnu in Mannarkkad taluk of Palakkad district
contains hood stone with the association of cist and urn burials.

Stone Circles or Cairn Circles

The stone circles are huge undressed granite boulders which are the spherical
boundaries of the megalithic monuments like Cist and Urns. Scholars like Peter (2002)
say that the makers of the monuments are not consider the cairn circle as a separate
monument and they are nothing but boundary markers. This is not a typical
monument of megalithic culture but occasionally these kinds of boulders present as
the land mark of the megaliths. These kinds of monuments are generally found from
Tamil Nadu and Kerala regions. The stone circles were identified with the associations
of umbrella stones, hood stones, hat stones and rock-cut chambers; this kind of
traditions widely extended in Kerala region and these are found from Kollam in south
to Kannur in north. The important site containing stone circles are Machad, Porkalam,
Cherumangadu and Trissur (Peter 2002).

Megalithic Excavations in Kerala

Megalithic excavations in Kerala have uncovered a rich and intriguing chapter of the
region's ancient history, dating back to around 1000 BCE to 300 CE. These excavations
reveal that the people of this period practiced elaborate burial customs, often marked
by large stone structures called megaliths. The sites typically include stone circles,
dolmens, cists, and urn burials, which served as funerary monuments for the dead.
These structures are found in various locations across Kerala, with a significant
concentration in the regions of Thrissur, Palakkad, and Wayanad.

The nature of these excavations is both challenging and rewarding. They involve
careful digging and documentation of burial sites, often revealing grave goods such
as pottery, iron tools, beads, and occasionally, human skeletal remains. These findings
help archaeologists understand the social, cultural, and technological aspects of the
Megalithic people in Kerala. The excavations not only shed light on the burial practices
but also provide insights into the ancient trade networks, agricultural practices, and
societal structures of the time.

Overall, the Megalithic excavations in Kerala are crucial for understanding the early
history of the region and its connection to the broader prehistoric and protohistoric
periods of South India.

Some Megalithic Sites Excavated in Kerala

(Listed by Dr. Arya P.N. 2022)
This excerpt provides a detailed overview of several significant archaeological
excavation sites in Kerala, highlighting the contributions of various archaeologists and
institutions. Here’s a brief summary of the key findings at these sites:

1. Chattaparamba
Discovered by Babington in 1819.
Over 50 Megalithic burials were excavated.
Findings: Pottery, iron implements, and etched carnelian beads.

2. Feroke
Excavated by A. Aiyappan in 1931.
Findings: Urns, iron implements, etched beads, and bone fragments.

3. Thiruvilwamala
Excavated by K. Govinda Menon.
Findings: Russet-coated painted ware, black ware sherds, and fragments of a bronze
bowl.

4. Poothankara
Excavated in 1938 by the Director of the Department of Archaeology, Travancore.
Findings: Black and red ware pottery, iron implements, and intact cist burials.

5. Periakanal
Located on Devikulam-Periakanal road.
Findings: Menhirs with urn burials, black and red ware pottery, and an iron axe.

6. Valappaya
Accidentally discovered in Thrissur district.
Findings: Burial jars, pottery, and a granite block inside a stone circle.

7. Kottappuram
Excavated in 1947-48.
Findings: Double-chambered cist with Megalithic pottery

8. Porkalam
Excavated by B. K. Thapar in 1948.
Findings: Urn with 48 beads, iron implements, and a variety of pottery.

9. Citrati
Excavated in 1972 by K. J. John.
Findings: Two pottery bowls with bone relics.10.

10. Panunda
Excavated in 1934 by M. D. Raghavan.
Findings: Spear, grinding stone, roller, and bones.

11. Punnol
Excavated by M. D. Raghavan in 1934.
Findings: Four-legged jars, bone relics, and an iron tripod.

12. Poredam
Excavated by P. Rajendran.
Findings: Pottery, iron implements, and child bones.

13. Machad and Pazhayannur

Excavated in 1974 by R. Mehta and K. M. George.
Findings: Beads, iron objects, and human bones.

14. Perambra
Excavated in 1979 by K. J. John.
Findings: Bronze vase, iron objects, and urn burial.

15. Valiyapadam
Excavated by P. Rajendran.
Findings: Iron implements, large pots, and rock slabs.

16. Cheramanangad
Excavated in 1990-91 by the Madras Circle of the Archaeological Survey.
Findings: Varieties of burials, iron objects, and pottery.

17. Arippa
Excavated by P. Rajendran.
Findings: Ceramic assemblages, iron objects, and gold earrings.

18. Mangadu
Excavated by T. Satyamurthi.
Findings: Urn burials, beads, and iron tools.

Material Culture
The concept of life after death might have played a major role in their religious life.
The grave goods discovered from many burials might be their households or personal
belongings. Burial goods indicate their material culture, ethnic structure, sense of
aesthetics, religious philosophy and behavioral approach towards the death. The
grave goods include ceramics, terracotta, semi-precious stones, beads, ornaments, iron
tools, copper objects, gold ornaments, bronze objects, faunal and floral remains.

Ceramics
The grave good includes a significant percent of neatly arranged ceramic varieties.
Roughly all kinds of megaliths include some kind of ceramic varieties; Black and Red
Ware is the predominate and typical brand of pottery belong to the culture and they
were identified in the shape of shallow bowls, miniature, big and legged pots, lids,
ring stands, dish or basins and jars. Red ware is also a major variety among the
megalith pottery and they were in the same shapes of Black and Red Ware and some
additional shapes like huge terracotta handmade urn jars. Red ware potteries
sometimes appear as Red Slipped Ware. Along with this pottery, Russet Coated
Painted Ware and Black Ware also had been found from the burials.

Black-and-Red Ware
Black and red ware is the most prominent pottery type during the Iron Age/Megalithic
period in Kerala. These ceramics are known for their distinct dual coloring, achieved
through an inverted firing method in an upright kiln, resulting in alternating oxidizing
and reducing conditions. The pottery, made from fine, well-levigated clay, features a
thin body and a fine to medium fabric, and was typically fired at temperatures
between 500°C and 600°C.

Common Shapes:
The most commonly found shapes in black and red ware across various sites in Kerala
include:
➢ Dishes and Bowls: Both shallow and deep forms are frequently discovered.
➢ Pots: Small to medium-sized pots with thin walls are prevalent.
➢ Jars: Conical and pumpkin-shaped jars are regularly encountered.
➢ Ring Stands: Which is another important pottery from megaliths of Kerala,
they found in Niramankulam, Kadumankuzhy, and Mandapakkunnu.
➢ Lid: The black and red ware lid are also fond almost all major sites in Kerala.
➢ Certain shapes and decorative features are less common and have been
found at specific sites:
➢ Miniature Pots: Rarely found, these are often discovered in burial contexts,
such as at Poredam.
➢ Vases and Short-Stemmed Cups: These are less frequently reported but
have been found at sites like Mangadu.
➢ Unique Decorated Ware: Black and red ware with white dots is a peculiar
type, identified at Oliyani and Niramakulam.
➢ Special Finds: Items such as a dish with an arrowhead and bones were
found at Marakkara, while large pots were noted at Patyam.
➢ Additionally, short-necked bowls are rare but have been reported from
Okkal.

Red Ware
Red ware pottery, characterized by medium to coarse fabric, often slipped and slightly
polished, fired at low temperatures. This pottery holds significance thru various
periods and is notably present in the Megalithic context of Kerala.

Common Shapes:
The most frequently encountered red ware shapes in Megalithic sites include:
➢ Pots: Common across various sites, usually in medium to small sizes.
➢ Bowls: Regularly found, often with a short neck or constricted neck.
➢ Jars: Including both medium-sized and larger storage jars.
➢ Legged Jars: A distinctive form often discovered in multiple
excavations.
➢ Dishes and Lids: Commonly found alongside pots and bowls.
 ➢ Ring Stands: Frequently associated with other pottery types in burial
contexts.

Rare Finds:
Certain shapes and features are less common and have been reported from specific
sites:
➢ Three-Legged Jars: Rarely found, but identified at Ummichipoyyil.
➢ Basins: Notably discovered at Alampetti near Marayoor.
➢ Incised Linear Paintings: Rare decoration found on red ware from rock-
cut caves near Karaltheruvu in Kannur district.
➢ Urns with Terracotta Hooks: Unique urns with hooks inside the rim,
found at Vellakunnu and Perumundasserry.
➢ Short-Necked Pots and Medium-Necked Pots with a Flange: These
distinct shapes were identified at Kuttikol.

This structure highlights the common and rare shapes of red ware pottery found in
Kerala's Megalithic sites, making it easier for students to understand the typology and
distribution of these ceramics.

Black Ware
Black ware pottery varies between thin polished and thick, less polished types. The
thin polished variety is more prevalent in Megalithic sites, featuring levigated clay
with fine to medium fabric and slip on both surfaces. Some pieces also display graffiti
marks.

Common Shapes:
Vases and Bowls: Frequently found at sites such as Citrari, Niramakulam, and Viyyur.
Cups: Notably reported from Kotturvayal.
Ring Stands and Lids: Commonly discovered at Niramakulam, Patyam, and
Marakkara.
Pot and Dish: Regularly identified at various sites, including Marakkara and Oliyani.

Rare Finds:
Black Polished Dish on Stand: Uncommon, found at Oliyani.
Black Polished Cup: Reported from Oliyani.
Umbrella Stone: A black ware bowl was found at Anakkara.

Russet Coated Painted Ware

Russet coated painted ware, typically associated with Early Historic periods, also
appears in several Megalithic sites in South India. Initially linked to Satavahana coins
as Andhra painted ware, it has since been found in Tamil Nadu and extensively in
Kerala. It is characterized by its red and black-and-red varieties, with well-levigated
clay and medium to coarse fabric. Slip covers both surfaces, and the pottery often
features designs like wavy lines and horizontal bands.

Common Shapes:
Bowls and Jars: Frequently found in North and Central Kerala, as well as in
excavations at Kuttippala, Vattakulam, and Anakkara.
Rare Finds:
Large Pot: Reported from Anakkara.
Russet Coated Painted Bowl: Noted at Vattakulam and Kuttippala.

Other Pottery types

➢ Micaceous Grey Ware: noticed for the first time in Poredam Excavation.
➢ Chocolate Coloured Ware: bowls, medium sized pots, small pots, funnel
shaped lids with knobbed handles and ring stands were noticed in
Niramakulam cist burial
➢ Grey Ware with incised lines: north Kerala by Gregory and Ramesh
➢ Black Lid with a Knob: north Kerala by Gregory and Ramesh

➢ Metallurgy and Skill

➢ Tools, implements, ornaments and households identified along with the burials
were made of the metals like iron, copper, bronze and gold. They demonstrate
the skill and technological development of megalithic people. During the Iron
Age phase in Kerala, the inhabitants have the knowledge about how to liquefy
and melt the metals and to manufacture the tools.

➢ Iron Metallurgy

➢ Iron was the predominant metal from the Iron Age burials of Megalithic
context; a wide variety of iron implements and agro-tools were identified along
with the megaliths. The metallic hook from Pazhayannur is the best example of
metallurgical skill of megalithic people. The tool contained 99.62% of pure iron
and it was free of air bubbles. The scientific analysis of iron objects from
Pazhayannur had shown two iron technologies, folding and forging which
indicates the level of smelting technology is enough to the production of
carbonized steel. Probably the heating activity needed terracotta crucibles, use
of charcoal and specific mode of firing were appropriate to the casting of iron
(Gurukkal & Varier 1999: 133).
Iron Implements from Megalithic Sites in Kerala

Common Shapes Found:

Axes: Frequently found, e.g., Poredam and Anakkara.
Sickles: Commonly reported, e.g., Poredam, Oliyani, and Mullan Kunnu.
Daggers: Commonly found, e.g., Arippa, Valiyapadam, Oliyani, and
Perumundasserry.
Swords: Frequently reported, e.g., Mangadu, Oliyani, Anakkara, and Kunnukara.

Rare Finds:
Wedges: Less common, found at Mangadu , Valiyapadam, and Kunnukara.
Tridents: Rarely found, reported at Viyyur, Anakkara.
Hooks and Nails: Rare, e.g., Marakkara.
Special Types: Unique implements such as an iron rod with hilt and curved
projections from Kadanad Megaliths, and tripod stands from Anakkara and
Pattappiriyam.

Other Metals and Metallurgy

Until now, copper is not regionally available in Kerala coast; probably the raw
materials are arriving from some kind of extra regional trade. According to the
Gurukkal & Varier (1999) copper was possibly obtained from the West Asian maritime
contacts of Megalithic people. Some Metal objects from Arippa contained a significant
percentage of copper than iron and vice versa. Bronze bowl from Thiruvilvamala
contained 86.78% copper, 12.34% tin and 0.49% of antimony. These factors suggested
that some of the materials like tin bronze are not regionally available and ethnographic
studies indicate that the artefacts were locally manufactured. In other words the
megalithic people might have imported non-local metals and made artefacts with their
metallurgical skills. The gold sheets (0.0075mm) from Arippa indicate the
metallurgical skill of the megalithic community and gold ornaments from Puliyur
demonstrates the craftsmanship and aesthetic sense of megalithic community.

Gold
➢ Gold ornaments, including an ear ornament, was found from Puliyoor
(Satyamurthy 1992).
➢ A gold leaf was collected from cist II at Kurumannu- Kadanadu
Location III (Nambirajan and Kumaran 2011:123-128).
➢ Two rings, Ummachipoyyil, ASI
Copper
➢ A copper bangle was found from Arippa
 ➢ A few copper dishes have been recovered from a dolmenoid cist at
Ambalamedu
➢ Three slotted gold ear rings were found at Arippa
Bronze
➢ The bronze vessel excavated from the umbrella stone at Perambra is
highly polished, thin and fragile. It is 18 cm high and 15 cm broad at the
shoulder. The vessel has an external flaring over collared rim, vertical
flat neck, slightly oblique shoulder and tapering profile with a flat base
(John 1982:148-154).
➢ Bronze bowl from Thiruvilvamala contained 86.78% copper, 12.34% tin
and 0.49% of antimony.
➢ Bronze vessels in shape of jars, vases, bowls, lamps and knobbed lids
were noticed in Pattapiriyam village in Malappuram district by
Muhammed (IAR1989-90:45).

MODULE - III

Iron Age and Early Historic Period in Kerala (500 BCE–500 CE)

Primordial Phase of Kerala History

➢ Recognized as a foundational period in Kerala’s history (Gurukkal & Raghava

Varier, 1999).
➢ Historical studies largely rely on early Tamil Sangam literature, epigraphs, and
archaeological evidence.
➢ Post-2000 archaeological developments remain underutilized in Kerala's
historical studies.

Socio-Economic Organization

➢ The society was well-organized, with a robust agro-pastoral and exchange-

based economy.
➢ Stratified community comprising:
➢ Farmers, cattle herders, anglers, and traders
➢ Ritual performers, ruling elites, warriors, and plunderers
➢ Bards and specialized occupational groups (weavers, potters, bead
manufacturers, etc.)

Technological Developments

➢ Advances in metalworking, masonry, pottery, and weaving.

➢ Specialized activities like bead manufacturing and construction of memorial
stone structures.
 ➢ Marked techno-economic specialization and diversification.

Revisiting Early History

➢ Recent studies emphasize Kerala's early society as advanced, stratified, and

technologically developed.

Several prominent historians and archaeologists have contributed to the study of

Kerala’s early history:

1. M.R. Raghava Varier: Focused on Sangam literature, Tamil inscriptions,

and Kerala’s social formations. Co-authored Kerala Charitram.

2. K.N. Ganesh: Explored agrarian systems, feudal relations, and Kerala’s

transition from early historic to medieval periods. Author of Keralathinte
Innalekal.

3. A, Sreedhara Menon: Documented Kerala’s history comprehensively in A

Survey of Kerala History, making it widely accessible.

4. Rajan Gurukkal: Analyzed trade guilds, megalithic culture, and early

socio-economic structures in works like Social Formations of Early South
India.

5. Ajit Kumar: Focused on Kerala’s megalithic monuments and early historic

settlements, leading significant excavations.

6. M.G.S. Narayanan: Studied the Chera rulers and medieval Kerala polity in
Perumals of Kerala.

7. P.J. Cherian: Led research at Pattanam (Muziris), highlighting Kerala’s role

in ancient maritime trade.

8. Iravadham Mahadevan: Studied Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, shedding light

on early Chera history.

9. S. Suresh: Explored Roman trade connections with Kerala, emphasizing its

role in Indian Ocean trade.

These scholars, through their studies of inscriptions, literature, archaeology, and

trade, have enriched our understanding of Kerala’s early history.
Traces of the Iron Age and Early Historic Past in Kerala

Megaliths as Primary Archaeological Evidence

Megaliths are monumental sepulchral structures commemorating ancestors, widely

found in Peninsular India, including Kerala.

These structures reflect the socio-economic setting, ideology, and technological

advancements of Iron Age and early historic societies (Gurukkal and Raghava Varier
1999:101–115; Rajesh 2017:486–506).

Typologies in Kerala:

Materials Used: Laterite, granite, terracotta, and combinations of these.

Artifacts discovered from megalithic sites:

Potteries: Black and Red Wares, Black Wares, Red Slipped Wares, legged jars, lids,
stands, Russet Coated Painted Wares.

