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02-10-2021

Electrical Engineering Department


V.V.P. ENGINEERING COLLEGE
SEMSTER 7
Electrical and Hybrid Vehicles (3170923)

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
sachin.rajani.el@vvpedulink.ac.in
1

Syllabus (3170923) to be Covered by Dr. Sachin Rajani

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
2
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

1
02-10-2021

Module 4: Over Voltages in Power Systems

• Topics
(1) Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
(2) Battery based energy storage and its analysis
(3) Fuel cell based energy storage and its analysis
(4) Supercapacitor based energy storage and its analysis
(5) Flywheel based energy storage and its analysis
(6) Hybridization of different energy storage devices
(7) Sizing the drive system
(8) Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
(9) Sizing the propulsion motor
(10) Sizing the power electronics
(11) Selecting the energy storage technology
(12) Calculation for the ratings
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
3
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
1 What are the energy storage requirements in Hybrid and Electric
Vehicles? Explain in detail. (Most IMP)
2 Explain the plot of battery voltage and charging current Vs. State of
charge (SOC) for a three stage charger (Most IMP)
3 Give the types of energy storage technologies suitable for hybrid electrical
vehicle. Explain the Lithium-Ion battery in detail. (Most IMP)
OR
Discuss the Battery based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid and
Electric Vehicles.

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
4
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

2
02-10-2021

Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
5 Explain the design of Z-converter for battery charging (Most IMP)
6 Discuss the Fuel Cell based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid and
Electric Vehicles.
OR
Give the types of Fuel Cells. With diagram explain principle and
construction of PEMFC. (Most IMP)
7 Discuss the Supercapacitor based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid
and Electric Vehicles.
OR
Write a short note on super capacitor. (Most IMP)
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
5
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
8 Discuss the Flywheel based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid and
Electric Vehicles.
9 How the hybridization of energy storage devices is carried out? What are the
precautions to be taken? Compare different hybridization options.
10 Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor
(3) Sizing the power electronics for HEV.
11 How the selection of energy storage technology is carried out for HEV? Also
discuss Calculation for the ratings.
12 Why Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
is important? How it is carried out?
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
6
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

3
02-10-2021

Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and


Electric Vehicles
Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
Question: What are the energy storage requirements in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles?
Explain in detail. (Most IMP)
Energy Storage and Transportation
• Electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming increasingly common on the streets and on the
electricity grid.
• Such vehicles include electric-only plug-in vehicles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs) that have both electric and fossil fuel powertrains.
• While much of these vehicles’ charging will occur at night and during weekends, when
electricity value and price are low or relatively low, and while passenger vehicles are not
needed or used, some EVs will need to charge during the day and even during peak demand
periods when the grid is already providing the maximum amount of power.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
7
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and


Electric Vehicles
Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
• If EV charging occurs in parts of the grid that do not have sufficient capacity “head-room” to
accommodate the extra power needs, then there are two basic alternatives.
• First, the utility could increase the amount of generation, transmission, and distribution (GT&D)
infrastructure to add needed capacity.
• The second alternative is to install distributed energy resources (DERs) including distributed
generation and storage.
How EVs and Energy Storage Work Together
• The growth in the EV market has important implications for the electricity grid.
• EVs will use an increasing amount of electricity – resulting in more generation operation with a
commensurate increase of generation fuel use and air emissions.
• They will require additional capacity to make, transmit and deliver additional energy, especially
during the electric grid’s peak demand times (times when the maximum power draw on the grid
occurs). Dr. Sachin Rajani
8
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

4
02-10-2021

Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and


Electric Vehicles
Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
Question: What are the energy storage requirements in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles?
Explain in detail. (Most IMP)
• Autonomous vehicles must carry all the energy they need for a given distance and speed.
• It means an energy storage system with high specific energy (Wh/kg) and high specific power (W/kg), which
allows rapid charge to reduce the long charging time required today. Regone Chart is shown below
• It is clear from the Regone Chart that Capacitors (ultra or conventional) have highest power density but do not
have sufficient energy density and on the other hand, batteries have a better energy density but lower power
density.

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
9
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and


Electric Vehicles
Power and Mass Computations for Initial
Vehicle Sizing
• Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are expected
to meet two performance criteria in order to
compete successfully with conventional
vehicles.
• The first criterion is the time required to
accelerate from zero to 60 mph.
• The vehicles must also be able to negotiate a
minimum grade at a constant speed.

10

5
02-10-2021

Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and


Electric Vehicles

The power in equation 1 is at the wheels. After the acceleration power


is determined, the drivetrain components would be sized to allow for Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
losses at various levels. 11
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and


Electric Vehicles
In the initial part,
acceleration is fast
and then it is
increasing linearly.

The simplified equation for


acceleration power Pa can be written as
shown below. 1 1 a v

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
12
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

6
02-10-2021

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Question: Give the types of energy storage technologies suitable for hybrid electrical
vehicle. Explain the Lithium-Ion battery in detail. (Most IMP)
Answer: Energy Storage Options available are shown in below figure
Secondary Batteries for
Energy Storage
•Lead–acid battery
•Lithium ion battery
•Lithium ion polymer battery.
•Lithium iron phosphate battery.
•Lithium–sulfur battery.
•Lithium ceramic battery.
•Magnesium-ion battery
•Lithium air battery
•Nickel–cadmium battery
•Nickel metal hydride battery
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
13
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
14
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

7
02-10-2021

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Battery based energy storage and its analysis


• An electric-vehicle battery (EVB, also known as a traction battery) is a battery used to
power the electric motors of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) or hybrid electric vehicle
(HEV).
• These batteries are usually rechargeable (secondary) batteries, and are typically lithium-ion
batteries. These batteries are specifically designed for a high ampere-hour (or kilowatt-hour)
capacity.
• Electric-vehicle batteries differ from starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries as they
are designed to give power over sustained periods of time and are deep-cycle batteries.
• Batteries for electric vehicles are characterized by their relatively high power-to-weight
ratio, specific energy and energy density; smaller, lighter batteries are desirable because they
reduce the weight of the vehicle and therefore improve its performance.
• Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery technologies have much lower specific
energy, and this often impacts the maximum all-electric range of the vehicles.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
15
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Battery based energy storage and its analysis