Iron Objects: Tridents, swords, daggers, knives, sickles, ploughshares, spearheads,

arrowheads, hanging lamps, tripods.

Stone Beads: Etched carnelian, agate, quartz, amethyst, steatite, beryl.

Rare Finds: Gold ornaments, bronze objects, and human bone fragments.

Please Note That the Megaliths and Early History are Note the Same - The Iron Age
Megaliths and Early Historic Period are Co-Exisited- Therefore They Ought to
Cultural Exchanges

Pattanam and Vizhinjam Excavations

➢ Excavations at Pattanam (V. Selvakumar et al., 2005; Cherian, 2015) and

Vizhinjam (Ajit Kumar et al., 2013) have provided evidence of:
➢ Development of a well-organized material culture linked to internal and
external trade networks.
➢ The existence of a proto-urban society on Kerala’s west coast during the Iron
Age and early historic periods.
➢ Artifacts include ceramics, trade goods, and structural remains indicating
commercial and cultural exchanges.

Indigenous Records

Epigraphs
Ashokan Edicts (3rd Century BCE):

➢ Ashoka’s Rock Edict II and XIII refer to the southern regions of Keralaputra
(Chera Kingdom), Cholas, Pandyas, and Satyaputras as areas outside Mauryan
control but influenced by Ashoka's Dhamma.
➢ This is one of the earliest mentions of Kerala in historical sources, emphasizing
its distinct identity during the Mauryan period.
➢ While these edicts do not directly originate from Kerala, they confirm the
existence and recognition of Kerala (as the Chera Kingdom) in the Mauryan
administrative and cultural horizon.

Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions:

➢ Found in various parts of Tamilakam, some Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions are

linked to regions that later formed part of Kerala.
➢ Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from Kerala, such as the one found at Edakkal Caves
(Wayanad), reveal connections with the broader Tamilakam region and the use
of early Tamil script for trade and governance. This inscription contains Tamil-
Brahmi script and mentions a local chieftain. It indicates cultural and trade
connections within the Tamilakam region, which included Kerala during the
Sangam period.

The Mangulam inscription

The Mangulam inscription, discovered by Robert Sewell in 1882 at Mangulam Hill (or
Kalugumalai), records significant details about early historic polity. It mentions that
workers under Neṭuñceḻiyaṉ I, a Pandyan king of the Sangam period (c. 270 BCE),
carved stone beds for Jain monks. These beds were sponsored by a trade guild called
Nigama, which was active in the Chera region, likely corresponding to present-day
Kerala. Furthermore, Neṭuñceḻiyaṉ I is considered a contemporary of the Chera king
Chenkuttuvan. Thus, the Mangulam inscription serves as an indirect record of
political dynamics in early historic Kerala.

Chera Copper Plates (Later Period):

➢ Though significant copper plate inscriptions like the Tharisappalli Plates date
to the medieval period, earlier traditions of grants and records from the Chera
period are believed to have existed, as suggested by Sangam literature and
secondary records.
References in Sangam Era Texts (1st-3rd Century CE):

➢ While not inscriptions, Tamil Sangam texts mention political entities and rulers
from Kerala, such as the Cheras, who controlled parts of present-day Kerala.
➢ These texts, in conjunction with inscriptions from Tamil Nadu, provide indirect
evidence of the socio-political structure in early Kerala.

Challenges in Early Epigraphy of Kerala

➢ Early Tamil-Brahmi, Grantha, and Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions provide linguistic

and administrative details of the period (Gurukkal & Raghava Varier, 1999;
Mahadevan, 2003).
➢ The wet climatic conditions in Kerala make the preservation of early
inscriptions challenging. As a result, most early records about Kerala come
from external sources, such as Ashokan inscriptions or Tamil-Brahmi records
from adjoining regions.

Literary Source

Sangam Literature (1st-3rd Century CE):

➢ Composed between 300 BCE and 500 CE, these texts provide insights into the
sociocultural and economic life of early Kerala:
➢ Tamil Sangam texts, such as Akananuru, Purananuru, and Pathitrupathu,
provide extensive descriptions of the Chera rulers, trade activities, and cultural
life in Kerala.
➢ Tolkāppiyam: A grammar text by Tolkāppiyar categorizing poetry into Akam
(inner life—romantic and domestic themes) and Puram (outer life—military
and societal themes) (Kailasapathy 1968; Sivathamby 1974).
➢ Eṭṭutokai (Eight Anthologies), Pattupāṭṭu (Ten Songs), and Patineṉkīḻkaṉakku
(Eighteen Minor Works).
➢ Post-Sangam Works: Cilappaṭikāram, Maṉimēkhalai, and Kīḻkaṉakku.
➢ The Chera king Senguttuvan, mentioned in Silappadikaram, is credited with
promoting trade and building infrastructure.
➢ Themes covered include trade, heroism, family life, and cultural practices,
offering a comprehensive view of early Tamilakam.

Foreign Records

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st Century CE):

➢ The Greek text mentions Muziris (Muchiri), a prominent port in Kerala, as a

hub for the trade of pepper, ivory, and gemstones.
 ➢ It describes the presence of Roman merchants and the use of local and Roman
coins in trade, indicating Kerala's role in the global economy.

Pliny the Elder (1st Century CE):

➢ In Natural History, Pliny refers to the "most famous port of Muziris" where
Roman merchants procured pepper and spices in exchange for gold.
➢ He notes the dangers of the voyage to Kerala, showcasing the high demand for
its resources in the Roman Empire.

Ptolemy’s Geography (2nd Century CE):

➢ Ptolemy lists ports such as Muziris and Nelcynda on Kerala’s western coast,
emphasizing its strategic importance in Indian Ocean trade networks.

Muziris Papyrus (2nd Century CE):

➢ This document details a trade agreement involving the import of pepper from
Muziris to Alexandria. It confirms the Periplus' accounts of active Roman trade.

Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th Century CE):

➢ This Byzantine monk and traveler mentions the flourishing spice trade of
Kerala and its involvement in Christian trading networks.

Coins:

Findings of Chera Coins in Kerala

The Chera coins from Kerala, dating back to the Sangam period, are significant
markers of early historic South Indian numismatics. These coins provide valuable
insights into the political symbols, trade, and cultural identity of the Chera Kingdom.

Alangad (North Paravur, Ernakulam District): Three coins were discovered in an

earthen pot during agricultural digging. Two coins were semicircular, and one was
square. The coins feature a bow and arrow symbol on the obverse and an elephant on
the reverse (Sreekumar, 1999, p. 162).

Pattanam (Muziris Site): Excavations at Pattanam from 2007 onward unearthed

multiple Chera copper coins. The coins display: Obverse: Bow and arrow with clear
legends. Reverse: Elephant motif. The context of these finds at Pattanam, identified
with the ancient port of Muziris, highlights Kerala’s role as a vibrant trade hub during
the Sangam period.

Punch-Marked Coins: An Overview for Archaeology Students

Punch-marked coins represent the earliest coinage in India and are considered of
indigenous origin by most scholars. These coins were primarily made of silver, with
copper variants being rare. They come in various sizes and weights, and their shapes
include rectangular, square, and sometimes irregular forms. The term punch-marked
refers to the method of production, where symbols were stamped onto the coins using
punches.

Characteristics of Punch-Marked Coins

Material: Predominantly silver; copper examples are less common.

Design: Lacked legends or inscriptions.

Displayed a variety of symbols, such as hills, birds, trees, animals, human figures,
floral motifs, and geometrical patterns. The purpose of these symbols remains unclear,
adding an element of mystery to these coins (Vanaja, 1983).

Production Period: Circulated during a time when writing was not widespread in
India and thus were rarely inscribed (Goyal, 1995).

Technique: Created by stamping symbols onto blank pieces of metal using a punch.

Findings in Kerala

Several silver punch-marked coin hoards have been discovered in Kerala, suggesting
extensive trade connections with other regions. These coins are not considered of
Kerala origin but indicate active circulation in the region.

Major Hoards:

Elikulamkara Hoard (Kottayam District): Found in 1946, consisting of 184 coins, with
162 classified.

Total: 218 coins from Elikulamkara and Eyyal combined (Gupta, 1965).

Eyyal Hoard (Thrissur District): Found in the same year as Elikulamkara and
contributed 34 coins to the total hoard.

Kodusserry Hoard (Ernakulam District): Discovered near Angamaly, inside an

earthen jar unearthed during house construction. Contained 783 silver coins, currently
housed in the Numismatics Study Center, Nedumangad, Thiruvananthapuram
(Satyamurthy, 1994).

Minting Evidence:

A punch-marked die discovered in Karur (Tamil Nadu) suggests the minting of these
coins outside Kerala but supports their circulation in the region (Murthy, 1994).
Historical Significance:

The discovery of these coins in Kerala emphasizes the state's role in early historic trade
and its connections to wider economic networks in India.

Conclusion

Punch-marked coins provide a valuable window into India's early monetary systems,
trade, and cultural exchanges. The finds from Kerala highlight the state’s inclusion in
broader economic activities during this period, despite the coins' non-local origin.

Medieval Kerala

The inscriptions and foreign records mentioned earlier serve as invaluable sources for
reconstructing the socio-economic and political conditions of medieval Kerala. Here
is a comprehensive analysis based on the evidence:

Inscriptions
8th Century CE

1. Vazhappally Copper Plate (circa 9th century CE)

• Context: Issued by Kulasekhara Varman Sthanu Ravi of the Second Chera
Empire.
• Content: Land donation to Vazhappally Mahadeva Temple, with mentions of
temple administration.
• Script and Language: Tamil-Malayalam in Vatteluttu.
• Significance: Highlights early temple patronage and temple-based
administrative roles.

2. Tharisapalli Copper Plates (849 CE)

• Context: Issued by Ayyan Adikal Thiruvadikal to Christian merchants for
establishing a settlement at Kollam (Quilon).
• Content: Grants land, privileges, and tax exemptions to Christian settlers,
including rights to practice their religion.
• Significance: Shows Kerala's religious tolerance and trade-centric policies
during the medieval period.

3. Anjuvannam Copper Plates (849 CE)

• Context: Issued by King Sthanu Ravi to the Anjuvannam guild, a prominent
trade organization in Kerala.
• Content: Confers privileges and autonomy to guild members, ensuring free
trade activities.
 • Significance: Reflects the prominence of trade networks and guild structures
in medieval Kerala’s economy.

9th Century CE

4. Parthivapuram Inscription (9th century CE)

• Context: Found in the Parthivapuram Vishnu Temple, attributed to the Ay
dynasty.
• Content: Mentions donations to the temple and land grants by rulers.
• Significance: Demonstrates the Ay rulers' role in spreading temple culture and
administrative activities in southern Kerala.
5. Foreign Records – Al-Masudi (9th century CE)
• Context: Al-Masudi, an Arab historian and traveler, referred to Kerala's active
role in Indian Ocean trade.
• Content: Describes Kerala's pepper trade, ports, and its significance in
international commerce.
• Significance: Confirms Kerala’s reputation as a key hub in global spice trade
networks.

10th Century CE

6. Jewish Copper Plates of Bhaskara Ravi Varman (circa 1000 CE)

• Context: Issued to Joseph Rabban, a Jewish merchant leader in Kodungallur
(Cranganore).
• Content: Grants trade rights, privileges, and tax exemptions to the Jewish
community.
• Significance: Highlights Kerala’s multicultural trade environment and its
welcoming attitude towards foreign settlers.
7. Iringalakkuda Copper Plates (10th century CE)
• Context: Found in the Kudalmanikyam Temple, documenting land donations
and privileges.
• Significance: Demonstrates temple patronage and its integration with local
administrative systems.
8. Foreign Records – Abu Zayd Al-Sirafi (10th century CE)
• Context: Abu Zayd, a Persian traveler, described the wealth of Malabar and the
prominence of its ports.
• Content: Notes Kerala's active engagement in maritime trade, particularly with
Arabs and Chinese.
• Significance: Validates the role of Kerala as a central player in Indian Ocean
trade.
12th Century CE

9. Tiruvalla Temple Inscription (12th century CE)

• Context: Found in the Sreevallabha Temple, mentions donations and
construction activities.
• Significance: Indicates the growing influence of local rulers in religious
activities.
10. Ettumanoor Temple Inscription (12th century CE)
• Context: Records extensive land grants for temple rituals and maintenance.
• Significance: Highlights temple-centered economic structures in medieval
Kerala.

13th Century CE

11. Avittathur Inscription (13th century CE)

• Context: Mentions land grants and patronage to Avittathur Mahadeva Temple
by local chieftains.
• Significance: Reflects the feudal setup and the interconnectedness of temple
and state.

12. Triprangode Inscription (13th century CE)

• Context: Found at Triprangode Temple, documents donations by the Zamorin
rulers.
• Significance: Marks the rising prominence of the Zamorin dynasty in northern
Kerala.

13. Foreign Records – Marco Polo (1292 CE)

• Context: Italian traveler Marco Polo visited Kerala during his voyage.
• Content: Detailed the prosperity of Kozhikode (Calicut) and the Malabar
Coast’s vibrant trade.
• Significance: Highlights Kerala's thriving spice trade, especially in pepper.

14th Century CE

14. Vadakkunnathan Temple Inscriptions (14th century CE)

• Context: Records donations by Chera and Zamorin rulers to Thrissur's
Vadakkunnathan Temple.
 • Significance: Highlights the region's importance as a religious and cultural
hub.

15. Foreign Records – Ibn Battuta (1342 CE)

• Context: Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta visited Kozhikode and other regions of
Kerala.
• Content: Describes the Zamorin's hospitality, security for merchants, and
Kozhikode's prominence as a trading hub.
• Significance: Confirms the central role of Kerala in medieval maritime trade
and governance.

16. Foreign Records – Ma Huan (1409 CE)

• Context: Chinese traveler Ma Huan visited Kerala as part of Zheng He’s fleet.
• Content: Highlights Kozhikode as a flourishing trade center and the strategic
importance of its ports.
• Significance: Reflects Kerala's economic and cultural connections with China
during the Ming dynasty.

15th Century CE

17. Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple Inscriptions (15th century CE)

• Context: Found in Thiruvananthapuram, detailing grants and renovations
under the Venad rulers.
• Significance: Indicates the rise of Venad as a political and cultural center.

18. Bekal and Chandragiri Fort Inscriptions (15th century CE)

• Context: Found in northern Kerala fortifications, mentioning Kolathiri rulers'
contributions to defense and trade.
• Significance: Reflects the military strategies of medieval Kerala rulers.

19. Foreign Records – Niccolò de' Conti (15th century CE)

• Context: Italian traveler Niccolò de' Conti visited Kerala and wrote about its
prosperous trade, pepper cultivation, and cultural practices.
• Significance: Reinforces the portrayal of Kerala as a critical player in Indian
Ocean trade networks.

Literary Records of Medieval Kerala

1. Early Tamil Sangam and Post-Sangam Literature (7th–9th Century CE)

A. Sangam Literature
1. Pattupattu and Ettuthokai (compiled by the 3rd century CE but influential in
Kerala up to the 9th century CE):
o Though earlier than the 7th century, these texts were influential during
this period.
o Poems such as Purananuru and Akananuru contain references to the
Chera dynasty and their trade relationships, pepper cultivation, and
ports like Muziris (present-day Kodungallur).

B. Thevaram Hymns by Tamil Saiva Nayanars (7th–8th Century CE)

• Composed by Appar, Sundarar, and Sambandar, these devotional hymns
often reference Kerala’s temples and Saivite traditions.
• They highlight the connection between Tamilakam and Kerala’s religious life.

2. Adi Shankaracharya’s Philosophical Works (8th Century CE)

•
• Commentaries on the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Brahmasutras:
o Adi Shankaracharya, a native of Kaladi in Kerala, wrote profound
commentaries establishing Advaita Vedanta.
o These texts influenced Kerala’s intellectual traditions and established its
role in Indian philosophical history.
•
• Saundaryalahari (attributed to Shankaracharya):
o A devotional text celebrating Goddess Saraswati, highlighting the
integration of Bhakti with Vedanta.

3. Jain and Buddhist Influence (8th–10th Century CE)

• Jainism and Buddhism had dwindling influence during this period, but traces
remain in folklore and early literary traditions.

• Jain Prabandhas (historical chronicles):

o These records were later preserved in Tamil and early Malayalam
ballads. Jain temples in Wayanad and Palakkad provide epigraphic and
architectural evidence.

4. Ramacharitam (12th Century CE)

• Considered the earliest Malayalam literary work, composed by an anonymous
poet.
• Written in a mix of Tamil and Malayalam, it narrates the story of Rama,
drawing heavily from Tamil Sangam traditions.
 • The text reflects the transition from Tamil to Malayalam as a literary language.

5. Manipravalam Literature (13th–14th Century CE)

A. Lilatilakam (14th Century CE)

• A seminal treatise codifying the Manipravalam style, which combines Sanskrit
and Malayalam.
• The text is crucial for understanding the evolution of Malayalam grammar and
poetics.

B. Unniyadi Charitham, Unniyarchi Charitham, Unnichirutevi Charitam

(13th–15th Century CE)

• Early narrative works in Manipravalam.

• These texts focus on heroic stories and local legends, reflecting Kerala’s feudal
socio-political structure.

6. Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads)

• Oral ballads recounting the valor and heroism of warriors like Thacholi
Othenan and Aromal Chekavar.
• These stories reflect the martial traditions and feudal conflicts in medieval
Kerala.