• The most common battery type in modern
electric vehicles are lithium-ion and
lithium polymer, because of their high
energy density compared to their weight.
• Other types of rechargeable batteries used
in electric vehicles include lead–acid
("flooded", deep-cycle, and valve
regulated lead acid), nickel-cadmium,
nickel–metal hydride, and, less commonly,
zinc–air, and sodium nickel chloride
("zebra") batteries.
• The amount of electricity (i.e. electric
charge) stored in batteries is measured in
ampere hours or in coulombs, with the
total energy often measured in kilowatt- Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
hours. 16
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

8
02-10-2021

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Construction and Working of Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries


• Lithium-ion batteries power the lives of millions of people
each day. From laptops and cell phones to hybrids and electric
cars, this technology is growing in popularity due to its light
weight, high energy density, and ability to recharge.
• A Li-ion battery is made up of an anode, cathode, separator,
electrolyte, and two current collectors (positive and negative).
• The anode and cathode store the lithium. The electrolyte
carries positively charged lithium ions from the anode to the
cathode and vice versa through the separator.
• The movement of the lithium ions creates free electrons in the
anode which creates a charge at the positive current
collector.
• The electrical current then flows from the current collector
through a device being powered (cell phone, computer, etc.)
to the negative current collector. The separator blocks the Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
flow of electrons inside the battery. 17
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Construction and Working of Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries


CHARGE/DISCHARGE
• While the battery is discharging and providing an electric current, the
anode releases lithium ions to the cathode, generating a flow of
electrons from one side to the other.
• When plugging in the device, the opposite happens: Lithium ions are
released by the cathode and received by the anode.
ENERGY DENSITY VS. POWER DENSITY
• The two most common concepts associated with batteries are energy
density and power density.
• Energy density is measured in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg) and
is the amount of energy the battery can store with respect to its mass.
• Power density is measured in watts per kilogram (W/kg) and is the
amount of power that can be generated by the battery with respect to
its mass. To draw a clearer picture, think of draining a pool.
• Energy density is similar to the size of the pool, while power density Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
is comparable to draining the pool as quickly as possible. 18
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

9
02-10-2021

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Construction and Working of Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
19
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Construction and Working of Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
20
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

10
02-10-2021

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Battery based energy storage and its analysis


Overview of Batteries
From the electric vehicle designer’s point of view the battery can be treated as a ‘black box’
which has a range of performance criteria. These criteria will include:
 specific energy
 energy density
 specific power
 typical voltages
 amp hour efficiency
 energy efficiency
 commercial availability
 cost, operating temperatures
 self-discharge rates
 number of life cycles Dr. Sachin Rajani
 recharge rates Electrical Eng. Department
21
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Battery based energy storage and its analysis


The designer also needs to understand how energy availability varies with regard to:
 ambient temperature
 charge and discharge rates
 battery geometry
 optimum temperature
 charging methods
 cooling needs.

However, at least a basic understanding of the battery chemistry is very important, otherwise
the performance and maintenance requirements of the different types, and most of the
disappointments connected with battery use, such as their limited life, self-discharge, reduced
efficiency at higher currents.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
22
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

11
02-10-2021

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Battery Modeling
Figure shows the basic battery modeling
It represents
• OCV = Open Circuit Voltage
• Rint = Internal resistance of the conductive material
(plates)
• R1 and C1 resistance and capacitance that indicates
leakage part
• V = Terminal Voltage
• i = load current (while discharging)
• Battery models have become an indispensable tool for the design of battery-powered systems.
• Their uses include battery characterization, state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH)
estimation, algorithm development, system-level optimization, and real-time simulation for
battery management system design. Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
23 Rajkot
V.V.P. Engineering College,

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Battery Modeling
• The first step in the development of an accurate battery model is
to build and parameterize an equivalent circuit that reflects the
battery’s nonlinear behavior and dependencies on temperature,
SOC, SOH, and current.
• These dependencies are unique to each battery’s chemistry and
need to be determined using measurements performed on
battery cells.
Degradation
• Batteries degrade over time due to their calendar life and
charge-discharge cycles, showing a gradual loss in reserve
capacity and an increase in internal resistance.
• The battery management system (BMS) needs to adapt to these
changes for effective control of the battery.
• Battery models can help you develop a BMS that accounts for Dr. Sachin Rajani

degradation. 24
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

12
02-10-2021

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Question:
Give the types of Fuel Cells. With diagram explain principle and construction of PEMFC. (Most IMP)
Answer:
• A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often
hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox
reactions.
• These fuel cells are used to power EVs
• Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen
(usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy
usually comes from metals and their ions or oxides that are commonly already present in the
battery, except in flow batteries.
• Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
25
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte
that allows ions, often positively charged hydrogen ions (protons), to move between the two
sides of the fuel cell.
Types of fuel cells
• Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
• Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)
• Solid acid fuel cell (SAFC)
• Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)
• Solid oxide fuel cell
• Molten-carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
26
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

13
02-10-2021

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

• At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate ions (often positively charged
hydrogen ions) and electrons. The ions move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte.
• At the same time, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current
electricity.
• At the cathode, another catalyst causes ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water and possibly other products.
• Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in start-up time ranging from 1 second
for proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC).
• A related technology is flow batteries, in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging.
• Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked", or placed in
series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements.
• In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of
nitrogen dioxide and other emissions.
• The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40 and 60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a
cogeneration scheme, efficiencies of up to 85% can be obtained.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
27
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
28
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

14
02-10-2021

Battery based energy storage and its analysis

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)


The different components of a PEMFC
are: Bipolar plates, electrodes, catalyst,
membrane, and the necessary hardware
such as current collectors and gaskets.
• The membrane electrode assembly
(MEA) is referred as the heart of the
PEMFC and is usually made of a
proton-exchange membrane
sandwiched between two catalyst-
coated carbon papers.
• Platinum and/or similar type of noble
metals are usually used as the
catalyst for PEMFC.
• The electrolyte could be a polymer
membrane. 29

• Topics
(1) Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
(2) Battery based energy storage and its analysis
(3) Fuel cell based energy storage and its analysis
(4) Supercapacitor based energy storage and its analysis
(5) Flywheel based energy storage and its analysis
(6) Hybridization of different energy storage devices
(7) Sizing the drive system
(8) Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
(9) Sizing the propulsion motor
(10) Sizing the power electronics
(11) Selecting the energy storage technology
(12) Calculation for the ratings
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
30
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

15
02-10-2021

• Topics
(1) Introduction to energy management strategies used in hybrid and electric vehicles
(2) Classification of different management strategies
(3) Comparison of different management strategies
(4) Implementation issues of management strategies
(5) Introduction to various charging techniques and schematic of charging stations

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
31
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
1 Discuss the Supercapacitor based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid
and Electric Vehicles.
OR
Write a short note on super capacitor and compare the same with a
battery. (Most IMP)
2 Discuss the Flywheel based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid and
Electric Vehicles.
3 How the hybridization of energy storage devices is carried out? What are the
precautions to be taken? Also discuss battery ultracapacitor hybridization for
Evs.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
32
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

16
02-10-2021

Probable Questions

Probable GTU Exam Questions


4 Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the
propulsion motor (3) Sizing the power electronics for HEV.
5 How the selection of energy storage technology is carried out for
HEV? Also discuss Calculation for the ratings.
6 Why Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion
engine (ICE) is important? How it is carried out?

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
33
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
7 Explain illustration of the Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for series
hybrid electric drive train. (Most IMP)
8 Explain power and energy capacity of PPS for series hybrid electric drive
train
(Most IMP)
9 Draw and explain flowchart of Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for
parallel hybrid drive train. (Most IMP)
10 Explain high-frequency transformer based isolated charger topology.
(Most IMP)

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
34
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

17
02-10-2021

Super-capacitor Energy Storage Devices

Super-capacitor Energy Storage Devices:


• Supercapacitor = Ultracapacitor = Extremely
high capacity --- up to 30000 F
• A supercapacitor (SC), also called an
ultracapacitor, is a high-capacity capacitor with
a capacitance value much higher than other
capacitors, but with lower voltage limits, that
bridges the gap between electrolytic capacitors
and rechargeable batteries.
• It typically stores 10 to 100 times more energy
per unit volume or mass than electrolytic
capacitors, can accept and deliver charge much
faster than batteries, and tolerates many more
charge and discharge cycles than rechargeable
batteries. Dr. Sachin Rajani
35
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Super-capacitor Energy Storage Devices

Super-capacitor Energy Storage Devices:


• Supercapacitors are used in applications requiring
many rapid charge/discharge cycles, rather than
long-term compact energy storage — in
automobiles, buses, trains, cranes and elevators,
where they are used for regenerative braking, short-
term energy storage, or burst-mode power delivery.
• Smaller units are used as power backup for static
random-access memory (SRAM).
• Unlike ordinary capacitors, supercapacitors do not
use the conventional solid dielectric, but rather, they
use electrostatic double-layer capacitance and
electrochemical pseudocapacitance, both of which
contribute to the total capacitance of the capacitor,
with a few differences:
Dr. Sachin Rajani
36
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

18
02-10-2021

Super-capacitor Energy Storage Devices


Super-capacitor Energy Storage Devices:
Operation
• Typical construction of a supercapacitor: (1) power source, (2) collector, (3)
polarized electrode, (4) Helmholtz double layer, (5) electrolyte having positive
and negative ions, (6) separator.
• Electrochemical capacitors (supercapacitors) consist of two electrodes
separated by an ion-permeable membrane (separator), and an electrolyte
ionically connecting both electrodes.
• When the electrodes are polarized by an applied voltage, ions in the electrolyte Typical construction of a
supercapacitor: (1) power
form electric double layers of opposite polarity to the electrode's polarity. source, (2) collector,
• For example, positively polarized electrodes will have a layer of negative ions (3) polarized electrode,
at the electrode/electrolyte interface along with a charge-balancing layer of (4) Helmholtz double layer,
positive ions adsorbing onto the negative layer. (5) electrolyte having positive
and negative ions, (6) separator.
• The opposite is true for the negatively polarized electrode.
• Additionally, depending on electrode material and surface shape, some ions
may permeate the double layer becoming specifically adsorbed ions and
contribute with pseudocapacitance to the total capacitance of the
supercapacitor. Dr. Sachin Rajani
37
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Super-capacitor Energy Storage Devices


Super-capacitor Energy Storage Devices:
Storage principles
• Electrochemical capacitors use the double-layer effect to store
electric energy; however, this double-layer has no
conventional solid dielectric to separate the charges.
• There are two storage principles in the electric double-layer of
the electrodes that contribute to the total capacitance of an
electrochemical capacitor:
A. Double-layer capacitance, electrostatic storage of the
electrical energy achieved by separation of charge in a
Helmholtz double layer.
B. Pseudocapacitance, electrochemical storage of the electrical
energy achieved by faradaic redox reactions with charge-
transfer.
• Both capacitances are only separable by measurement
techniques. The amount of charge stored per unit voltage in
an electrochemical capacitor is primarily a function of the
electrode size, although the amount of capacitance of each
storage principle can vary extremely. 38

19
02-10-2021

Comparison of Battery and a Supercapacitor


Comparison of Battery and a Supercapacitor:

39

Flywheel Storage Devices


Flywheel Storage Devices:
• A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to
use the conservation of angular momentum so as to
efficiently store rotational energy; a form of kinetic energy
proportional to the product of its moment of inertia and
the square of its rotational speed.
• In particular, if we assume the flywheel's moment of
inertia to be constant (i.e., a flywheel with fixed mass and
second moment of area revolving about some fixed axis)
then the stored (rotational) energy is directly associated
with the square of its rotational speed.
• Since a flywheel serves to store mechanical energy for
later use, it is natural to consider it as a kinetic energy
analogue of an electrical inductor.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
40
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

20
02-10-2021

Flywheel Storage Devices


Flywheel Storage Devices:
• Once suitably abstracted, this shared principle of
energy storage is described in the generalized
concept of an accumulator.
• As with other types of accumulators, a flywheel
inherently smoothes sufficiently small deviations in
the power output of a system, thereby effectively
playing the role of a low-pass filter with respect to
the mechanical velocity (angular, or otherwise) of
the system.
• More precisely, a flywheel's stored energy will
donate a surge in power output upon a drop in
power input and will conversely absorb any excess
power input (system-generated power) in the form
of rotational energy. Dr. Sachin Rajani
41
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Flywheel Storage Devices


Flywheel Storage Devices:
Common uses of a flywheel include:
• Smoothing the power output of an energy source.
• For example, flywheels are used in reciprocating engines because the active torque from the
individual pistons is intermittent.
• Energy storage systems.
• Delivering energy at rates beyond the ability of an energy source. This is achieved by collecting
energy in a flywheel over time and then releasing it quickly, at rates that exceed the abilities of the
energy source.
• Controlling the orientation of a mechanical system, gyroscope and reaction wheel
• Flywheels are typically made of steel and rotate on conventional bearings; these are generally limited
to a maximum revolution rate of a few thousand RPM.
• High energy density flywheels can be made of carbon fiber composites and employ magnetic
bearings, enabling them to revolve at speeds up to 60,000 RPM (1 kHz)
• Carbon-composite flywheel batteries have recently been manufactured and are proving to be viable
in real-world tests on mainstream cars. Additionally, their disposal is more eco-friendly than
traditional lithium ion batteries. Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department 42
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

21
02-10-2021

Flywheel Storage Devices


Flywheel Storage Devices:

With m = mass and r = radius Dr. Sachin Rajani


43
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Flywheel Storage Devices


Flywheel Storage Devices:

Dr. Sachin Rajani


44
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

22
02-10-2021

Flywheel Storage Devices

Comparison of energy storage devices:

Dr. Sachin Rajani


45
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Hybridization of energy storage devices

Hybridization of energy storage devices:


How the hybridization of energy storage devices is carried out? What are the precautions to be
taken? Compare different hybridization options.
• The hybridization of energy storage involves to combining two
or more energy storages together so that the advantages of each
can be brought out and the disadvantages can be compensated by
others.
• For instance, the hybridization of a chemical battery with an
ultracapacitor can overcome problems such as the low specific
power of chemical batteries and low specific energy of
ultracapacitors, thus achieving high specific energy and high
specific power.
• Basically, the hybridized energy storage consists of two basic
energy storages, one with high specific energy and the other with
high specific power.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
• The basic operation of this system is illustrated in Figures 46
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

23
02-10-2021

Hybridization of energy storage devices

Hybridization of energy storage devices:


• In high power demand operation, such as
acceleration and hill climbing, both basic
energy storages deliver their power to the
load as shown in Figure a (Hybrid power
operation).
• On the other hand, in low-power demand
operation, such as constant-speed cruising
operation, the high specific energy
storage will deliver its power to the load
and charge the high specific power
storage to recover its charge lost during
high-power demand operation, as shown
in Figure b (Hybrid split operation).
Dr. Sachin Rajani
47
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Hybridization of energy storage devices

Hybridization of energy storage devices:


• In regenerative braking
operation, the peak power will
be absorbed by the high specific
power storage, and only a
limited part is absorbed by the
high specific energy storage
(Figure C Hybrid charging).
• In this way, the whole system
would be much smaller in
weight and size than if any one
of them alone was the energy
storage. Dr. Sachin Rajani
48
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

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Hybridization of energy storage devices

Passive and Active Hybrid Energy Storage with Battery and Ultracapacitor
• Based on the available technologies of various
energy storages, there are several viable
hybridization schemes for EVs and HEVs:
typically, battery and battery hybrids, and battery
and ultracapacitor hybrids.
• The latter is more natural because the
ultracapacitor can offer a much higher power
than batteries, and it collaborates with various
batteries to form the battery and ultracapacitor
hybrids.
• During the hybridization, the simplest way is to
directly and parallelly connect the
ultracapacitors to the batteries as shown in
Figure. Dr. Sachin Rajani
49
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Hybridization of energy storage devices

Passive and Active Hybrid Energy Storage with Battery and Ultracapacitor
• In this configuration, the ultracapacitors simply
act as a current filter, which can significantly level
the peak current of the batteries and reduce the
battery voltage drop.
• The major disadvantages of this configuration are
that the power flow cannot be actively controlled
and the ultracapacitor energy cannot be fully used.