7. Thekkan Pattukal (Southern Ballads)

• Devotional ballads celebrating folk deities and local heroes in the southern
regions of Kerala.
• These ballads highlight the syncretic culture and religious life of the period.

8. Religious and Ritualistic Texts (13th–15th Century CE)

A. Tantrasamuccaya (14th Century CE)

• Authored by Chennas Narayanan Namboothiri, this text is a manual on
temple architecture, rituals, and iconography.
• It underscores the temple-centric society of Kerala, where temple rituals
dictated daily life
•
B. Kramadeepika
• A ritual manual focusing on the performance of temple rites and religious
observances.
9. Folk and Oral Traditions
• Stories and legends passed down orally form a significant part of Kerala’s
cultural memory.
• These traditions were later recorded in ballads and prose works.

10. Foreign Literary Records (9th–15th Century CE)

A. Arab Accounts
1. Al-Masudi’s Muruj al-Dhahab (10th Century CE)
o Describes Kerala’s spice trade, maritime prowess, and cultural practices.
o References to ports like Kollam and Muziris emphasize Kerala’s role in
international trade.

2. Ibn Battuta’s Rihla (14th Century CE)

o Offers insights into Kerala's social customs, feudal conflicts, and the
hospitality of the Zamorin.
o Describes Calicut as a bustling port with diverse communities.

B. Chinese Records
1. Ma Huan’s Yingyai Shenglan (15th Century CE)
o Provides details on Kerala's thriving pepper trade, the cordiality of
rulers, and maritime infrastructure.

C. European Accounts
1. Marco Polo’s Travelogues (13th Century CE)
o Highlights Kerala’s spice wealth and the efficiency of its maritime trade
networks.

Socio-Economic, Political, and Cultural Status of Kerala in the Medieval Period

The inscriptions and literary evidence from the medieval period reveal a dynamic and
multifaceted society in Kerala. This era was marked by significant developments in
trade, religion, governance, and culture, shaped by internal dynamics and interactions
with the wider world.

Socio-Economic Status

1. Temple-Centric Society:
o The inscriptions, such as the Vazhappally Copper Plate, Tharisapalli
Copper Plates, and Tiruvalla Temple Inscription, highlight the pivotal
 role of temples as centers of religious, economic, and administrative
activity.
o Temples acted as economic hubs where surplus wealth from agriculture
and trade was redistributed. Land grants to temples ensured sustained
rituals and cultural activities.

2. Agrarian Economy:
o The predominance of land grants and agrarian references in inscriptions
points to a primarily agricultural economy. Cultivation of spices like
pepper, as described by foreign travelers like Marco Polo, was a critical
export commodity.

3. Trade and Commerce:

o Kerala’s ports, such as Kollam and Kodungallur, were vibrant trade
centers.
o Inscriptions like the Jewish Copper Plates and accounts by travelers like
Al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta emphasize Kerala’s active participation in
the Indian Ocean trade network.
o The privileges given to Christian, Jewish, and Anjuvannam traders
demonstrate a multicultural trade environment. Products like pepper,
ivory, and textiles were in high demand in global markets.

4. Guild Systems:
o Trade guilds such as the Anjuvannam and Manigramam were
prominent, as reflected in the Anjuvannam Copper Plates. These guilds
played a significant role in regulating trade and protecting merchant
interests.

Political Status

1. Second Chera Empire (9th–12th Century CE):

o The period witnessed the resurgence of the Cheras, as evidenced by the
Vazhappally Copper Plate.
o Their rule was marked by centralized governance, patronage of temples,
and diplomatic relationships with trade communities.

2. Feudal Polity:
o The inscriptions indicate a feudal structure, with local chieftains and
landlords managing administrative affairs.
 o Feudal lords like the Zamorins of Kozhikode rose to prominence by the
13th century, as highlighted in the Triprangode Inscription and Marco
Polo’s accounts.

3. Strategic Defense:
o The Bekal and Chandragiri Fort Inscriptions underscore efforts to
secure trade routes and fortify the coastline, reflecting the military
strategies of Kerala rulers.

4. Religious Tolerance and Diplomacy:

o The Tharisapalli and Jewish Copper Plates reveal the rulers’ diplomatic
acumen in fostering religious and cultural diversity to boost trade.

Cultural Status

1. Religious Diversity and Integration:

o Kerala's society was a confluence of Hindu, Christian, Jewish, and later
Islamic traditions.
o Temples like the Sreevallabha Temple and churches in Kollam highlight
the coexistence of multiple religious practices.

2. Philosophical Contributions:
o Adi Shankaracharya’s works established Kerala as a center of Advaita
Vedanta philosophy.
o The integration of Bhakti and philosophical traditions is reflected in
texts like Saundaryalahari.

3. Literary Flourishing:
o The emergence of Malayalam as a literary language began with works
like Ramacharitam, transitioning from Tamil traditions.
o Manipravalam literature, exemplified by Lilatilakam, highlights the
blending of Sanskrit and Malayalam.

4. Art and Architecture:

o Texts like the Tantrasamuccaya and inscriptions on temple renovations,
such as at Vadakkunnathan Temple, showcase Kerala’s unique
architectural styles and ritual traditions.

5. Oral Traditions:
 o Ballads like Vadakkan Pattukal and Thekkan Pattukal capture the
martial and devotional ethos of the period, emphasizing local heroism
and spiritual fervor.

Global Interactions

1. Arab, Chinese, and European Connections:

o Accounts by travelers like Al-Masudi, Ma Huan, and Marco Polo
underline Kerala’s integration into global maritime networks.
o These records mention the flourishing pepper trade, efficient ports, and
the multicultural society that facilitated global commerce.

2. Technological and Cultural Exchanges:

o The arrival of foreign settlers brought new technologies, cultural
practices, and religious ideas, enriching Kerala's society.

Conclusion
Medieval Kerala was a vibrant society characterized by religious and cultural
plurality, economic prosperity, and political dynamism. Its thriving trade networks,
temple-centered administration, and literary advancements illustrate a well-
integrated and progressive medieval culture, deeply connected to both local traditions
and global currents.

The Early Historic sites like Muziris (Pattanam) and Vizhinjam has the ocuurance of
atiquties up to the medieval period. Pattanam was excavated by Kerala council for
historical reserch and Vizhinjam excavated by University of Kerala under the
supervision of Ajit Kumar in 2012-2013 field seasons. Details of these sites will be
provided in the upcoming module deals with the maritime trade. Other important
excavations conducted in the medieval sites f Kerla by the State Archaeolgy,
Government of Kerala.

Kodungallur (Exploratory excavation in 1945, excavations in 1969–70)

• Pottery shards, Chinese celadon vessels, and roofing tiles found at
Cheramanparamba.

Cheramanparamba (Kodungallur, 1969–70)

• Pottery shards, Chinese celadon vessels, and roofing tiles.

Mathilakam (Kodungallur, 1969–70)

 • Remains of large laterite walls and coins from Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra
Chola times.

Thyckal (Kadakkarapally) (Alappuzha, 2002–03)

• Wooden sailing boat recovered, 18.7 meters long with bone fragments, iron
nails, sea shells, and pottery shards.

Chandragiri Fort (Kasargod)

• Archaeological surveys and excavations conducted.

Kottappuram Fort (Kodungallur, since 2007)

• Chinese porcelain, celadon shards, cannonballs, pottery, and other relics.

Tipu Sulthan Fortifications (Feroke, Kozhikode, recent years)

• Coins, Chinese celadon wares, pottery, musket balls, and glazed ceramics.

Other important excavations conducted in medieval sites are by

Archaeological Survey of India

Kodungallur

• Archaeological efforts in Kodungallur began in 1945, but the initial findings

were limited to artifacts from the 13th century. In 1969, the ASI conducted
excavations at Cheraman Parambu, 2 km north of Kodungallur, and found
items from the 13th to 16th centuries.

Bekal Fort

• Bekal Fort located in the village of Pallikkare in Kasargod district, was

originally built by the Ikkeri Nayakas. Over the centuries, it came under the
occupation of Haider Ali, Tippu Sultan, and later, the British. Archaeological
excavations were conducted here over four seasons (1997–98 to 2000–01) under
the direction of T. Satyamurti, the then Superintending Archaeologist of the
Thrissur Circle, to determine the cultural sequence, extent of occupation, and
details of structural remains.

• Significant structures identified during the excavations include a residential

complex, palace complex, mint, Durbar Hall, and associated buildings. Notable
antiquities recovered from the site include coins, metal objects (including gold),
 and terracotta seals. Among these finds, the most remarkable metal objects are
attributed to the period of Tippu Sultan, shedding light on the fort's history
during his reign.

University of Kerala

Kumbla Fort or Arikkady Fort

• Arikadi Fort, also known as Kumbla Fort, is situated in the Kasaragod district
of Kerala, India. It is located approximately 1 km from Kumbla, along the NH
66 National Highway, between the Kumbala and Shiriya rivers. A Hanuman
temple is located at the base of the fort.
• In 2015, a team from the Department of Archaeology, University of Kerala,
conducted excavations at the site as part of the research project A Survey of Forts,
jointly funded by the University Grants Commission (UGC) and the University
of Kerala. The excavations revealed a large hall, possibly used for
congregations, and unearthed significant artifacts, including roof tiles, local
pottery, Chinese pottery, lead bullets, and a mold used for making bullets.

Medieval Explored Sites in Kerala:

State Archaeology Kerala

1. Kodungallur (Exploratory digging in 1945, 1969–70)

o Exploration included sites like Cheramanparamba,
Thrikkulasekharapuram, Balaganeswaram, Mathilakam, and
Karuppadanna.

2. Hero Stones in Attappadi (Palakkad)

• Exploration led to the discovery of 17 hero stones in Puthur, Agali, Kottathara,
and Attappadi.

University of Kerala

Since the 2010s, the University of Kerala has extensively surveyed medieval
archaeological sites in Kerala. Notable contributions in this field have been made by
scholars such as Mohammed Muhaseen B. S., Ajit Kumar, Vinuraj B., and Reni P.
Josep. The medieval sites explored by them include the following:

1. Kaduthuruthy
 o Location: Present-day Kottayam district, Kerala.
o Significance: Kaduthuruthy, mentioned in medieval literary works, was
a vibrant settlement located along important trade and travel routes.
o Ceramic Evidence: Explorations around Kaduthuruthy have yielded
medieval pottery fragments, including black-and-red ware and coarse
red ware. These ceramics suggest domestic use and trade-related
activities in the region.
o Historical Context: Its strategic location and literary mentions highlight
its role as a hub of activity, potentially linking inland regions with
coastal trade.

2. Kollam (Kulapurim)
o Location: A historic port city in Kerala, central to the ancient and
medieval spice trade.
o Significance: Kollam, a key port on the Arabian Sea, served as a center
for global trade.
o Ceramic Evidence: Excavations and explorations in the Kollam area
have revealed pottery fragments, including imported ceramics such as
Chinese porcelain, Middle Eastern glazed wares, and local red ware.
These finds underline Kollam’s role in the medieval maritime trade
network.
o Historical Context: The presence of imported ceramics highlights
Kollam’s connections with the Indian Ocean trade and its bustling
marketplace.

3. Kayamkulam
o Location: Present-day Alappuzha district, Kerala.
o Significance: Kayamkulam was a flourishing trade center in medieval
Kerala, known for its backwater connectivity and proximity to the
Arabian Sea.
o Ceramic Evidence: Explorations have uncovered medieval pottery,
including cooking ware and storage jars, indicating both residential and
commercial usage.
o Historical Context: The discovery of ceramics in Kayamkulam supports
the narrative of its thriving marketplace and interaction with other
regions through trade routes.

4. Thrikkannamathilakom
o Location: Thrissur district, Kerala.
 o Significance: Known for its cultural and religious prominence during
medieval times, it also functioned as an economic hub.
o Ceramic Evidence: Medieval ceramic fragments, particularly red ware
and cooking pottery, were discovered during surveys.
o Historical Context: The ceramic findings suggest a settlement with a mix
of domestic and economic activities, emphasizing its role in trade and
regional interaction.

Archaeological Sites with Marketplaces

1. Puthidam (Poothura)
o Location: Identified near the coastal regions of southern Kerala.
o Significance: This medieval market is frequently mentioned in the 14th-
century poem Unnuneelisandesham. It was known for its vibrant trade in
spices, textiles, and local produce.
o Historical Context: As a coastal market, it played a crucial role in
facilitating trade between hinterlands and maritime regions.
Inscriptions mention the movement of goods and traders in the area.

2. Kayamkulam Market
o Location: Kayamkulam, Alappuzha district, Kerala.
o Significance: A bustling medieval trade center, the Kayamkulam market
was linked to maritime and inland trade networks.
o Historical Context: The market was vital for the distribution of goods
such as spices, rice, and ceramics. References in historical records and
oral traditions point to its prominence in medieval Kerala.

3. Kollam Port (Kulapurim)

o Location: Kollam, Kerala.
o Significance: As a major port city, Kollam had extensive markets
catering to traders from the Middle East, China, and Southeast Asia.
o Marketplace Features: Inscriptions and historical records describe the
vibrant trade in spices, textiles, and luxury goods. The nearby market
would have been essential for both local consumption and international
trade.
o Historical Context: Its marketplace thrived due to its accessibility by sea
and land, becoming one of the richest trade centers in the medieval
period.
 4. Mattom
o Location: Northern Kerala, exact identification debated but linked with
Kannur region.
o Significance: Mentioned in historical texts, Mattom was a regional trade
center.
o Marketplace Features: Known for its role in the distribution of
agricultural produce and trade goods. The name is linked with
marketplaces in local lore.
o Historical Context: The market activity reflects the importance of inland
trade in medieval Kerala, connecting coastal ports with the hinterland.

5. Varkala (Puthidam Market)

o Location: Present-day Varkala, Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala.
o Significance: A coastal town with historical references to trade and
market activities. Varkala’s market is mentioned in inscriptions as a
significant point for resource distribution.
o Historical Context: Varkala’s geographical positioning between Kollam
and Thiruvananthapuram made it a critical trade link, especially for
maritime traders accessing the inland regions.

MODULE- IV

Trade Activities of Kerala

Introduction
Kerala's trade history is marked by extensive maritime and overland connections with
foreign lands, driven primarily by its fame as a hub for spices. These interactions
spanned millennia and facilitated cultural exchanges, influencing Kerala's societal and
religious fabric.

Early Foreign Contacts and Cultural Exchange

From time immemorial, Kerala had trade relations with various civilizations,
including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Israelites, Greeks, Romans, Arabs,
and Chinese. These contacts were primarily commercial, centering on spices like
cardamom, cinnamon, and pepper.
These interactions, however, transcended trade, introducing religions such as
Christianity, Judaism, and Islam to Kerala, which in turn contributed to its composite
culture. Logan's observation highlights how Kerala's exchanges influenced even
Western traditions, including certain aspects of Christian religious practices.
Spice Trade Beginnings
• Ancient Connections:
o Kerala's spice trade dates back to the 3rd millennium BCE. Spices like
cardamom and cinnamon were traded with the Assyrians, Babylonians,
and Egyptians.
o Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1500 BCE) dispatched ships to the East for
spices. Spices were integral to Egyptian rituals and embalming practices,
as seen in their use for mummification.

• Biblical References:
o Cinnamon from Kerala is mentioned in the Old Testament as an
ingredient in holy anointing oils.
o The Queen of Sheba's visit to King Solomon included an exchange of
spices, indicating the early prominence of Kerala's spice trade.

Arab and Phoenician Influence

• Arabs and Phoenicians were early pioneers in Kerala's spice trade.
• Arab traders likely facilitated the first overland spice routes connecting Kerala
to the Middle East via the Indus Valley.
• Phoenicians, known for their navigational prowess, traded extensively in spices
and other luxury goods like ivory and peacocks.

Greek and Roman Trade

• Greek Interactions:
o Greek terms like Zingiber (ginger) and Oryzi (rice) are derived from
Malayalam and Tamil, reflecting linguistic and cultural exchanges.

• Roman Era:
o The Roman conquest of Egypt (1st century BCE) expanded direct trade
routes to Kerala, particularly after the discovery of monsoon wind
patterns by Hippalus (45 CE).
o Roman demand for pepper ("Yavana Priya") was so high that it was
equated with gold. Roman coins found in Kerala testify to this robust
trade.
o Pliny recorded that Roman luxuries drained a substantial amount of
wealth to India. Pepper was a key commodity in this exchange.

Chinese Trade Relations

• Chinese trade contacts possibly predated Greek and Roman relations, as
suggested by the discovery of a Chinese coin (1st century BCE) in Chandravalli.
 • Later Developments:
o By the 9th century CE, Quilon became a hub for Chinese trade.
Excavations at Cheraman Parambu uncovered Chinese pottery from the
12th and 13th centuries.
o Marco Polo (13th century) documented Kerala's pepper trade,
highlighting its scale and profitability for Chinese merchants.

Key Commodities in Kerala's Trade

1. Spices: Pepper, cinnamon, ginger, turmeric, and cardamom.
2. Luxuries: Ivory, gold, silk, and muslin.
3. Animals: Apes and peacocks, valued for their exotic appeal.

Impact of Trade on Kerala

1. Economic Prosperity:
o Trade with Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Chinese brought wealth and
infrastructure to Kerala.
o Roman gold and Chinese revenues from pepper trade underscored
Kerala's significance in the global market.

2. Cultural Syncretism:
o Trade facilitated the spread of religions like Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam, enriching Kerala's cultural mosaic.

3. Technological and Artistic Exchanges:

o Kerala benefited from foreign influences in architecture, arts, and
coinage.
o Innovations from the West, such as scientific techniques and coin
minting, entered Kerala.

Indigenous Maritime Tradition

• Kerala had a prominent maritime tradition and played a key role in oceanic
commerce in ancient and medieval South India.

• Sangam references: Early Tamil literature, such as the Patittupattu, mentions

Kerala’s maritime activities.
o Poetess Kakkai Patiniyar refers to Cheran ships sailing to foreign lands
in search of wealth.
 o Paranar, another Sangam poet, speaks of ships going abroad to fetch
gold, showcasing the maritime strength of Kerala.
o A poet mentions the unrivaled supremacy of Cheran ships in the
western seas, indicating Kerala's dominance in trade.

• Pliny’s accounts: Pliny mentions Indian sailors, emphasizing the ancient

seafaring prowess of Kerala.

• Trade organizations: From the 9th to 13th centuries, trade organizations like
Achuvannam, Nanadesikal, and Manigramam were integral to Kerala's
foreign trade.

2. Ancient Sea-ports
• Classical writers like Pliny, Ptolemy, and the anonymous author of the Periplus
of the Erythraean Sea provide crucial insights into the key ports of Kerala,
through which trade and cultural exchanges flourished.

• Muziris:
o It was Kerala's primary emporium and the center of trade, especially
with the Romans, Greeks, Egyptians, and Phoenicians.
o Significance: Muziris was vital for the spice trade, particularly pepper,
which was exchanged for gold and other goods.
o Role of Hippalus: The discovery of the monsoon winds by Hippalus
made Muziris a major hub for Roman trade.
o Cultural interactions: Muziris is also notable for the presence of early
Christian, Jewish, and Muslim communities, which contributed to
Kerala's cultural diversity.
o Pliny’s Description: Describes Muziris as India’s most important port,
with large ships docking and cargo being transported using vallams
(traditional boats).
o Trade goods: Exports included pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, and
transparent stones. Imports included coins, topaz, wine, and other
goods.
o Decline: Muziris’ importance waned after the 1341 Periyar floods,
which silted up the harbor, giving rise to Cochin as a rival port.

• Tyndis:
o Located about 60 miles north of Muziris, it was another prominent port
known for its fertile landscape and rice fields.
 o Trade goods: Like Muziris, it was involved in the pepper trade. It is
believed that Tyndis was associated with Kadalundi, Ponnani, or
Pantalayani Kollam.

• Barace (Bacare):
o Located south of Muziris near the Pampa River (identified with
Purakkad), Barace was a preferred port for foreign ships due to its
protection from pirates.
o It became a major trade center for pepper and goods from Kottanora
(Kuttanad).

• Nelcynda:
o A port located around 60 miles south of Muziris. Its exact location is
debated, but it is possibly linked to Nindakara or Niranam.

• Other Ports:
o Other minor but important ports included Balita (possibly Varkala),
Mantai, and Vakai, which were key in earlier periods but have faded
into obscurity.

3. Later Ports of Kerala

• Quilon:
o By the 6th century, Quilon (modern-day Kollam) became a central trade
hub, especially for Chinese trade.
o Sulaiman’s visit in 851 A.D. marks Quilon as a key trading point. The
Chinese ships paid a heavy toll at Quilon, and the town was famous for
its brisk Chinese trade.
o By the 14th century, despite the rise of Arab competition, Chinese
traders still preferred Quilon as their primary port of call.

• Calicut:
o Calicut (modern Kozhikode) gained prominence in the 13th or 14th
century as a major port after the decline of Muziris due to the Periyar
floods of 1341.
o Calicut's location near the Zamorin’s capital and its tolerant trade
policies made it a favored port for Chinese and Arab traders.
o By the late 15th century, Vasco da Gama’s arrival marked the beginning
of Portuguese dominance over the Kerala coast.
 • Cochin:
o Cochin emerged as an important commercial port only after 1341, when
the floods of Periyar River changed the course of trade by silting the
harbor of Muziris.
o By the 15th century, Cochin became a significant rival to Muziris and
quickly developed into a center for pepper and spice trade.
o The arrival of the Portuguese in 1498 marked the beginning of Cochin’s
political and commercial prominence.

4. Trade Dynamics
• Key Export Goods: Kerala's main exports included pepper, spices, ivory,
pearls, diamonds, and tortoise-shell. These items were highly prized in foreign
markets, especially in the Roman and later, the Chinese and Arab worlds.
• Imports: Key imports included gold, coins, figured linens, topaz, coral,
copper, and wine.
• The rise of different sea routes and the understanding of monsoon winds
played a pivotal role in shaping the maritime activities of Kerala.
• Role of Foreign Powers: While Roman, Greek, and Arab merchants played
significant roles in the trade, the indigenous people of Kerala also maintained
control over key aspects of maritime trade through local trade organizations.

Conclusion:
• Kerala’s trade networks were not limited to the influence of foreign powers;
indigenous maritime practices, including the strategic use of monsoon winds,
indigenous vessels, and local trade organizations, were crucial to its success.
• The shifting dynamics of trade, marked by the decline of Muziris and the rise
of Calicut and Cochin, reflect the changing political and economic landscape of
the region.

The archaeological significance of trade centers such as Pattanam, Vizhinjam, and

Kollam was discussed in class. Students who missed the session are encouraged to
gather notes from those who attended. Additionally, I am providing some reference
links for further information about these sites.

Pattanam or Muziriz

https://www.pama.org.in/docs/amity20/PAMA_Amity_Excavation_Catalogue_Mast
erlayout_Unearthing_Pattanam.pdf
Vizhinjam

http://www.heritageuniversityofkerala.com/JournalPDF/Volume7/32.pdf

Kollam

http://www.heritageuniversityofkerala.com/JournalPDF/Volume8.2/23.pdf

Kottappuram

Kottappuram Fort, also known as Cranganore Fort or Kodungallur Fort, is a

significant historical monument located in Methala village of Kodungallur Taluk in
Thrissur district, Kerala. Built by the Portuguese in the 16th century, it has witnessed
pivotal historical events, including battles, ownership transfers, and architectural
transformations. Despite its current ruined state, the fort remains an integral part of
the Muziris Heritage Site and serves as a testament to Kerala's rich maritime history
and colonial past.

Location

Situated in Kottappuram town, the fort is a prominent landmark in the central part of
Kerala, approximately 31 kilometers from Kochi and 60 kilometers from Thrissur. It
lies at coordinates 10°31′N 76°13′E and is accessible via the national waterway from
Kollam. The fort's strategic location near the Kodungallur-Moothakunnam road
underscores its historical significance in controlling trade routes and maritime
activities.

Historical Significance

Constructed by the Portuguese in 1523, the fort played a crucial role in colonial trade
and military operations. Initially known as Cranganore Fort, it became a focal point
during the Dutch-Portuguese wars. In 1663, after a fierce battle, the Dutch captured
and severely damaged the fort, reducing it to a minimal structure used for guarding
trade ships.

Subsequently, the fort underwent several ownership transitions:

1. Mysore Period: Haider Ali showed interest in acquiring the fort to expand his
influence in Malabar.

2. Travancore Era: Recognizing its strategic importance, King Ramavarma

Dharmaraja purchased the fort from the Dutch in 1789 to fortify Travancore
against Mysore invasions.

3. Preservation Efforts: In 1909, the Travancore Department of Archaeology

declared it a public property and erected a memorial pillar, marking the fort’s
historical importance.
Architectural Features

The fort, primarily constructed using laterite blocks, demonstrates the architectural
ingenuity of the colonial period. Key features include:

• Materials: Laterite blocks for masonry, lime mortar for binding, and plaster
made from durable shell lime. Imported bricks, charred timber for roofing, and
clay roof tiles also form part of the structure.

• Design Elements: The 18-foot-thick walls and evidence of lime plaster painted
red reflect the craftsmanship of the time.

• Roof Tiles: Excavations revealed various roof tiles, including long rectangular
tiles with hooks, Malabar tiles, and ‘Marod’, highlighting the diversity in
construction materials.

Archaeological Evidences

Excavations conducted by the Department of Archaeology have unearthed significant

artifacts that shed light on the fort’s historical narrative:

• Structures:

o Trench KTPM 04 exposed large laterite blocks bound with lime mortar,
along with remnants of red-painted lime plaster.

o Trench KTPM 05 revealed a burnt brick structure, including two rooms

with floors and charred door frames, suggesting destruction during an
attack.

• Artifacts:

o Varaha coin, floor tiles, and roof tiles.

o Intact bricks of varying sizes, such as 14.2x6.5x3.5 cm and larger ones

measuring 18x10x5 cm.

o Mica shreds, possibly used as window glass, were also discovered.

These findings underscore the fort's architectural resilience and the destruction it
endured during conflicts.

Past Interventions

Despite its historical and cultural significance, the fort has received limited
conservation attention. Key interventions include:

• Construction of retaining walls along the shore.

 • Installation of a memorial pillar by the Travancore Archaeology Department in
1909.

• Minimal preservation efforts, leaving the fort in ruins.

Conservation Needs

The Kottappuram Fort is at risk of further deterioration, making its conservation a

priority. Preservation efforts are vital not only for safeguarding the structure but also
for enhancing its role in the Muziris Heritage Site. Revitalizing the fort can rejuvenate
the architectural and historical spirit of Kottappuram, contributing to heritage tourism
and education.

Conclusion

Kottappuram Fort stands as a silent witness to Kerala's colonial past, encapsulating

centuries of trade, conflict, and cultural exchange. Its architectural remains and
archaeological discoveries offer invaluable insights into the region's history. Effective
conservation and interpretation of the fort will ensure its legacy endures, enriching
future generations' understanding of Kerala’s vibrant heritage.

Trade Guilds in Kerala

Kerala, with its strategic location along the Malabar Coast, has been a prominent hub
of maritime trade for centuries. The region's trade guilds, particularly Anjuvannam and
Manigramam, played a pivotal role in facilitating and regulating commerce. These
guilds not only managed economic transactions but also influenced social and
political structures.

Prominent Trade Guilds in Kerala

1. Anjuvannam

o Anjuvannam was a prominent trade guild associated with Jewish,

Christian, and other West Asian merchant communities.

o Its name, meaning "five castes," might refer to the multicultural

composition of its members.

o Played a crucial role in maritime trade, particularly in the export of

spices like pepper, cardamom, and ginger.

o Known for their diplomatic connections, Anjuvannam merchants had

strong ties with Arab, Persian, and Jewish traders.
 2. Manigramam

o A South Indian trade guild active across Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and even
Southeast Asia.

o Specialized in inland trade as well as maritime commerce, dealing in

textiles, spices, and precious metals.

o Members included a mix of Tamil and Kerala traders who managed local
markets and coordinated with foreign merchants.

o They maintained their own rules and were granted privileges by local
rulers.

3. Nanadesis

o Although primarily associated with Tamil Nadu, this guild was active in
Kerala as well.

o Known for long-distance trade and managing caravan trade routes

connecting Kerala to other parts of India.

o Involved in both overland and overseas trade, dealing in luxury goods

like silk, ivory, and perfumes.

4. Valanjiyar

o This guild, primarily composed of merchants specializing in the

transport of goods, also operated in Kerala.

o They ensured the safe movement of commodities from the hinterlands

to port cities.

5. Chettis

o While predominantly Tamil, the Chettis had a strong presence in

Kerala’s markets.

o Known for their financial acumen, they often provided credit and
financing for trade ventures.

Key Trade Commodities

Kerala’s rich natural resources and agricultural produce made it a sought-after region
for traders worldwide.

• Spices: Pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, ginger, and turmeric.

 • Textiles: High-quality cotton fabrics and coir products.

• Other Commodities: Timber, ivory, pearls, and gemstones.

• Exports: The Malabar coast was known for its pepper, often referred to as
"black gold," which was highly prized in Europe and Asia.

• Imports: Silk, ceramics, horses, and luxury items from Arabia, Persia, and
China.

Interactions with Foreign Traders

1. Arab Traders:

o Arabs were among the earliest foreign traders to frequent Kerala ports.

o Established robust trade ties with local guilds, especially for pepper and
other spices.

o Their influence is evident in Kerala's coastal towns, where Islam took

root early.

2. Chinese Traders:

o Chinese merchants traded silk and ceramics for Kerala’s spices and
other goods.

o Chinese fishing nets (cheena vala) in Kerala are a cultural remnant of

these exchanges.

3. European Traders:

o Portuguese, Dutch, and later British merchants relied heavily on

Kerala's guilds for securing spice supplies.

o They often entered into alliances with guilds to gain access to

commodities and trade routes.

Social and Political Influence of Trade Guilds

• Alliances with Local Rulers: Trade guilds like Anjuvannam and Manigramam
were granted special privileges, including tax exemptions, by local rulers in
exchange for their contributions to the economy.

• Settlement and Infrastructure: Many guilds established trading hubs,

warehouses, and settlements near major ports such as Kodungallur, Kollam,
and Kozhikode.
 • Cultural Integration: Foreign traders and guild members contributed to
Kerala's multicultural identity, influencing its art, architecture, and cuisine.

• Conflict Mediation: Guilds acted as intermediaries during disputes between

traders and rulers, ensuring stable economic conditions.

Conclusion

Kerala’s trade guilds were dynamic institutions that significantly shaped the region’s
economic, social, and political landscapes. From facilitating international trade to
fostering cultural exchanges, guilds like Anjuvannam and Manigramam left an indelible
mark on Kerala's history. Their legacy, evident in ancient ports and trade networks,
underscores the state's pivotal role in global maritime commerce.

Tarisapalli Copper Plates

Introduction

The Tarisapalli Cheppedu (Copper Plates), also known as the Syrian Copper Plates of
Kottayam, are a set of historical documents that offer invaluable insights into the socio-
economic and religious landscape of medieval Kerala. These copper plates were
issued by the Chera ruler Sthanu Ravi around 849 AD, during the 5th year of his reign,
and they document land grants and various privileges extended to the Syrian
Christian community in Kerala. The plates are a testament to the benevolence of the
Chera rulers towards the Christian community, particularly in their efforts to promote
trade and economic development through the port of Quilon (Kollam).

Historical Context

In 825 AD, two bishops, Mar Sapir Isho and Mar Peroz, along with several families,
migrated to Kollam. These bishops played a pivotal role in administering the Syrian
Church in Kerala, with Mar Sapir Isho establishing his headquarters in Kollam and
Mar Peroz in Kodungalur. They were responsible for the construction of several
churches, known as Kantheeshangal, across Kerala. The Chera rulers, keen on
developing their kingdom's economy, especially the Quilon port as a rival to
Vizhinjam, granted the Christian community special privileges to encourage trade.
The Tarisapalli Copper Plates, which consist of two sets of documents, detail these
grants and privileges.

The plates record the land grant issued by Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal, the Governor
of Venad, under the initiative of Mar Sapir Iso, a trader and leader of the Christian
community. The land was granted to the Syrian Church at Tarisa (Thangasseri near
Quilon), which was built by Mar Sapir Iso.

The First Set of Copper Plates (issued circa 849 CE)

The cheppedu start with words “Svasti Sri” and ends with the word “Vannaru”,
written in fine Vatteluttu about the 9th or the beginning of the 10th century A.D.The
language used is Tamil.

Number of People/Families Mentioned: The plates mention the granting of four

families of Ilavars (toddy tappers from Ceylon), eight Ilakiyars (women), and Vannans
(washermen) to the church for menial service.

Tax Exemptions: The Ilavars were exempted from paying specific taxes like
Talaikkanam (professional tax on the toddy trade) and Enikkanam (tax on the ladders
used by Ilavars for climbing trees). Other exemptions included tax payable for the
thatching of houses, Menippon (from Savarans), Polippon (sales tax), Iravucchoru,
and Kuda-nali.

Judicial Authority: The church was given judicial authority over the settlers and the
right to collect birth and marriage taxes from them. The king made the church the
custodian of the weights and seal.

Trade Privileges: The Ilavars and Vannans were permitted to bring their carts to the
markets and within the fort walls of Kollam for trade. Even if these people committed
any mistakes, the church members were responsible for inquiries.

The Second Set of Plates (Issued Around 883 CE)

Second plate starts with “m”, ends with the signature of Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal,
Velkula Sundaran and finally the first half of the name “Visaiya”, perhaps of the koyil
adhikari viyaragattevar. In the second inscription further concessions were granted by
the same ruler to the Tarisa church. The first two plates end with the signatures of the
donor and his officers in an Archaic form Nagari.Last plate contains signatures in
three languages Pahlavi, Kuffic and Hebrew.

Additional Grants: The church was granted additional families of professionals,

including carpenters (tachar) and tillers (vellalar). The king also granted one family
of carpenters, four families of Vellalas, and two families of another caste

Customs and Excise Duty: The church was given the right to collect excise and
customs duties on merchandise brought into or taken out of its jurisdiction.

Protection: The church and its lands were to be protected by the six hundred
(arunnuttavar), the leaders of Anjuvannam, and the Manigramam.