Dr. Sachin Rajani


50
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

25
02-10-2021

Hybridization of energy storage devices

Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the
power electronics for HEV
Sizing of the Electric Machine (EM)
• An EM is at the core of HEV drivetrains. The electric
energy path of HEV consists of an energy storage unit (such
as batteries, supercapacitors or fuel cells), a power
processing unit (such as DC-AC converters) and an EM.
• In Figure 1 a schematic of hybrid propulsion system is
shown. Most EMs used in HEV or EV drivetrains have
speed limit of 12000 rpm due to following reasons:
• At very high rpm, the centrifugal force acting on the rotor
increases and it is possible that the rotor might fail
mechanically.
• The control algorithms of the EM involve determination of
rotor position and this becomes very difficult at high rotor rpm.
The performance of EM is measured by following quantities:
• Torque and Power Capability Dr. Sachin Rajani
• Constant Power Speed Ratio (CPSR) 51
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Hybridization of energy storage devices

Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the power electronics for HEV

Peak Torque and Power


• The EM capability curves for torque and
power define the peak operating capability
curve of the HEV.
• In Figure 2 a typical torque versus speed
characteristics of an EM is shown. There are
three curves shown in Figure 2 namely:
• Continuous rating : The EM can be operated
when its continuous rated region.
• Intermittent overload operation : The EM can
operate in this regime for short duration
(typically <30s).
• Peak overload operation : The EM can
operate in this region for a very short duration
(typically <1~2s). Dr. Sachin Rajani
52
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

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02-10-2021

Hybridization of energy storage devices

Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the power electronics for HEV

From Figure 2 it can be seen that:


• the peak output is about 2.5 times the
continuous or rated output
• the intermittent output is about 1.5 times the
continuous or rated output
The various operating regions show in Figure 2 is:
• the region the flat torque region is known as
the constant torque operating region . In this
region the DC-AC converter has sufficient
voltage from the dc sources to inject required
current into the EM.
• when the machine speed increases and reaches
the point A , the induced emf in the stator
winding increases and the EM enters the
constant power regime and flux weakening
control is used. Dr. Sachin Rajani
53
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Hybridization of energy storage devices

Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the power electronics for HEV

Sizing the Power Electronics


• In Figure 4 a schematic for
the HEV drivetrain consisting
of on board energy storage
system, power processing
unit and the EM is shown.
• The power electronics is an
electrical element in much
the same manner that a
gearbox processes
mechanical power to match
the ICE to the road
requirements.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
54
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

27
02-10-2021

Hybridization of energy storage devices

Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the power electronics for HEV
• The power processing capability of power
inverters is directly related to the dc input
voltage available.
• Higher voltage means more throughput power
for the same gauge wiring. The throughput
power versus the voltage is shown in Figure 5 .
• From Figure 5a it can be seen that as automotive
voltages move towards 42V, the sustainable
power level will approach 10kW.
• For hybrid propulsion the Figure 5a shows that
voltages in excess of 150V are advisable.
• With recent advances in power electronic
switches it is possible to move to voltage beyond
300V.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
55
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Hybridization of energy storage devices

Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the
power electronics for HEV
• Virtually all power electronics inverters for hybrid propulsion use IGBT
device technology. Power semiconductor device range in voltage withstanding
capability from 2kV to 6.5kV and current magnitudes from 3kA to 4.5kA.
• Thyristors have the highest kVA rating but are generally slow switching.
• The gate turn off thyristor (GTO) is capable of handling 3kA at 4.5kV but can
switch at only 700Hz.
• The IGBTs have made enormous progress in both the voltage and current
ratings, with some IGBTs being capable of handling 6.5kV and 3.5kA and
have switching frequency up to 100kHz.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
56
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

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selection of energy storage technology and calculation of ratings

How the selection of energy storage technology is carried out for HEV? Also discuss
Calculation for the ratings
Energy Design of Batteries/Ultracapacitors
• The energy requirements for batteries/ultracapacitors
depend on the specific mission requirements, for
example the required time for stealth operation, silent
watch, “electric weapon” operation, and so on.
• However, when the power capacity is determined, the
energy capacity of the batteries can be obtained from
the energy/power ratio of the selected batteries.
• As mentioned above, the battery power demand is
around 675kW and the energy/power ratio of Li-ion
battery is 0.1 h (specific energy/specific power).
• Thus, 67.5kWh of energy capacity is obtained. The
battery weight is around 675 kg.

Dr. Sachin Rajani


57
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

selection of energy storage technology and calculation of ratings

Combination of Batteries and Ultracapacitors


• In addition to batteries, ultracapacitors are
another possible PPS. Compared with
batteries, ultracapacitors have some
advantages, such as 2–3 time s thespecific
power density of Li-ion batteries (see Tables),
wide temperature adaptability, high efficiency
(low resistance), and fast response to charging
and discharging.
• Hence, it may be a good selection as a pulsed
power source. However, the ultracapacitor
has the major disadvantage of a low specific
energy density of less than 5◦W/kg.
• It cannot sustain its power for more than a
couple of minutes. Thus, it is difficult for
ultracapacitors alone to supply the peaking
power for a vehicle.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
58
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

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selection of energy storage technology and calculation of ratings

• A good design for the PPS of a hybrid vehicle may be to combine Li-ion batteries and ultracapacitors
to constitute a hybrid energy storage, in which the batteries supply the energy and the ultracapacitors
supply the power.
• The combination of batteries and ultracapacitors meets the power and energy requirements, that is,

• where Ptot and Etot are the total power and energy required, Wb and Wc are the weights of the
battery and the ultracapacitor, Pb and Pc are the specific powers of the battery and the
ultracapacitor, and Eb and Ec are the specific energies of the battery and the ultracapacitor. For a
given Ptot, Etot, Pb, Pc, Eb, and Ec, the battery and ultracapacitor weights can be obtained as

Dr. Sachin Rajani


59
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

selection of energy storage technology and calculation of ratings

Figure shows the weights of batteries, ultracapacitors, and the hybrid energy storage that is capable of supplying
675kW of total power. It can be seen that when the total energy requirement is less than 67.5 kWh, the hybrid
energy storage has less weight than the battery-alone energy storage.

Dr. Sachin Rajani


60
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

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selection of energy storage technology and calculation of ratings

• When the total energy


requirement is greater than
67.5 kWh, battery alone
should be used.
• Other advantages of hybrid
energy storage include
leveling of the battery peak
current, as shown in
Figure.
• This will simplify thermal
management of the
batteries, extend the battery
life cycle, and offer fast
power response due to the
very low resistance in the
ultracapacitors Dr. Sachin Rajani
61
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)

Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
Why Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE) is
important? How it is carried out?
• One of the most common matching elements used in hybrid electric passenger vehicles is
the epicyclic, or planetary, gear set.