Boundaries of the Land: The land granted to the Tarisapalli was defined with specific
boundaries, including the cultivated land (vayal kkadu) in the east, the fort-wall with
a small gate in the southeast, the torana-ttottam in the northeast, and the garden of
Andilan of the Punnaittalai house in the northeast. The boundaries were fixed by the
circuiting of a female elephant.

Privileges (Viduperu) Granted to the Church

Exemption from Poll Tax: The church was exempted from paying the poll tax on
slaves under its control.

Customs Collection: The church had the right to collect 8 Kasu (a form of currency)
for goods brought into or out of their jurisdiction and 4 Kasu per boat in the harbor.

Involvement in Customs Duty: Customs duties on taxable goods had to be collected

in the presence and with the cooperation of the church authorities.

Role in Pricing and King’s Business: The church had to be involved in fixing the
prices of commodities and in other important business dealings of the king.

Management by Trade Guilds: The daily collected customs duties were managed by
members of the Anjuvannam and Manigramam, the local trade guilds.

Land Management: Any portion of land within the four gates of the church, which
was not needed for the church's use and rented out to farmers, was overseen by the
palace, with dues collected by Anjuvannam and Manigramam.

Privileges on Special Occasions: On auspicious occasions like marriages, the church

was allowed to enjoy privileges such as using elephants to carry earth and water
needed for ceremonies.

Permanent Grant: These privileges were granted to the church for as long as the earth,
the moon, and the sun exist.

Handling Complaints: If disputes arose among Anjuvannam, Manigramam, and

others, the trade guilds could halt taxes on overseas trade and other merchandise
exported beyond the king's realm. Any mistakes in their conduct were investigated by
the guilds, and their decisions were final.

Weightment Charges: Sapir Iso was responsible for giving the weightment charges to
the church because he received the parkkol and pancha kandi on behalf of the church.

Signatures and Documentation: The signatures of the donors appear on the last line
of the second side of the second plate. The third plate contains writing in Pahlavi,
Hebrew, and other alphabets.

Land Grant: The land grant was made in the presence of key state officers, including
Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal, the Governor of Venad, Rama Thiruvadikal, the heir
apparent, officials, local chieftains (known as 'patis'), and representatives of trade
corporations.
Role of Mar Sapir Iso: Mar Sapir Iso organized the trading corporation of Quilon,
known as the ‘Nagaram’. The trading rights were granted to the Syrian Christians,
which contributed to Quilon’s growth as a major commercial center.

Signatures in Multiple Languages

The last plate bears signatures in Pahlavi, Kufic, and Hebrew, indicating the diverse
international trade community in Quilon. The witnesses mentioned in the Kufic
language include: Ibraham’s son Mimoon, Mami’s son Muhammad, Ali’s son Sulaha,
Anvar Saban’s son Isman, Yahiyam’s son Muhammad, Ibraham’s son Amar,
Mansoor’s son Bukkar, Hmeed’s son Al-Kasim, Isow’s son Mansoor, and Yakoob’s son
Ismayil.

Conclusion

The Tarisapalli Copper Plates offer a unique glimpse into the historical relationship
between the Chera rulers and the Syrian Christian community in medieval Kerala.
They highlight the spirit of religious tolerance and the significant role that Christians
played in the economic and social life of Quilon. The plates also shed light on the
governance, taxation, land tenure, trade practices, and the presence of a diverse
international community in the region.

Moreover, the Tarisapalli Copper Plates are crucial for understanding the early history
of Christianity in Kerala, as well as the socio-political dynamics of the time. The
documentation of various taxes, including profession tax, sales tax, vehicle tax, and
customs and excise duties, along with details about slavery and the privileges granted
to the church, make these plates an invaluable resource for historians and
scholars.Inscriptions like these are indispensable for studying history as they provide
vivid details about religion, social structure, land tenure, trade, crimes and
punishments, and taxation. The Tarisapalli Copper Plates, in particular, reflect the
friendly relationship between the Hindu king and the Christian community in
medieval Kerala, and the prominent role that the latter played in the region's economic
development.

Jewish Copper Plates of Bhaskara Ravi

Introduction

➢ The Jewish copper plates, also known as the Cochin plates of Bhaskara
Ravi-varman, are a royal charter issued by the Chera Perumal king of
Kerala, South India, to Joseph Rabban, a Jewish merchant magnate of
Kodungallur.
 ➢ This document highlights the status and importance of the Jewish
colony in Kodungallur (Cranganore) near Cochin on the Malabar Coast.

Script and Language

➢ The charter is engraved in the Vattezhuthu script with additional

Grantha characters in the vernacular of medieval Kerala. The inscription
is spread across three sides of two copper plates, consisting of 28 lines.

Content of the Charter

➢ Grant by Bhaskara Ravi Varma: The charter records a grant by King Bhaskara
Ravi Varma (Malayalam: Parkaran Iravivanman) to Joseph/Yusuf Rabban
(Malayalam: Issuppu Irappan). The grant includes the rights of the merchant
guild Anjuman (Malayalam: Anjuvannam) along with several other rights and
privileges.

➢ Exemptions and Rights: Rabban is exempted from all payments required of

other settlers in the city of Muyirikkode, while still enjoying all the rights
granted to those settlers. The rights and privileges are granted in perpetuity to
all of Rabban's descendants.

➢ Attestation: The document is attested by a number of chieftains from both

southern and northern Kerala.

Significance of Anjuvannam

➢ Anjuvannam, the old Malayalam form of hanjamana/anjuman, was a South

Indian merchant guild organized by Jewish, Christian, and Islamic merchants
from West Asian countries. The presence of this guild indicates a well-
established and integrated community of merchants on the Malabar Coast.

Historical Context

➢ Historians date the Jewish copper plates to approximately 1000 CE. The
language and tone of the plates suggest that the Jewish community was not
new to the Malabar Coast at the time of the decree, implying their presence for
several generations, if not centuries.

Preservation and Location

➢ The plates are carefully preserved in an iron box, known as the Pandeal, within
the Paradesi Synagogue at Mattancherry (Cochin).
Translation of the Charter

The charter begins with the customary salutation "Svasti Sri!" and details the rights
granted to Issuppu Irappan, including exemptions from taxes and the enjoyment of
various privileges such as the use of the day lamp, decorative cloth, palanquin, and
kettledrum. The charter also states that these rights are hereditary and to be enjoyed
by Rabban's descendants as long as the sun and moon endure. The document ends
with a list of witnesses, including chieftains from various regions and the Commander
of the Eastern Forces.

Dating and Historical Analysis

➢ Multiple Theories: The plates have been variously dated by historians

to the 4th, 5th, 6th, 8th, and 11th centuries.

➢ Traditional Dates: According to the Cochin Jews, the plates date back to
379 CE. Another proposed date is 490 CE, based on a letter from the
Cochin Jewish leaders to the Portuguese-Sephardic community of
Amsterdam in 1676 CE.

➢ Modern Scholarship: Scholar M.G.S. Narayanan, in his 1972 thesis later

published as "Perumals of Kerala," dates the plates to approximately
1000 CE, based on the regnal years of King Bhaskara Ravi
Manukuladitya, who ruled between 962 and 1021 AD. This dating is
supported by several historians, including Nathan Katz, Y. Subbarayalu,
and Pius Malekandathil.

Context of the Grant

➢ The decree of the plates by the Chera ruler must be understood in the context
of the expanding Chola Empire and the constant threat of invasion. The grant
may have been a reward for financial or military assistance provided by the
Jewish community to the Chera king during this turbulent period.

Legacy and Cultural Significance

➢ The Jewish copper plates are cherished by both the "Black Jews" and "White
Jews" of Cochin as a historical document and their original settlement deed.
The plates have been replicated and presented as gifts during state visits, such
as the one from Prime Minister Ariel Sharon to India in 2003 and from Prime
Minister Narendra Modi to Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in 2017.11.

➢ *The terms "Black Jews" and "White Jews" refer to two distinct Jewish
communities in Cochin, Kerala, with different origins and historical
backgrounds:
 *Black Jews

➢ Origin: The Black Jews, also known as Malabar Jews, are considered to be
among the earliest Jewish settlers in India. They claim descent from Jewish
merchants who arrived in the Malabar Coast long before the advent of
European colonialism, possibly as early as the time of King Solomon or during
the Babylonian exile.

➢ History: The Black Jews have been in Kerala for many centuries, and their
history is deeply intertwined with the local culture and society. They lived
primarily in areas like Kodungallur (Cranganore), Chendamangalam, Paravur,
and Cochin.

➢ Identity: The term "Black Jews" is more related to their long history in India
rather than their physical appearance. They integrated with the local
population over time, which influenced their customs, traditions, and even
their physical characteristics.

*White Jews

Origin: The White Jews, also known as Paradesi Jews or Sephardic Jews, are
descendants of Jewish exiles who came to India later, primarily during the 15th and
16th centuries, after the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions. They were often of
Sephardic origin, having fled from persecution in Europe.

History: The White Jews settled in Cochin and established their own synagogue, the
Paradesi Synagogue in Mattancherry, which is still a significant landmark today. They
maintained a distinct identity from the Black Jews, often due to their European roots
and customs.

Identity: The term "White Jews" is associated with their relatively recent arrival in
India and their European lineage. They were often more affluent and had closer ties
to European Jewish communities.

Cultural and Social Relations

➢ The two communities coexisted in Kerala but generally maintained

separate identities, with their own synagogues, customs, and social
practices. Over time, there were interactions between the groups, but
historical and cultural differences kept them distinct.

➢ Both communities played significant roles in the history of the Jewish

presence in Kerala, and they each cherish the Jewish Copper Plates of
Bhaskara Ravi as a key document of their heritage.
Conclusion

➢ The Jewish Copper Plates of Bhaskara Ravi are a significant historical

document that provides insight into the Jewish community's integration and
status in medieval Kerala. The charter reflects the political, social, and economic
dynamics of the time and serves as a testament to the long-standing presence
of Jews on the Malabar Coast.

Buddhist Vestiges from Kerala

Early Records of Buddhist Propagation

➢ The Mahavamsa, an ancient Ceylonese chronicle, provides one of the earliest

records regarding the spread of Buddhism. According to Chapter 12 of the
Mahavamsa, Thera Moggaliputta sent Buddhist missionaries to various
regions:

➢ Five elders to Tambapanni (identified as Sri Lanka),

➢ Mahadeva Thera to Mahishamandala (modern Mysore),

➢ Rakkhita to Vanavasi,

➢ Yonarakkhita to Aparanta, and

➢ Maharakkhita to an unspecified region.

➢ These missions occurred before the Third Buddhist Council, held in Pataliputra
during Emperor Ashoka's reign. It is notable that other Dravidian regions, such
as Kerala, Pandya, Chola, and Andhra, are not explicitly mentioned in the
Mahavamsa. Some scholars suggest this omission was not due to an absence of
Buddhist propagation but rather reflects the geopolitical dynamics of the time.
For instance, Venkata Chami (1950) argued that Tambapanni might refer to the
Tirunelveli region of Tamil Nadu, not Sri Lanka. Additionally, strained
relations between South India and Sri Lanka during the period when the
Mahavamsa was composed could explain the lack of mention of South Indian
regions. There is evidence to suggest that Ashoka's son, Mahinda, traveled
through Andhra and Tamil Nadu en route to Sri Lanka, indicating that
Buddhist missions likely engaged with South India during this period.

Evidence from Ashokan Inscriptions

Ashoka’s 2nd and 13th rock edicts mention the Chola, Pandya, Satiyaputra, and
Keralaputra regions, highlighting the establishment of medical facilities for humans
and animals. This demonstrates that Buddhist activities were present in these areas as
early as Ashoka’s reign.

Buddhism in Tamilakam: Buddhism began influencing the Tamilakam region,

including present-day Kerala, from the early centuries CE, as suggested by Sangam
literature.

Chronological Frame: Buddhist artifacts and iconography in Kerala are primarily

dated between the early centuries CE and the 11th century CE.

Archaeological Evidence in Kerala

Stone Images of Buddha in Kerala (700–1100 CE)

1. Features:

o Buddha is depicted seated in padmasana (lotus posture).

o Hands are placed in dhyana mudra (meditative gesture).

o Depicted wearing plain robes, with no ornaments.

o Hair is represented in curls, often accompanied by:

▪ Ushnisha (cranial protuberance symbolizing supreme wisdom).

▪ Siraspata or flame-shaped ornament, denoting enlightenment

and intelligence.

2. Key Discovery Sites:

o Marudurkulangarai (Karunagapalli), Mavelikkara, Bharanikavu,

Karumadi, Pallikal, Bharananganam, Kottappuram, and Onampilly,
Marayoor.

➢ Archaeological discoveries in Kerala also attest to the presence of

Buddhism:Numerous Buddha images have been recovered from coastal
regions, particularly in Kollam and Alappuzha districts.

➢ The Buddhist center Srimulavasam (now submerged underwater) was a

significant hub for the faith. The Ay King Vikramaditya Varaguna made grants
to the temple at Srimulavasam, expressing devotion to the Buddha, Dhamma,
and Sangha.

➢ An inscription from Gandhara mentions Srimulavasam as "Daksinapathe

Srimulavase Lokanatha," indicating its prominence as far as Afghanistan.
 Additionally, the Mushikavamsa, a Sanskrit kavya written in the 11th century
CE, also refers to Srimulavasam.

Buddha Icons some examples with description

Maruthoorkulangara in Karunagapalli

This Buddha statue, around 4 ft in height, is nicely preserved in the garden of

Krishnapuram palace Museum in Kayamkulam. This was discovered around a
century back from the Pallikkal pond in Maruthoorkulangara in Karunagapalli
(Kollam district). Known from then on as ‘Pallikkal puthran’, it was earlier kept in
Padanayarkulangara. Later it was handed over to the archeological department and
taken to Museum. This statue is significantly different from the other statues
discovered from Kerala in its details. The upper robe is not folded up. It is similar in
style to the Gandharan Buddha statues. From the style of sculpture it is clear that it
was made in CE 6th – 7th century or before. The Pallikkal pond in
Maruthoorkulangara, from where this statue was rediscovered, is now developed as
a heritage park by the city corporation.

Bharanikkavu
This statue, around 3 ft in height, is now kept in the compound of Bharanikkavu Devi
Temple on the side of the Kurathikad-Kattanam road. It was discovered from a temple
in Pallikkal, 5.5 km east of Kayamkulam. This statue has its upper robe folded and
kept on the shoulder like most other Buddha statues in Kerala. From the style of
sculpture, it can be inferred to be from 9th to 10th century CE. This statue is not
preserved in a fitting way.

Mavelikkara
This statue, around 3 ft in height, is presently kept in the Buddha junction near
Shrikrishna Temple, Mavelikkara. It was discovered from the Temple pond of
Kandiyoor Mahadeva Temple. This statue has upper robe folded and kept on the
shoulder like most other Buddha statues in Kerala. From the style of the statue, it could
be from the 9th to 10th century CE.

Karumadi
This half statue renowned as Karumadikuttan was the first statue rediscovered in
Kerala. From the style of sculpture, it can inferred that it was made in the 8th century
CE. When this statue was found from the fields of Karumadi more than a century ago,
people had no idea that it was a Buddha statue. So, it was worshipped as a local god
who protected the rice fields nearby. Later, upon identification of it as a Buddha
statue, a beautiful Stupa structure in Srilankan style was made in a park and the statue
was preserved there. Local people told us that HH Dalai Lama visited this statue long
back and offered some money to build a stupa to preserve this statue. Though it is
only a half statue, it is currently the best preserved Buddha statue in Kerala. It has
also achieved some cultural significance compared to other Buddha statues.

Adoor Pallikkal
This Buddha statue, around 2.5 ft in height, was found from Pallikkal in Kunnathoor,
11 km west of Adoor. It was discovered in headless condition. The present head is a
badly reconstructed substitute by the archeological department. From the style of the
sculpture, it can be inferred to be from 9th to 10th century CE. It is presently kept in
Napier Art Museum, Thiruvananthapuram.

Kodungalloor
Buddha statue recently unearthed from Kottapuram in Kodungalloor (Thrissur
district, Kerala) in a headless condition. Many historians consider Kodungalloor to be
the location of Vanchi, a famed Buddhist centre of ancient Kerala. This small statue of
about 1.5ft height is estimated to be from 8th to 9th century CE. It is presently kept in
the reserve of Directorate of Archeology, Trivandrum.
1. Stylistic Traits:

o These images exhibit uniformity in simplicity and meditative

composure, reflecting the spiritual and philosophical ideals of
Buddhism.

Bronze Images of Buddha (Later Phase)

1. Features:

o The bronze images display a stylistic shift, with Buddha depicted

wearing a crown and ornaments like armlets and wristlets.

o The right hand is positioned in janana mudra (gesture of teaching).

o Despite this stylistic change, the seated posture and serene expression
are maintained.

2. Key Discovery Sites:

o Found in Neelamperoor and Kiliroor temples in the Kottayam district.

3. Artistic Evolution:

o The bronze images indicate a period of stylistic experimentation and

regional adaptation, showcasing local craftsmanship alongside
traditional Buddhist iconographic elements.
Notable Buddhist Centers in Kerala

1. Srimulavasam (Tirumulapadam):

o Referenced in the Paliyam copper-plate inscription of Ay king

Vikramaditya Varaguna (885–925 CE), which invokes Sauddhodani
(Buddha).

o Housed a renowned image of Bodhisattva Lokanatha.

o Continued as a significant Buddhist center until the 11th century CE, as

mentioned in the Mushika Vamsha.