Video Epicyclic gear, 01:09

Dr. Sachin Rajani


62
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

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02-10-2021

Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)

Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
• Figure 1 shows the epicyclic gear in schematic form.
• Most designs rely on a dual input and single output R = Ring Gear
where one input source is the ICE and the second
input comes from an electric M/G. C = Carrier
• This is a three port mechanical component used as a
speed summing device.
• The epicyclic basic ratio, k = R ring/ R sun where R x is
the radius of ring and sun gears (can also be defined
in terms of number of gear teeth).
S = Sun Gear

Dr. Sachin Rajani


63
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)

Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
Table 1

Dr. Sachin Rajani


64
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

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02-10-2021

Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)

Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
The governing equation for an epicyclic gear in terms of the basic ratio and gear angular speeds
can be written as

• According to Table, speed reversal occurs between sun and ring gear ports and the speed at
these ports is scaled by the basic ratio, k.
• All other input–output combinations preserve the direction of speed.
• The basic ratio, 1.5 < k < 4, is determined by gear diameters.

Dr. Sachin Rajani


65
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Calculations for the Ratings

Calculations for the Ratings


How is the power output of an electric vehicle motor calculated?
• Manufacturers can’t just claim the motor output: it’s measured during a testing process,
illustrated by changes to the torque depending on rotation speed.
• The value used by automotive manufacturers generally refers to the maximum power
output measured. It’s expressed in watts (W), and, more generally, in kilowatts (kW).
• How to find the power output of an electric car motor
• When talking about an electrical system such as that found in an electric vehicle, the
mechanical power — given in watts (W), kilowatts (kW) or horsepower (PS) — is
calculated by multiplying speed (RPM) by torque, the rotational equivalent of linear force,
measured in pound-feet (lb-ft) or Newton meters (Nm).

Dr. Sachin Rajani


66
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

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02-10-2021

Calculations for the Ratings

Calculations for the Ratings


How do kilowatts (kW) relate to horsepower (PS)?
• Horsepower, sometimes abbreviated to PS (German for “Pferdestärke”),
therefore refers to the power output generated by a horse in order to lift a 75
kg weight one meter high in one second. Under the metric system, it is equal
to around 736 W.
What factors determine the power output of an electric car?
• The role of a motor is to create mechanical energy out of another form of
energy.
• So its power output is derived from its maximum energy transformation
capacity.
• In the case of an electric vehicle, its power output depends on the size of its
motor (its volume) and the wattage of the incoming current. Dr. Sachin Rajani
67
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Calculations for the Ratings

What is “useful” energy output from an electric motor?


• Power output is also a result of yield, i.e. the quantity ratio of incoming electricity supplied to
outgoing mechanical energy delivered.
• Not all of the energy provided by the electric grid or charging station ends up being used to
power the motor.
• It can be lost due to heat or friction along the way. In other words, the mechanical energy
actually used by the motor is the “useful” energy.
• By dividing the actual power output of an electric motor by the ideal power output (equal to the
initial power input), you arrive at the motor’s mechanical efficiency.
• So for an electric vehicle, the “useful” energy calculation can be found by dividing the output
(speed x torque) by the input, and expressing the result as a percentage.
• This is otherwise known as the r=P/C Efficiency Formula, where P is the amount of useful
output (“product”) produced per the amount C (“cost”) of resources consumed.
• The aim consists then in reducing these power output losses to achieve maximum energy
efficiency.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
68
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

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02-10-2021

Calculations for the Ratings

Power output, consumption and range


• That’s said, the maximum power output does not directly affect the range of an electric vehicle,
since driving style has the greatest impact on the motor’s consumption.
• It is not, therefore, a question of the most efficient electric car motor, but rather the most
efficient driving behavior.
• For example, sharp acceleration will mean a spike in electricity consumption. Periods of high-
speed driving also draw on the battery significantly.
• The higher the speed, the more energy is needed to sustain it.
• Conversely, relaxed driving keeps instant consumption down and makes regenerative braking
more effective.
• This is the principle behind eco-driving, which is one of the best ways to increase the range of
an electric car.

Dr. Sachin Rajani


69
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

• Topics
(1) Introduction to energy management strategies used in hybrid and electric vehicles
(2) Classification of different management strategies
(3) Comparison of different management strategies
(4) Implementation issues of management strategies
(5) Introduction to various charging techniques and schematic of charging stations

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
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V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

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02-10-2021

Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
1 How and why the energy management strategies used in hybrid and
electric vehicles? Classify and compare of different management
strategies.
2 What are the implementation issues of management strategies in HEVs?
3 Introduce various charging techniques, draw and explain and schematic
of charging stations.

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
71
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
4 Explain illustration of the Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for series
hybrid electric drive train. (Most IMP) (PPS = Peaking Power Source)
(SoC = State of Charge)
OR
Draw and explain flowchart of Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for
parallel hybrid drive train. (Most IMP)
5 Explain power and energy capacity of PPS for series hybrid electric drive
train (Most IMP)
6 Explain high-frequency transformer based isolated charger topology.
(Most IMP)
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
72
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

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Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Q. What is a series and a


parallel hybrid vehicle?
Draw diagrams and
explain

73

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct types of power, such as:
•an internal combustion engine and batteries or ultracapacitors in diesel hybrid vehicles.
•a fuel cell and batteries in fuel cell hybrid vehicles.
•an overhead electric line and batteries in Trolley hybrid buses.
- There are two different types of hybrid systems:
parallel and series hybrids
• In a parallel hybrid bus, the combustion engine and the electric motor are connected to the transmission
independently. The electric motor is designed to provide power during stop-and-go traffic while at highway
speeds the vehicle is powered solely by the internal combustion engine. During acceleration, both the electric
motor and the combustion engine power the transmission.
• A series hybrid bus is exclusively propelled by the electric motor. In a series hybrid bus, the internal
combustion engine (ICE) is connected to an electric generator which converts the energy produced by the ICE
into electric power. This electricity powers a motor which turns the wheels of the vehicle. The generator also
recharges a battery pack which provides supplemental power to the motor. Since the ICE is not connected to the
wheels, it can operate at an optimum rate and can even be switched off for short periods of time for a temporary
all-electric operation of the bus.