2. Other Centers:

o Several Buddhist sites in Kerala indicate the widespread presence and

influence of Buddhism, with centers known for their religious and
cultural contributions.

Continuity and Decline of Buddhism

1. Sustained Influence:

o Buddhism thrived along the Kerala coast until around the 11th century
CE, supported by inscriptions, literature, and artistic remains.

2. Later Transformations:

o Over time, Buddhism experienced a decline, but its cultural and artistic
legacy persisted in various forms, influencing local traditions and
practices.

Conclusion

The Buddhist iconography of Kerala, represented by stone and bronze images, reflects
a rich artistic and spiritual tradition that flourished between the 7th and 11th centuries
CE. These images capture the essence of Buddhist ideals through serene postures,
symbolic gestures, and regional stylistic nuances. The legacy of Buddhism in Kerala,
though diminished over time, remains a vital chapter in the cultural and religious
history of the region.

Jainism in Kerala
Jainism, one of the oldest religious traditions of India, has left a distinct yet
underexplored legacy in Kerala. Its presence in the region offers significant insights
into the cultural, religious, and artistic synthesis that shaped Kerala's historical
landscape. This note comprehensively examines the historical context, settlement
patterns, monuments, iconography, inscriptions, and the eventual decline of Jainism
in Kerala, integrating all the available evidence into a cohesive narrative.

Historical Context
Jainism's historical roots in South India are well-documented, with the earliest
inscriptions appearing in Karnataka during the 7th century CE. The faith flourished
under the patronage of early medieval dynasties such as the Gangas, Kadambas, and
Rashtrakutas. While Jainism faced challenges from the rise of the Vira-Saiva and
Vaishnava movements in Karnataka during the 12th century, it managed to extend its
influence to Kerala, where it coexisted with Buddhism, Brahmanism, and local
traditions.
Kerala, with its distinct socio-cultural milieu, provided a unique context for Jainism.
Its religious and artistic traditions reveal a syncretic blend of Jain, Hindu, and local
beliefs. However, major studies on Jainism in South India have often overlooked
Kerala, leaving the region's Jain heritage underrepresented in broader scholarly
discourse.

Early Evidence of Jainism in Kerala

The earliest references to Jainism in Kerala come from epigraphic evidence and oral
traditions. The Kinalur inscription in Kozhikode, discovered in 1960, indicates the
presence of Jain communities in the region during the early medieval period.
Additionally, several bhagavathi temples in Kerala, such as the Kallil Bhagavathi
Temple in Ernakulam, are believed to have originated as Jain worship centers.
The movement of Jain ascetics and settlers from Karnataka to Kerala likely played a
significant role in establishing Jainism in the region. These communities brought their
religious practices, iconography, and architectural styles, which were subsequently
localized to fit Kerala's cultural context.

Settlement Patterns of Jain Centers in Kerala

Jain settlements in Kerala were strategically located in regions conducive to
agricultural and trade activities. These areas included Palakkad, Wayanad,
Ernakulam, and Kasaragod, which provided fertile land and access to trade routes.
Jain centers were often situated near hillocks or caves, reflecting the ascetic ideals of
the tradition.
The establishment of Jain basadis (temples) in these areas underscores the organized
and thriving nature of Jain communities in Kerala during their peak. The proximity of
these sites to Karnataka suggests strong cultural and economic links between the
regions.
Key Jain Monuments and Sites in Kerala
1. Kallil Bhagavathi Temple, Ernakulam
Originally a Jain rock-cut temple, this site features relief images of Mahavira
and Parsvanatha. The deity worshipped as Kallil Bhagavathi is believed to
represent Padmavati, a Jain yakshini.

2. Iswarancode, Palakkad
This site includes a seated image of Mahavira and Jain carvings on temple
pillars.

3. Wayanad Jain Sites

o Puthangadi Jain Temple: Features images of Mahavira and other
Tirthankaras in relief and free-standing forms.
o Anantnath Swami Temple: Associated with the Digambara tradition,
this temple is a significant example of Jain religious architecture in
Kerala.

4. Manjeshwar, Kasaragod
Known for its basadis and Tirthankara sculptures, this site marks the
northernmost extension of Jainism in Kerala.

5. Koodalmanikyam Temple, Thrissur

Traditionally associated with Jainism, this temple's name and deity
(Bharateswara) reflect its Jain origins before being assimilated into Hindu
worship.

6. Chitaral Jain Monuments, Kanyakumari

Though geographically part of Tamil Nadu, Chitaral's proximity to Kerala and
its rich Jain heritage make it relevant to this study. Reliefs of Mahavira and
Ambika Yakshini here date back to the 8th–13th centuries CE.

Architectural Features of Jain Centers in Kerala

Jain temples in Kerala exhibit distinctive architectural styles adapted to the local
environment. Key features include:
• Rock-Cut Temples: Examples include the Kallil Bhagavathi Temple, with its
massive rock roof and intricate carvings.
• Structural Temples: Wayanad's Jain temples, characterized by their simplicity
and functional design.
• Use of Local Materials: Granite and laterite dominate, reflecting regional
architectural preferences.
Iconography of Yakṣas and Yakṣiṇīs
The Jain pantheon includes a variety of attendant deities, with yakshas and yakshinis
holding a prominent place. In Kerala, Padmavati and Jwalamalini emerged as popular
yakshinis, reflecting influences from Karnataka. Their images, often syncretized into
Hindu forms, are found in several temples.

Mahāvīra Images
Images of Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, dominate Jain iconography in Kerala. These
images are typically depicted in seated or standing postures, with simple adornments
and an emphasis on ascetic ideals. Unique regional characteristics include the
preference for small-scale reliefs over large statues.

Regional Preferences in Jain Iconography

Jain iconography in Kerala displays distinctive regional traits:
• Absence of Bahubali: Unlike Karnataka, Kerala lacks sculptures of Bahubali.
• Syncretic Depictions: Many Jain deities were reinterpreted as Hindu gods and
goddesses, leading to overlapping iconographic styles.
• Focus on Yakṣis: Female attendant deities, particularly Padmavati, received
greater prominence in Kerala.

Artistic and Iconographic Features

Jain sculptures in Kerala are marked by:
• Minimalism: Reflecting ascetic values, the sculptures are less ornate compared
to their counterparts in Karnataka.
• Local Adaptations: Incorporation of Kerala's stylistic elements, such as floral
motifs and simplified forms.
• Relief Works: Preference for carvings over free-standing statues, often
integrated into rock-cut temples.

Inscriptions and Patronage

Epigraphic evidence, such as the Kinalur inscription, highlights the presence of Jain
communities and their patronage networks in Kerala. These inscriptions reveal the
involvement of local rulers, merchants, and agrarian elites in supporting Jain temples
and rituals.

Syncretic Tendencies and Decline of Jainism in Kerala

The decline of Jainism in Kerala is attributed to:

 • Syncretism: Jain deities were absorbed into the Brahmanical tradition, as seen
in temples like Kallil and Koodalmanikyam.
• Rise of Bhakti Movements: The growing popularity of Shaivism and
Vaishnavism overshadowed Jainism.
• Cultural Assimilation: Jain traditions and practices were integrated into
Kerala's Hindu ethos, leading to the gradual erosion of distinct Jain identity.

Conclusion
Jainism in Kerala represents a unique chapter in the religious and cultural history of
South India. Despite its marginalization in mainstream scholarship, the region's Jain
heritage offers valuable insights into the dynamics of religious coexistence, artistic
expression, and cultural transformation. A systematic study of Jain vestiges in Kerala
can significantly enhance our understanding of this lesser-known but integral aspect
of Indian history.
.
Temple Architecture of Kerala
The temple architecture of Kerala has been thoroughly covered in your lectures,
including practical training in drawing the plans and elevations of temples. I
recommend reviewing the lecture notes for a comprehensive understanding and
exploring the following links for additional details.
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HlQuBHek1YE
2. https://archive.org/details/anarchitecturalsurveyoftemplesofkerala

Church Architecture of Kerala

Historical Context
The tradition of Christianity in Kerala is believed to have been initiated by Apostle St.
Thomas, who, according to legend, arrived at Muziris (modern Kodungallur) in A.D.
52. He is said to have established seven churches. However, there is no direct
archaeological evidence to confirm this claim. The lack of material remains from that
period, apart from megalithic monuments and Roman coins, makes it difficult to
validate these accounts.
Christian ecclesiastical architecture began to flourish in the Roman world only by the
4th century A.D., which could mark the earliest influence on Kerala’s church-building
practices. By the 6th century, references like those of Cosmas Indicopleustes, a
Byzantine monk, suggest the existence of churches in Kerala. Early Christian
communities likely received cultural and architectural influences from West Asia and
Persia, evidenced by their adherence to Syrian liturgical traditions.
Early Christian Settlements and Patronage
Christian communities in Kerala were instrumental in medieval trade and commerce.
They enjoyed considerable rights and privileges, as evident from inscriptions like the
Tarisapalli grant issued by Sthāņu Ravi (A.D. 844-85). This grant, made to the church
of Teresa, no longer extant, signifies the early establishment of Christian centers with
considerable property holdings and influence.
Bishops were brought from Persia and Mesopotamia until the 16th century,
highlighting the strong ties between Kerala and West Asia. Churches in Kerala
retained the Syrian liturgy, and some, like the Orthodox Syrian Church in Kottayam,
preserve inscriptions in Pahlavi, an ancient Persian script.

Elements of Church Architecture

Church architecture in Kerala is a unique fusion of indigenous traditions and external
influences, with distinct features that reflect local practices, cultural exchanges, and
religious needs. These elements can be logically classified into four main categories:

1. Structural Elements
These form the core components of the church building and include both the main
structure and additional decorative and functional features.

1.1 Stambas (Pillars)

• Function: Monolithic pillars often erected as landmarks.
• Types:
o Dipastambas: Pillars resembling lamps, marking significant locations.
o Dwajastambas: Flagstaffs, similar to those in Hindu temples, used for
flag-bearing during festivals.
o Vilakkumadas: Pillars bearing lamps that are lit at night in front of
churches.

1.2 Devalayas (Church Buildings)

• General Features: Simple structures built with wood and stone, typically
located on elevated land, symbolizing their prominence in the village.

o Main Components:
▪ Nave (Main Body): The central hall of the church.
▪ Sanctum Sanctorum (Madubaha): The holy area, where the altar
is located.
▪ Madhubaha Separation: A dwarf wall or railing separates the
nave from the sanctuary.
 o Architectural Developments:
▪ Mukhamandapa (Porch): A porch added to the main body.
▪ Nadusala (Mandapa): A large hall built between the porch and
the sanctuary.
▪ Roof: Initially simple, later churches developed roofs similar to
the Hindu temple shikharas, and gable roofs began to emerge.
▪ Pillars: Wooden pillars are cubical with octagonal middles, and
stone pillars resemble the Tuscan order, often circular and
tapering.
▪ Ceilings: Wooden beams, often intricately carved, support the
ceiling. Carvings include animals and angels.
▪ Facade: Typically added during the Portuguese period, featuring
reliefs, geometric designs, pilasters, and scenes from local life.

1.3 Related Structures

• Baptismal Fonts: Stone or wooden basins used for baptisms, often placed on
the south side of the church.
• Altars: Found at the center of the Madubaha, these can be simple or ornate,
particularly during the Portuguese influence. The altar area is richly decorated
with carvings depicting scenes from scripture.
• Pulpits (Pushpakkodu): Elevated structures carved in floral forms, often in the
shape of animals, used by the priest to address the congregation.
• Persian Crosses: Crosses with floral designs and often Pahlavi inscriptions,
distinct for their intricate forms.

2. Liturgical Objects
These objects support the liturgical functions of the church, enhancing the religious
experience and rituals.

2.1 Crosses and Flagstaffs

• Open-air Granite Crosses (Kalkkurisu): Erected outside churches, these
crosses feature detailed carvings and serve as landmarks. They consist of a
base, tapering shaft, horizontal arms, and a capital, sometimes placed on a
sacrificial altar.
• Flagstaff (Dwajastamba/Kodimara): Wooden, copper, or brass poles erected to
carry flags during religious festivals, typically standing 30 to 40 feet tall.

2.2 Vilakkumadas (Lamp-bearing Pillars)

 • Function: Pillars holding lamps that are lit at night, distinguishing them from
Hindu counterparts through the Christian cross and symbolism.

3. Functional Buildings and Related Structures

These buildings support the church's community and cultural functions, as well as
provide space for other essential religious activities.

3.1 Kottuppura (Drum House)

• A structure with railings around a platform where music (melam) is performed
during festivals, often part of the church courtyard.

3.2 Belfry
• Towers housing the church bells, which are rung during services. In churches
of Gothic and Romanesque styles, these are typically part of the main structure.

3.3 Natakasala
• The place where Chavittunadakam (a traditional form of performance) is
conducted.

3.4 Ayudhapura (Weapon Storage)

• A space within the church where weapons, such as bows and arrows, were
historically stored by Malabar Christians for defense.

3.5 Vedippura (Fireworks Storage)

• A structure built to store fireworks used in church festivals, typically with
limited ventilation.

3.6 Residence of the Priest

• A separate building located near the church, providing residence for the priest.

3.7 Parish Hall

• A building near the priest’s residence used for church councils and other
community functions.

3.8 Cemeteries
• Burial grounds associated with the church, where the faithful are interred.

3.9 Kurisupallies and Cupolas

• Small chapels or structures, often located along roadsides or near river jetties,
where people can offer prayers and candles.
3.10 Pallikkulams (Church Ponds)
• Ponds associated with the church, used for religious ceremonies.

4. Architectural Influences and Evolution

Church architecture in Kerala evolved over time, influenced by both local traditions
and foreign interactions, particularly with the Portuguese and European colonizers.
• Early Churches: Initially simple structures resembling Hindu temples, with
sloping roofs and basic wooden or stone pillars.
• Portuguese Influence: Introduced gable facades, decorative altars, and
intricate carvings. The use of Baroque elements in altars and the introduction
of larger, more ornate church buildings.

Early churches in Kerala adapted local architectural traditions, often resembling the
Hindu temple layouts. Key elements included:
• A four-sided sanctuary (later the chancel) fronted by a larger pillared hall
(nave).
• A towering sanctuary, akin to the towering sikhara over the Hindu temple’s
garbha-griha.
• Features like porticos (śālā) to shelter pilgrims and gateways with musical halls
above, inspired by Brahmanical practices.
• Open-air crosses near the entrance, reminiscent of Hindu balipitha or dipa-
stambha structures.

These indigenous influences led to a syncretic architectural style, making early Kerala
churches architecturally indistinguishable from Hindu temples to foreign observers,
as evidenced by Vasco da Gama mistaking a temple for a church.

Key Monuments and Sites

1. St. Francis Church, Cochin: Built by the Portuguese Franciscans in the early
16th century, it is the first church in India constructed in the European style.
Initially made of wood, it was later rebuilt in stone. The gabled roof, bell turret,
and stepped pinnacles reflect a blend of European and Kerala traditions.
2. Orthodox Syrian Church, Chengannur: Features Peter and Paul in positions
similar to Hindu dwarapalas (guardians).
3. St. Sebastian's Church, Kanjur: Notable for its murals, including depictions of
the Anglo-Mysore wars.

Artistic and Iconographic Features

The interiors of Kerala churches often exhibit:
 • Intricate woodwork and murals, predominantly depicting Biblical themes.
• Heraldic designs and armorial bearings on tombstones, showcasing European
artistic influences.
• Early churches focused on functional simplicity, with later ones incorporating
more elaborate artistic styles under Portuguese and Dutch influences.

Syncretism in Church Architecture

The syncretic nature of Kerala’s church architecture is evident in the adoption of local
temple traditions. For instance, Peter and Paul replace Hindu dwarapalas, while the
absence of pews reflects Indian customs of squatting or kneeling. This blending of
traditions highlights the adaptability and integration of Christianity within Kerala’s
cultural milieu.

Impact of the Portuguese

The arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century marked a shift toward Latinized
church architecture. St. Francis Church in Cochin exemplifies this transformation.
Though modest in architectural terms, it served as a prototype for subsequent
churches in India. The Portuguese also influenced murals and tombstone designs,
leaving a lasting impact on Kerala's ecclesiastical art.

Conclusion
The church architecture of Kerala represents a remarkable blend of indigenous and
foreign traditions. While early churches mirrored local temple layouts, the influence
of West Asian and European ecclesiastical traditions gradually introduced new
elements. This syncretic development reflects Kerala's historical openness to external
influences and its ability to assimilate them within its cultural framework. Today,
Kerala's churches stand as monuments to this rich and diverse architectural heritage.

Synagogue Architecture of Kerala

Synagogues serve as the house of worship and communal centers for Jewish
communities. In Kerala, their unique architectural style blends Jewish traditions with
local influences, reflecting the history and culture of the region.
Historical Context
The Jewish presence in Kerala is attributed to the flourishing spice trade, which likely
attracted traders from King Solomon's kingdom (970–931 BCE). Various theories
suggest their arrival between the sixth century BCE and the first century CE, with
physical evidence such as copper-plate inscriptions dating from the 9th to 11th
centuries CE. Kodungallur (Cranganore or Shingly) served as the earliest settlement,
later expanding to Kochi, Paravur, Chendamangalam, and Mala.
Architectural Features of Kerala Synagogues
The architecture of Kerala synagogues integrates local and Jewish elements. This
blend accommodates the region’s climate and available materials, alongside fulfilling
Jewish religious requirements.
1. Gatehouse (Padippura): A distinct Kerala feature, this rectangular structure
surrounded by a compound wall served as a meeting area. It also housed a
staircase to the women's gallery.