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Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

75

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Explain illustration of the Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for series hybrid electric
drive train. (Most IMP) OR
Draw and explain flowchart of Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for parallel hybrid
drive train. (Most IMP)

• A control strategy is a control rule that is preset in the vehicle controller and commands the
operation of each component.
• The vehicle controller receives operation commands from the driver and feedback from the drive
train and all the components, and then makes decisions to use proper operation modes.
• Obviously, the performance of the drive train relies mainly on control quality, in which control
strategy plays a crucial role.
• In practice, there are a number of control strategies that can be employed in a drive train for
vehicles with different mission requirements. In this chapter, two typical control strategies are
introduced: (1) maximum state-of-charge of peaking power source (Max. SOC-of-PPS) and (2)
engine turn-on and turn-off (engine on/off) or thermostat control strategies.

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Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

77

Dr. Sachin Rajani


Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

7.2.1 Max. SOC-of-PPS Control Strategy (Most Imp)


• The target of this control strategy is to meet the power demand commanded by the
driver and, at the same time, maintain the SOC of the PPS at its high level.
• The engine/generator is the primary power source, and the PPS is the secondary source.
• This control strategy is considered to be the proper design for vehicles in which
performance (speed, acceleration, gradeability, etc.) is the first concern, such as vehicles
with frequent stop–go driving patterns and military vehicles in which carrying out their
mission is the most important objective.
• A high SOC level in the PPS will guarantee the high performance of vehicles at any time.
• The Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy is depicted in Figure 7.3, in which points A, B, C,
and D represent the power demands that the driver commanded in either traction mode
or braking mode.
• Point A represents the commanded traction power that is greater than the power that the
engine/generator can produce.
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Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

• In this case, the PPS must produce its power to make up the power shortage of the
engine/generator. Point B represents the commanded power that is less than the power that
the engine/generator produces when operating in its optimal operation region.
• In this case, two operating modes may be used, depending on the SOC level of the PPS. If
the SOC of the PPS is below its top line, such as less than
• 70%, the engine/generator is operated with full load. (The operating point of the
engine/generator with full load depends on the engine/generator design.
• Part of its power goes to the traction motor to propel the vehicle and the other part goes to
the PPS to increase the energy level.

79

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

• On the other hand, if the SOC of the PPS has reached its top line, the engine/generator
traction mode alone is supplied, that is, the engine/generator is controlled to produce power
equal to the demanded power, and the PPS is set at idle.
• Point C represents the commanded braking power that is greater than the braking power the
motor can produce maximum regenerative braking power).
• In this case, a hybrid braking mode is used, in which the electric motor produces its
maximum braking power and the mechanical braking system produces the remaining
braking power.
• Point D represents the commanded braking power that is less than the maximum braking
power that the motor can produce.
• In this case, only regenerative braking is used. The control flowchart of the Max. SOC-of-
PPS is illustrated in Figure 7.4.

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Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

81

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Q. Explain power and energy capacity of PPS for series hybrid electric drive train (Most IMP)

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Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

83

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

84

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Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

• For fast high-power charging (20 kW or more), placing conventional high-power


chargers on-board might not be a viable solution due to increased cost, volume, and
weight.
• As an alternative, these chargers can be relocated off-board in an external charging
station.
• Each charging unit within a charging station may have either a common ac link [as
presented in Fig. 8(a)] or a common dc link [as demonstrated in Fig. 8(b)].
• An alternative approach to reduce the size of off-board chargers is to utilize HF isolation
transformers instead of bulky low frequency (LF) transformers, as shown in Fig. 8.
• This can be done through using an isolated dc/dc converter, as illustrated in Fig. 9.

85

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Q. Explain high-frequency transformer based isolated charger topology. (Most IMP)

86

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Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Fig. 9. Isolated DC-DC Converter Charger Topology 87

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

High Frequency Zig-Zag Transformer


• For this EV charging application, a HF transformer zig-zag arrangement is considered.
• Operating the transformer at HF reduces its core size, thus increasing the system’s power density. Due
to its relative low losses at the kHz switching frequency range, a ferrite core material is envisioned for
the HF transformer.
• The zig-zag multi-winding transformer can be built using three 1-phase multi-winding transformers or
it can be built using a single 3-phase multi-winding transformer.
• The primary and secondary windings are wound around the interior three limbs of the transformer.
• The outer limbs provide a magnetic path for any residual flux in the transformer which helps to avoid
magnetic core saturation.

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Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Q. How and why the energy management strategies used in hybrid and electric vehicles? Classify and
compare of different management strategies.
• Controlling an HEV includes essentially two sets of tasks.
• One is the low-level or component-level control task, where each powertrain component is controlled
by using classical feedback control methods.
• The second task, referred to as high-level or supervisory control, is responsible for the optimization of
the energy flow onboard of the vehicle while maintaining the battery state of charge within a certain
range of operation.
• This layer of control, called Energy Management System (EMS), receives and processes information
from the vehicle (ωeng, ωgb, ωmot) and the driver (vveh, aveh, δ) to output the optimal set-points
sent to the actuators and executed by the low-level control layer.
• The EMS also selects the best modes of operations of the hybrid powertrain, including start–stop,
power split, and electric launch.
• The two-task based control scheme of an HEV is shown in Fig. 3.1.
• It has been recognized that the adoption of systematic model based optimization methods using
meaningful objective functions to improve the energy management controllers is the pathway to go in
order to achieve near-optimal results in designing the vehicle EMS. 89