2. Breezeway: A covered passageway connecting the gatehouse to the sanctuary’s

gallery, used primarily by women. It often features Kerala-style wooden struts.

3. Azara (Anteroom): A transitional space inside the sanctuary serving as a buffer.

4. Sanctuary: The main prayer hall, a double-height rectangular space where
rituals are conducted. Men occupy the ground floor, while women are seated
in the upstairs gallery.
5. Ark (Torah Cabinet): An ornate cabinet on the sanctuary’s Jerusalem-facing
wall, housing the Torah scrolls.
6. Torah Scroll: The sacred text of Judaism comprising the five books of Moses,
stored in the ark.
7. Ner Tamid (Eternal Flame): A constantly lit lamp above the ark symbolizing
the Menorah in Jerusalem.
8. Bimah (Podium): A raised platform at the sanctuary's center, adorned with
brass balustrades, for reading Torah scrolls.
9. Upstairs Bimah: Unique to Kerala synagogues, this additional podium in the
gallery was used for special services.
10. Mechitza (Partition): A wooden screen in the women’s seating area, ensuring
segregation.

Key Architectural Characteristics

• Local Adaptations: Hipped roofs and locally available materials suit Kerala's
monsoons.
• Distinctive Features: Elements like the upstairs bimah and gatehouse
distinguish Kerala synagogues from others globally.
• Axial Layout: Some synagogues, like the Paravur Synagogue, adopt an axial
arrangement influenced by Kerala's traditional religious buildings.

Notable Synagogues of Kerala

1. Mala Synagogue, Thrissur:
o Constructed around 1400 CE, renovated in 1792 CE.
 o Damaged during Tipu Sultan's invasion in the 1780s and later affected
by land encroachments.

2. Chendamangalam Synagogue, North Paravur:

o Built near the Periyar River, with origins dating to 1420 CE.
o Functions as the Kerala Jews Lifestyle Museum.

3. Paravur Synagogue, North Paravur:

o Established in 1616 CE, replacing a synagogue dating to 1164 CE.
o Restored between 2010–2013, now the Kerala Jews History Museum.

4. Thekkumbhagom Synagogue, Ernakulam:

o Originally constructed in 1580 CE, rebuilt in the 1930s.
o Features stained glass windows, currently non-operational.

5. Kadavumbhagom Synagogue, Ernakulam:

o Built in the early 18th century; closed in 1972 due to emigration.
o Renovated and reopened in 2018.

6. Paradesi Synagogue, Mattancherry:

o Established in 1568 CE by Sephardi Jews, expanded during the Dutch
era.
o Features a unique clock tower and remains active today.

7. Kadavumbhagom Synagogue, Mattancherry:

o Built in 1549 CE; deteriorated over time after community emigration in
1955.
o Elements like its gallery and bimah were relocated to the Israel Museum
in 1991.

Conclusion
The synagogues of Kerala embody a harmonious blend of Jewish religious needs and
local Kerala architectural traditions. Unique features like the upstairs bimah and
gatehouse highlight their distinctiveness, while their historical evolution reflects the
community's resilience and adaptation over centuries.

Mosque Architecture in Kerala: An Overview

Kerala's mosque architecture occupies a unique niche within India's broader Indo-
Islamic architectural traditions. Unlike the grand and monumental mosques of the
Imperial and Provincial styles found elsewhere in the subcontinent, the mosques in
Kerala are understated and blend Islamic architectural principles with local traditions.
This fusion results in a distinctive style characterized by simplicity, functionalism, and
adaptation to the region's climatic and cultural context.

Historical Background
• Early Introduction of Islam: Kerala likely encountered Islam earlier than many
parts of India, possibly due to its thriving maritime trade. Traditions suggest
that Cheraman Perumal, a Chera king, embraced Islam and voyaged to Mecca.
Malik-ibn-Dinar, a missionary, is credited with establishing the first mosque at
Cranganur, along with several others along the Malabar coast.
• Arab Influence: Arab traders, who frequented Kerala from the 8th century,
introduced Islam. By the 10th century, accounts such as those by Sulaiman and
Haukal reference the presence of mosques and a growing Muslim population.
Epigraphical evidence, such as inscriptions from Kollam and Calicut, indicates
the establishment and renovation of mosques between the 13th and 16th
centuries, coinciding with the Arab dominance in maritime trade.

Architectural Features

• Basic Layout: Kerala mosques typically feature a central prayer hall

surrounded by covered verandahs on all sides. A mihrab is placed on the
western wall, indicating the direction of prayer (qibla). The floor plans are
simple and functional, resembling local residential structures.

Essential Architectural Components

a. Mihrab
• Semi-circular recess located in the wall facing the Ka’bah.
• Often decorated with calligraphic inscriptions, marble, or tiles.
• The Imam leads prayers from this niche.

b. Mimbar
• Elevated stand, usually placed to the right of the Mihrab.
• Used by the Imam to deliver sermons (Khutba) on Fridays and Eid.
• Constructed from wood, masonry, stone, or brick; can be fixed or movable.

c. Minaret
• Tall, slim towers, attached to or separate from the mosque.
• Used by the Muazzin to call for prayer (Azan).
• May have circular, rectangular, or polygonal plans.
 • Early mosques had a single minaret; later mosques often feature multiple
minarets.
• Possibly influenced by Syrian Church architecture initially, adapted with
unique Islamic functions.

d. Qubba
• Domical roof of the mosque, usually over the main prayer hall.
• Interiors often highly decorated with floral and geometric patterns.
• Early domes were large and simple; later, miniature domes complemented
main domes.

e. Houdh
• Large water tanks or fountains, typically in the courtyard, for ablution (Wuzu)
before prayer.
• Sometimes housed within a hall or supplemented by wells for continuous
water supply.

Types of Mosques in Kerala

a. Congregational Mosques (Jami Masjid/Juma Masjid)

• Used for Friday prayers and sermons.

b. Niskarapalli (Small Prayer Mosques)

• Lack Mimbar and Mihrab.
• Serve as convenient prayer spaces for travelers or daily worshippers.

Regional Variations in Kerala Mosque Architecture

a. Traditional Mosques
• Distinct regional style, influenced by local traditions and materials.
• Features:
o Rectangular prayer halls with verandas on all sides.
o Small plinth (adisthana) resembling temple bases.
o Tiled roofs and walls made of laterite blocks.
o Use of timber posts, beams, and intricately carved wooden brackets.
o Central houdh for ablution.
o Inscriptions with Quranic verses and details of mosque history.
• Example Mosques:
o Mishqal Palli (Kozhikode)
o Cheraman Juma Masjid (Kodungallur)
o Calicut Jami Masjid.
 b. Modern Mosques
• Incorporate Islamic and Indo-Saracenic architectural styles.
• Adaptations to larger populations with spacious designs.
• Increased use of domes, minarets, and modern amenities.
• Features:
o Madrassas (religious schools).
o Khutbanas (libraries).
o Hostels and additional prayer halls.

Distinct Characteristics of Kerala Mosque Architecture

• Strong local influence blended with Islamic simplicity.
• Use of timber, laterite, and tiled roofs to suit the tropical climate.
• Ship-building traditions reflected in intricate wood carvings, especially on
Mimbar.
• Retained functional simplicity while incorporating subtle ornamental details.

• Indigenous Influences: The mosques incorporate features inspired by Kerala’s

Brahmanical temple architecture:
o Adhishthana (basement): Many mosques, such as those at Cranganur
and Ponnani, are built on raised platforms reminiscent of temple bases.
o Sloping Roofs: Designed to withstand Kerala’s heavy rainfall, these
roofs are often tiled.
o Pillars: Columns near entrances often alternate between square and
octagonal sections, mimicking temple designs.
o Copper Sheeting: Roofs and pinnacles are sometimes covered with
copper, similar to the stūpis of Brahmanical temples.

• Use of Wood: Wood plays a prominent role in Kerala Mosque architecture:

o Ceilings and Superstructure: Wooden elements lend structural support
and aesthetic detail.
o Pulpits (Mimbar): Exquisite wood carvings on pulpits are highlights of
Kerala’s Islamic architecture. For instance:
▪ The pulpit at the Jami'-Masjid, Beypore, was crafted in 1719-20.
▪ The Mithqal mosque’s pulpit dates to 1677-78.
• Arches:
While largely inspired by local traditions, some mosques, such as the Jami'-
Masjid at Ponnani, incorporate arched openings, reflecting broader Islamic
architectural practices.
Significant Mosques and Epigraphical Evidence
1. Cranganur Mosque: While attributed to the 7th century by tradition, its
existing structure reflects a later period. Features include a central hall,
corridors, and a mihrab, with design elements rooted in local temple
architecture.
2. Jami'-Masjid, Ponnani: A three-storied structure with tiled roofs, crowned
with pinnacles. Renovations over centuries have preserved its significance as a
spiritual and architectural landmark.
3. Kollampalli Mosque, Quilon: Inscriptions from 1326 record its construction,
while subsequent renovations highlight the continuity of architectural
practices.
4. Parpil Muhyiu’d-Din’s Mosque, Calicut: Constructed in 1551 and renovated
in 1782-83, it exemplifies the evolving mosque architecture.
5. Kannamkulangara Mosque, Chaliyam: Reconstructed in 1355, it reflects early
Islamic influence in Kerala.

Architectural Identity
The mosques in Kerala are notable for their pragmatic and regional adaptations:
• Climatic Suitability: The closed prayer halls, sloping roofs, and tiled coverings
are practical responses to Kerala’s heavy monsoons.
• Cultural Integration: The lack of Persian or Turkish influences, prominent in
other parts of India, underscores the influence of Arabic traditions combined
with Kerala’s indigenous styles.

Conclusion
Kerala’s mosques stand as a testament to the harmonious integration of Islamic
principles with local architectural traditions. While lacking the grandeur of their
counterparts in North and Central India, these structures are rich in cultural and
historical significance. Their simplicity and utilitarian design, shaped by the interplay
of Islamic functionalism and regional artistry, mark a distinctive chapter in the
history of Indo-Islamic architecture.

Stone Sculptures of Kerala: A Comprehensive Note

The stone sculptures of Kerala represent a rich amalgamation of various artistic
influences and local traditions, evolving across centuries to form a unique sculptural
identity. The art is primarily shaped by the use of granite and laterite, which were
prevalent in the region, and reflects the impact of major artistic schools such as
Pandya, Pallava, Chola, Vijayanagara, and Nayaka.
1. Early Phase: Rock-Cut Tradition (7th–10th Century CE)

• Key Sites and Influences:

o The Brahmanical rock-architecture of Kerala is exemplified by the caves
at Kaviyur, Vilinjam, and Kottukal.
o These sculptures exhibit the Pandya plastic tradition, characterized by
their elegance and subtle detailing.
o In the northern cave-temples, such as Irunnilamkode, the influence of
the Pallava tradition is evident, akin to the sculptures of the Namakkal
caves in Tamil Nadu.

• Buddhist and Jain Sculptures:

o Buddhist images: These sculptures overlap chronologically with the
Brahmanical tradition, indicating the coexistence of multiple religious
practices.
o Jain sculptures: Contemporary with early structural temples, these
carvings further diversify the sculptural repertoire of early Kerala.

2. Mediums and Materials

• Granite:
o Widely used for Brahmanical images and structural components,
popularized by the Pallavas and Pandyas.
o Notable examples: Brahmanical images from the 9th–10th centuries CE.
• Laterite:
o Utilized for decorative elements such as the adhisthana (base) and for
standing images, as seen in the Krishna temple at
Thirukulashekarapuram.
o Though often plastered, these sculptures retain the graceful stance of the
Pallava tradition.

3. Chola Influence (11th–14th Century CE)

• Impact on Kerala’s Sculptural Art:
o Representations of deities, dance scenes on temple banisters, and dwarf
figures accompanying the pranala (water spout) exhibit strong Chola
influence.
o Example Motifs:
▪ Dance scenes on banisters at:
▪ Vishnu temple at Trivikramangalam
(Thiruvananthapuram).
▪ Subrahmanya temple at Kidangur (Kottayam).
 ▪ Krishna shrine at Thirukulashekarapuram.
▪ Dwarf figures in a drinking pose, common throughout Kerala.
• Notable Sculptures:
o Two-armed image of Subrahmanya at Vellanad (Thiruvananthapuram).
o Image of Vishnu at Atiyannur.
o These are characterized by delicate modeling and rhythmic movement.

4. Later Phase: Vijayanagara and Nayaka Influence (16th–18th Century CE)

• Architectural Flourish:
o The period witnessed the emergence of balikkal-mandapams and
cloistered passages richly adorned with sculptures.
o Decorative reliefs appeared on the columns of the valiyambalam (outer
hall).

• Motifs and Iconography:

o Reliefs of dipa-lakshmis (lamp-bearing goddesses) and other figures
became prominent.
o Sculptures during this period exhibit lively facial expressions and
graceful stances, inspired by Vijayanagara and Nayaka idioms.

• Key Examples:
o Siva temple at Vaikom.
o Janardana temple at Varkala.
o Sthanunathasvami temple at Suchindram.
o Padmanabhaswamy temple at Trivandrum.

5. Kerala’s Unique Sculptural Identity (14th to 18th century)

• Fusion of Styles:
o While influenced by neighboring regions, Kerala’s stone sculptures
exhibit distinct local features, including elements derived from Hoysala
art of Karnataka.
o The local tradition is marked by intricately ornate figures, a
characteristic shared across stone sculptures, wood carvings, and mural
paintings.
• Contrast in Artistic Execution:
o The vibrant dynamism of these sculptures contrasts sharply with the
monotony of the stone dvarapalas (door guardians), which were modeled
on wooden prototypes.
o
Key Characteristics of Kerala’s Stone Sculptures
1. Mediums: Predominantly granite and laterite, tailored to the local
environment.
2. Stylistic Evolution:
o Early rock-cut traditions influenced by Pandya and Pallava schools.
o Chola-inspired themes of dance, devotion, and dwarfs.
o Later Vijayanagara and Nayaka grandeur.
3. Motifs:
o Religious imagery (Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain).
o Decorative and narrative reliefs (dance scenes, dipa-lakshmis, and
dwarfs).
4. Geographical Spread:
o South Kerala features more Chola and Vijayanagara-inspired works.
o North Kerala exhibits simpler forms with unique lion motifs on
banisters.

Kerala’s stone sculptures thus embody a dynamic interplay between indigenous

creativity and external influences, forming a tradition that is at once rooted in local
culture and connected to the broader South Indian sculptural heritage.

Wood Sculptures of Kerala

Wood sculptures form a distinctive and integral aspect of the artistic heritage of
Kerala, characterized by their intricate detailing, rich iconographic content, and a
seamless blend of functionality and ornamentation. The abundance of timber
resources in Kerala has fostered the development of exceptional craftsmanship in
wood, especially in temple architecture. The wooden sculptures of Kerala are found
adorning various elements of temple structures, such as bracket figures, carved
ceilings, sculptured columns, decorative motifs, and perforated jāli windows. These
sculptures showcase a synthesis of artistic traditions and the skill of Kerala artisans.

Key Features of Wooden Sculptures in Kerala Temples

1. Structural and Decorative Elements:

o Wooden sculptures are integral to the namaskara mandapas, kūttambalams
(performance halls), and other temple structures.
o Bracket figures, decorative panels, and sculpted columns are common,
often narrating epic or puranic stories.
o The ceilings of namaskara mandapas often depict the Ashta Dikpalas
(guardians of eight directions), namely Īśāna, Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirṛti,
 Varuṉa, Vāyu, and Kubera, with Brahma placed in the central coffer.
These carvings are detailed and imbued with symbolic significance.

2. Subject Matter and Themes:

o Mythological Narratives: Scenes from epics like the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata are commonly portrayed. For instance, Kirātārjunīya is a
popular theme found in temples such as the Śiva temple at Peruvanam
and the Rāma temple at Triprayar.
o Deities and Guardians: The niches of temples frequently house wooden
images of deities such as Brahmā, Indra, Dakṣiṉāmūrti, and Narasiṁha,
symbolically placed in cardinal directions.
o Decorative Motifs: Gaja-vyāla (mythical lion-elephant hybrids) figures
are recurring motifs, often rendered in highly stylized forms.

3. Craftsmanship and Style:

o The wood sculptures often lack a visible resemblance to the original
shape of the material, achieving a realistic and highly finished form akin
to stone carvings.
o Most sculptures are painted, obscuring the wooden texture and
enhancing the illusion of plasticity and fluidity.
o Sculptors have skillfully worked in both round and relief forms. Relief
sculptures, especially those on temple walls, are highly detailed and
dramatic, often with a high-relief technique creating a near three-
dimensional effect.