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

90

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Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

• In a conventional (non-hybrid) vehicle, there is no need for an energy management strategy: the
driver decides the instant power delivery using the brake and accelerator pedals, and, in manual
transmission vehicles, decides what gear is engaged at each time.
• The driver’s desires are translated into actions by the low-level control: for example, the engine
control unit (ECU) determines the amount of fuel to be injected given the desired torque request; the
automatic transmission controller in the TCU decides when to shift gear based on engine conditions
and vehicle speed, etc.
• In a hybrid vehicle, on the other hand, there is an additional decision that must be taken: how much
power is delivered by each of the energy sources on-board of the vehicle.
• This is why all hybrid vehicles include an energy management controller, interposed between the
driver and the component controllers.
• As mentioned, the aim of the energy management system is to determine the optimal power split
between the on-board energy sources.
• The decision on what to consider optimal depends on the specific application: in most cases, the
strategies tend to minimize the fuel consumption, but optimization objectives could also include the
minimization of pollutant emissions, maximization of battery life, or—in general—a compromise
among all the above goals. 91

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

• The role of the energy management system in a hybrid vehicle can also be represented as in Fig. 3.2.
• The outer layer in the figure is the speed control, which is the human driver in a real vehicle and a driver model (typically a
PI controller) in simulation.
• The speed controller decides the total power request Preq that the powertrain must deliver in order to follow the prescribed
velocity profile.
• The inner layer is the energy management system, which decides how to split the total power request between the on-board
energy sources: the rechargeable energy storage system and the internal combustion engine.
• When designing the energy management strategy, the separation of the two controllers allows to consider only the battery
state of charge dynamics as the system state and neglect the vehicle speed, since this is controlled directly by the driver.

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02-10-2021

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Q. Classification of different management strategies.

93

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

• The EMS has always been a key research topic in the field of HEVs, and its strategies and control
algorithms emerge endlessly
• At present, the EMSs of HEVs can be classified according to the topological structure shown in
Figure 1 that can be divided into two categories: the RCS and the optimization-based control
strategy (OCS).
• The EMS of an HEV is the basis for a good performance of the vehicle.
• The core problem is to determine the working mode of the powertrain under various driving
conditions, as well as the power distribution between the engine and the motor in each working
mode.
• It is worth mentioning that the EMS of an HEV should not only solve the problem of energy
distribution of each power source—it should also consider the problem of braking energy recovery.
• Regenerative braking of is one of the main HEV technologies used to improve their economy.
During the driving process of an HEV, braking energy recovery is an important function that
increases the driving range and affects the fuel economy of the vehicle. HEVs have different
configurations and corresponding EMSs. For a certain configuration, it is necessary to study the
matching EMS to make full use of its advantages. 94

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02-10-2021

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Q. Comparison of different management strategies.

95

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

96

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02-10-2021

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Q. Introduce various charging techniques, draw and explain and schematic


of charging stations.

97

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

98

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02-10-2021

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE)


• The equipment that constitute an Electric Vehicle Charging Station are collectively called as Electric
Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE). The term is more popular, and it refers nothing but to the
charging stations. Some people also refer it as ECS which stands for Electric charging station.
• An EVSE is designed and engineered to charge a battery pack by using the grid for Power Delivery;
these battery packs might be present in an Electric Vehicle (EV) or in a Plug-in Electric Vehicle
(PEV). The power, connector and protocol for these EVSE will vary based on it design.

On-Board Chargers and Charging Stations


• Before we step into charging stations it is important to understand what is present inside the EV and
to which part the charger will be connected to.
• Most EVs today come with an On-Board charger (OBC) and the manufacturer also provides a
Charger along with the vehicle.
• These chargers along with the on-board charger can be used by the customer to charge his EV from
his house power outlet as soon as he/she gets it home. But these chargers are very basic and do not
come with any advanced features and hence would normally take around 8 hours to charge a typical
EV. 99

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Types of EV Charging Stations (EVSE)


• Charging Stations can be broadly classified into two types, AC charging Station and DC charging
Station.
• An AC charging Station as the name implies provides AC power form the grid to the EV which is
then converted to DC using the On-board charger to charge the vehicle.
• These chargers are also called the Level 1 and Level 2 Chargers which is used in residential and
commercial places.
• The advantage of an AC charging station is that the on-board charger will regulate the voltage and
current as required for the EV hence it is not mandatory for the charging station to communicate to
the EV.
• The disadvantage is its low output power which increase the charging time. A typical AC charging
system is show in the below picture.
• As we can see the AC from grid is supplied directly to OBC through EVSE, the OBC then converts
it to DC and chargers the battery through the BMS. The Pilot wire is used to sense the type of
charger connected to the EV and set the required input current for the OBC.

100

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02-10-2021

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

• A DC charging Station gets AC power form the grid and converts it to DC voltage and
uses it charge the Battery pack directly by by-passing the On-board Charger (OBS).
• These chargers normally output high voltage of up to 600V and current up to 400A which
enables the EV to be charged in less than 30 minutes as compared with 8-16 hours on AC
charger.
• These are also called Level 3 chargers and commonly known as DC Fast Chargers
(DCFC) or Super chargers.
• The advantage of this type of charger is its fast charging time while the disadvantage
is its complex engineering where it needs to communicate with EV to charge it efficiently
and safely.
• A typical DC charging system is shown, as you can see the EVSE provides DC directly to
Battery pack bypassing the OBS.
• The EVSE is arranged in stacks to provide high current a single stack will not be able to
provide high current due to power switch limitations.
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Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

102

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02-10-2021

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Comparison of different charging stations

103

Energy Management Strategies in HEVs Dr. Sachin Rajani


Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot

Q. Give comparison of ICE


(Internal Combustion Engine)
Vehicles and EVs

104

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