4. Narrative Panels and Reliefs:

o The walls of temples, made of timber, are adorned with intricately
carved panels depicting mythological scenes and decorative patterns.
o In temples like Ettumanoor and Chengannur, Ramayana episodes are
sculpted with remarkable dynamism and fidelity to iconographic
conventions.
o These panels are arranged in rectangular frames, a tradition mirrored in
Kerala mural paintings.

5. Bracket Figures and Other Sculptural Elements:

o Bracket figures, often elaborately carved, serve both decorative and
structural purposes. These figures include deities and narrative scenes,
demonstrating an influence of Hoysala art traditions from Karnataka.
o Wooden dvarapalas (door guardians) are another characteristic feature,
occasionally stuccoed for added detail.
 6. Perforated Jāli Windows:
o The jāli windows in Kerala temples showcase exceptional woodcarving
skills. These intricate lattices not only serve functional purposes, such as
ventilation and lighting, but also enhance the aesthetic appeal of the
temple interiors.

Regional and Temporal Variations

• The finest examples of wooden sculptures are found in temples of central
Kerala, particularly in the districts of Ernakulam, Alleppey, and Kottayam.
• The kūttambalams of the Subrahmanya temples at Haripad and Kidangur are
teeming with sculptures that vividly narrate mythological themes.
• The stylistic evolution of these wood carvings reflects influences from
neighboring artistic traditions, such as those of the Hoysalas in Karnataka,
which is evident in motifs like the gaja-vyāla and bracket figures.

Conclusion
The wooden sculptures of Kerala epitomize a rich tradition of artistry and
craftsmanship. These sculptures not only enhance the architectural grandeur of
temples but also serve as visual narratives of mythological, epic, and spiritual themes.
With their intricate detailing, expressive forms, and vibrant use of color, Kerala's wood
sculptures stand as a testament to the region's cultural and artistic heritage,
embodying the creativity and devotion of its craftsmen.

Metal Sculptures of Kerala

Metal sculpture in Kerala represents a rich confluence of artistic traditions,
craftsmanship, and cultural heritage. The region's metal sculpting tradition spans
from early bronze images to intricate works of art incorporating regional idioms and
techniques. These sculptures, primarily made of bronze and other metals, reflect
Kerala’s devotion, artistry, and aesthetic evolution.

Chronological Development and Key Examples

1. Early Bronze Images (9th–12th Century):

• Standing Vishnu as Srinivasa (9th Century):
o The earliest known bronze sculpture from Kerala is the 16 cm tall
standing Vishnu (Srinivasa) housed in the Trivandrum Museum.
o It exhibits a well-balanced design and serves as an early example of the
region’s bronze craftsmanship.
 • Standing Vishnu (10th–11th Century):
o Another Vishnu image, also from the Trivandrum Museum (32 cm tall),
showcases fine finishing and intricate details like a kirita (crown)
adorned with diadems and a gem-studded pāṭa (waistcloth).
o Despite damage to some attributes, it is regarded as one of the finest
South Indian bronzes.

• Bronzes of Suchindram Temple (12th Century):

o Suchindram temple houses exemplary bronzes dating from the Chola
period.
o Key figures include Sabhapati (Nataraja) and his consort in the Sabhapati
shrine, as well as Śiva and Pārvatī in the Suchindraperumal shrine.
o These pieces adhere to the elegance and aesthetic grace of Chola art,
marking a significant phase in Kerala's sculptural tradition.

2. Bronzes of the Kerala Style (15th–16th Century):

• This period marked the emergence of a distinct Kerala idiom in metal
sculpture.

• Vishnumāyā (16th Century):

o A bronze housed in the Trichur Museum, it is characterized by heavy
modeling, stylized features, and elaborate ornamentation.
o The shift towards regional stylistic features, such as robust figures and
intricate embellishments, becomes evident.

• Hollow-Cast Technique:
o The use of the hollow-casting process became prominent during this
phase. Examples include the dvarapalas (door guardians) in the Trichur
Museum.
o These 17th-century sculptures were likely crafted using panchaloha (an
alloy of five metals), showcasing Kerala artisans’ technical prowess.

4. Later Period Bronzes (17th–18th Century):

• Silver Image of Sāstā:

o Found in the Trivandrum Museum, this image employs a mixed
medium approach where a wooden core is overlaid with beaten silver
secured by silver nails.
o It exemplifies Kerala’s adaptability and innovation in combining
materials.
 • Metal Figures from Thiruvanchikulam Temple:
o Figures such as Nataraja, Umāsahita Śiva, Cheraman Perumal Nayanar,
and Sundaramūrti Nayanar belong to this period.
o The Nataraja figure, inscribed as Sabhapati of Thiruvanchikulam, is
adorned with an elaborate prabhavali (aureole) and heavy jewelry.
Despite the ornamentation, it retains the grace characteristic of earlier
compositions.

Artistic Techniques and Innovations

• Use of Relief and Embossing:
o Kerala artists extended their expertise to relief work, embossing intricate
designs on thin copper sheets.
o Decorative elements such as rafter-shoes for wooden beams were
transformed into artistic masterpieces.
o A notable 14th-century rafter-shoe exhibited in the Trivandrum
Museum features fine relief work and inscriptions, reflecting the
integration of art into functional objects.

• Stylistic Elements:
o Metal sculptures often exhibit stylized features, such as elaborate
ornamentation and robust forms.
o The depiction of deities and mythological themes is intricate, with a keen
attention to iconographic details.
o The transition from Chola influences to a distinctly Kerala style
demonstrates a regional interpretation of classical norms.

• Medium and Process:

o Bronze remains the predominant medium, often crafted using the lost-
wax (cire-perdue) technique.
o The hollow-cast process and the incorporation of multiple materials
(e.g., silver over wood) highlight Kerala’s technical diversity and
ingenuity.

Significance and Legacy

Metal sculptures of Kerala serve not only as artistic marvels but also as important
cultural and spiritual artifacts. They reflect the region’s devotion and artistic
evolution, encapsulating influences from neighboring traditions while forging a
unique identity. From the early bronzes of the 9th century to the elaborate
compositions of the 18th century, these sculptures continue to inspire awe for their
craftsmanship, intricate detailing, and cultural resonance.
Kerala's metal sculptures, displayed in temples and museums, stand as a testament to
the region’s rich artistic heritage, offering valuable insights into its history,
iconography, and technical advancements.

Mural Paintings of Kerala

➢ Paintings represent one of the most valuable and enduring forms of visual art.

➢ They are rooted in both imitation of the observable world and the imaginative
creations that emerge from the artist's mind.
➢ These artworks often embody the traditional and cultural heritage of the region
they originate from, serving as significant markers of societal identity.

Broad Division
➢ Paintings can be broadly classified into two categories: rock art and mural
paintings.
➢ Rock art: These are paintings created directly on natural rock surfaces, often
in caves or open landscapes. They are among the earliest forms of human
artistic expression, reflecting the lives, beliefs, and rituals of prehistoric
communities.
➢ Mural paintings: These are paintings made on prepared and plastered wall
surfaces, typically within architectural spaces. Mural art is more structured
and refined, often depicting religious, historical, or cultural themes in a variety
of styles.

Indian Painting Tradition

➢ The tradition of painting in India has deep antiquity, potentially traceable to

the prehistoric period.
➢ Prehistoric Period: During this time, paintings primarily took the form of rock
art, executed directly on natural rock surfaces. These artworks often depict
scenes from daily life, hunting, and rituals. Since prehistoric communities lived
in close harmony with nature, they utilized natural pigments such as ochres,
kaolin, and hematite to create these paintings.
➢ Protohistoric Period: In the succeeding protohistoric period, evidence of
painted motifs is observed on pottery, textile fabrics, and other objects. These
painted artifacts, discovered at various archaeological sites across India, reflect
an early sophistication in artistic expression.
➢ Vedic and Post-Vedic Periods: Literary references to paintings are found in
texts such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, indicating the cultural
significance of this art form during the Vedic and post-Vedic periods.
➢ Historic Period: During this era, texts like the Buddhist Vinaya Pitaka mention
art galleries within the pleasure houses of King Prasenajit, underscoring the
societal appreciation of paintings. The earliest surviving examples of historical
paintings date to the 1st century BCE and are found in the Buddhist caves of
Ajanta (specifically Cave Nos. 9 and 10). These murals exhibit a high degree of
artistic and narrative sophistication, reflecting the flourishing cultural and
religious milieu of the time.
➢ Gupta Period: The Gupta period, often regarded as a golden age of art and
culture, also highlights the prominence of paintings. Literary works such as
Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram refer to chitrasalas (art galleries) in the palace
of King Agnimitra. Additionally, mural paintings from this period are evident
in the Ajanta caves and Bagh caves, showcasing exquisite artistry and thematic
depth.
➢ South India: In South India, Sangam literature mentions paintings adorning
the walls of temples, palaces, and other structures. Early evidence of mural
paintings in the region is found in the caves of the Chalukya period. The mural
tradition in South India flourished under the patronage of dynasties such as the
Chalukyas, Pallavas, Rashtrakutas, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras. These
dynasties played a significant role in perpetuating and enriching this art form
on temple walls, ceilings, and other architectural surfaces.

Kerala Murals

➢ The earliest surviving mural paintings in ancient Kerala are found in the
Thirunanthikarai rock-cut temple, located in present-day Tamil Nadu. These
paintings are affiliated with the Pandya style, characterized by its emphasis on
bold, linear outlines, vibrant colors, and a clear narrative approach. Figures in
the Pandya style are often depicted with graceful postures, intricate
ornamentation, and a strong sense of movement, reflecting the stylistic
preferences of the period.
➢ Mural paintings from structural temples in Kerala are also noteworthy. The
earliest examples of such murals are believed to date back to the 11th–12th
centuries CE. These murals, found in various temples across the region,
illustrate religious themes, mythological narratives, and local traditions,
showcasing a unique blend of artistic excellence and regional identity.
Distribution of Important temples in Kerala with Murals

❖ Uppilikal Mahavishnu Temple – Palakkad

❖ Ananthapadmanabhaswamy Temple – Kasargod
❖ Thodeekalam Siva Temple – Kannur
❖ Morazha Siva Temple – Kannur
❖ Maniyur Subramanya Temple – Kannur
❖ Trichambaram Sreekrishna Temple – Kannur
❖ Kanhirangad Vaidyanathaswami Temple – Kannur
❖ Kizhur Siva Temple – Kannur
❖ Thali Mahadeva Temple – Kannur
❖ Vakamali Mahavishnu Temple – Kannur
❖ Iringannur Siva Temple – Kozhikode
❖ Balussery Vettakkorumakan Temple – Kozhikode
❖ Chendamangalam Siva Temple – Ernakulam
❖ Ilamkunnapuzha Subramanyaswami – Ernakulam
❖ Triprangodu Mahadeva Temple – Malappuram
❖ Kottakkal Venkitathevar Siva Temple – Malappuram
❖ Pazhoor Perum Thikov – Ernakulam
❖ Panayannar Kavu Devi and Siva Temple – Alappuzha
❖ Peruvanam Mahadeva Temple – Thrissur
❖ Pallimana Siva Temple – Thrissur
❖ Chemmanhatta Mahadeva Temple – Thrissur
❖ Triprayar Sreerama Temple – Thrissur
❖ Thrissur Vadakkumnathan Temple – Thrissur
❖ Panjal Ayyappan Temple – Thrissur
❖ Pishari Bhagavathy Temple – Thrissur
❖ Kalampalli Bhagavathy Temple – Thrissur
❖ Lokanar Kovu Bhagavathy Temple – Thrissur
❖ Thiruvanchikulam Mahadeva Temple – Thrissur
❖ Pundareekapuram Vishnu Temple – Kottayam
❖ Ettumanoor Mahadeva Temple – Kottayam
❖ Pandavam Sastha Temple – Kottayam
❖ Thaliyilkotta Siva Temple- Kottayam
❖ Arpookara Subramanyaswami Temple – Kottayam
❖ Trikkodithanam Mahavishnu Temple – Kottayam
❖ Manganam Narasimhaswami Temple – Kottayam
❖ Padmamashaswamy Temple-Thiruvananthapuram
Techniques in Mural Painting
➢ Mural paintings are traditionally executed using two primary techniques:
fresco buono and fresco secco.
➢ Fresco Buono (True Fresco): This technique involves painting on a wet plaster
surface. The pigments, mixed with water, are applied to the wet plaster,
allowing the colors to penetrate and bond with the surface as it dries. This
results in a durable and long-lasting artwork.
➢ Fresco Secco (Dry Fresco): In this method, the paintings are executed on a dry
plaster surface. Pigments are applied to the dry surface using a binding
medium, such as lime water or egg yolk, to adhere the colors to the wall.

Fresco Buono in the Kerala Mural Tradition

➢ In Kerala's mural tradition, the fresco buono technique is the most commonly
employed method.
➢ The wall surfaces of Kerala temples are predominantly constructed using
laterite stones.To prepare the surface, a thick layer of lime plaster is applied to
the walls, ensuring an even base for the artwork.
➢ The wall is further refined by applying successive layers of fine lime plaster,
which are meticulously smoothed to create a polished surface ready for
painting.
➢ This traditional approach not only enhances the durability of the murals but
also provides a vibrant and detailed finish characteristic of Kerala's temple art.

Pigments in Kerala Mural Tradition

➢ The Kerala mural tradition is known for its vibrant and natural colors, derived
primarily from plants and minerals. The pigments used in these murals follow
the principles of the Panchavarna system, which utilizes five primary colors:
yellow, red, green, and black. These colors are symbolic, representing different
qualities (gunas) and are applied selectively based on the nature of the
characters depicted.

Primary Colors in the Panchavarna System

➢ Yellow Ochre (Peeta): Derived from soft laterite stones. Represents Satvika
Guna (purity and serenity). Commonly used for sages, celestial beings, and
gentle characters like Lord Vishnu or the Buddha.
➢ Red Ochre (Raktha): Also extracted from laterite stones. Symbolizes Rajo Guna
(passion and energy). Associated with characters like kings, warriors, and fiery
deities such as Goddess Kali or Durga.
➢ Green (Haritha): Created by mixing yellow ochre with blue pigment or by
extracting from plant-based sources. Represents fertility, balance, and nature,
often used for depicting flora or celestial beings.
➢ Black (Krishna): Made by burning coconut shells or other natural sources.
Denotes Tamo Guna (ignorance or darkness) and is used for fierce or demonic
characters like asuras and rakshasas.
➢ White (Svet): Derived from lime or chalk. Often used for highlighting and
defining features, representing purity and clarity.
Additional Colors in Later Traditions
➢ Over time, additional colors were incorporated into Kerala murals, often
influenced by local and external innovations. These included shades of orange,
purple, and lighter hues to create intricate details and enhance the visual appeal
of the artwork.
➢ Blue (Neela): Obtained from the juice of Neelamari leaves (Indigofera
tinctoria).Conveys depth, infinity, and calmness, often used to represent cosmic
elements or divine characters like Lord Krishna.

Symbolism of Gunas and Characters

➢ The selection of colors in Kerala murals is deeply symbolic, rooted in the
Satvika, Rajo, and Tamo Gunas:
➢ Satvika Guna: Representing purity, serenity, and divinity, associated with
gods, sages, and gentle beings. Dominant colors: yellow, white, and green.
➢ Rajo Guna: Denoting passion, energy, and ambition, suited for kings, warriors,
and active deities. Dominant colors: red and orange.
➢ Tamo Guna: Signifying ignorance, darkness, and destructive tendencies,
reserved for demonic or malevolent characters. Dominant colors: black and
dark shades.

Grinding Process
➢ The pigments used in Kerala mural painting are carefully prepared through a
meticulous grinding process to ensure smooth application and vibrant color
retention.
➢ Black Pigment: Obtained from lamp soot or the resin of the tree Eravikara
(Garcinia morella).The soot is finely ground to achieve a consistent texture
suitable for detailed work.
➢ White Pigment: Unlike other pigments, white is derived directly from the
prepared wall surface, which is rendered with layers of lime plaster.
 Binding Medium
➢ Neem Gum (Azadirachta indica) is used as the primary binding medium. It
acts as a natural adhesive, ensuring that the pigments adhere firmly to the
plastered surface while enhancing durability and resistance to environmental
factors.

Brushes
➢ Brushes are traditionally made using natural materials for precision and
flexibility. Eyyampullu or Kuntalipullu (Aristida setacea grass) is used for
crafting fine brushes, allowing artists to achieve intricate detailing and smooth
strokes.

Chronology
The chronology and other characteristics of Kerala murals have been discussed
during the lectures. Students who were absent from the class should gather the
information from their peers. I trust that you have also included this content in
your answers.

Dear Students,

I am sharing the study material for the 3rd semester examination on Introduction to
Kerala Archaeology. Along with the notes, I would like to address a few concerns.

As 2nd-year students, many of you may not yet be familiar with the broader field
of archaeology or its terminologies. For instance, when studying topics like the
Paleolithic period, Megalithic culture, temple architecture, or geomorphology, it is
essential to understand their basic concepts and principles. Therefore, I have
included an explanation of these concepts in the material, along with their specific
occurrences in Kerala.

However, for the examination, your focus should be on the relevance and
occurrence of these topics within Kerala or Kerala archaeology specifically.
I understand that this paper covers a broad range of topics, which may lead to
doubts. Please feel free to reach out to me at any time for clarification or assistance
with your academic queries.

Wishing you all the best for your exam!

Warm regards,

Kumbodharan S.