EHV Complete Material Dr. SVR Portion 52 Pages
EHV Complete Material Dr. SVR Portion 52 Pages
EHV Complete Material Dr. SVR Portion 52 Pages
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02-10-2021
• Topics
(1) Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
(2) Battery based energy storage and its analysis
(3) Fuel cell based energy storage and its analysis
(4) Supercapacitor based energy storage and its analysis
(5) Flywheel based energy storage and its analysis
(6) Hybridization of different energy storage devices
(7) Sizing the drive system
(8) Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
(9) Sizing the propulsion motor
(10) Sizing the power electronics
(11) Selecting the energy storage technology
(12) Calculation for the ratings
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
3
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
1 What are the energy storage requirements in Hybrid and Electric
Vehicles? Explain in detail. (Most IMP)
2 Explain the plot of battery voltage and charging current Vs. State of
charge (SOC) for a three stage charger (Most IMP)
3 Give the types of energy storage technologies suitable for hybrid electrical
vehicle. Explain the Lithium-Ion battery in detail. (Most IMP)
OR
Discuss the Battery based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid and
Electric Vehicles.
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Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
5 Explain the design of Z-converter for battery charging (Most IMP)
6 Discuss the Fuel Cell based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid and
Electric Vehicles.
OR
Give the types of Fuel Cells. With diagram explain principle and
construction of PEMFC. (Most IMP)
7 Discuss the Supercapacitor based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid
and Electric Vehicles.
OR
Write a short note on super capacitor. (Most IMP)
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
5
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
8 Discuss the Flywheel based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid and
Electric Vehicles.
9 How the hybridization of energy storage devices is carried out? What are the
precautions to be taken? Compare different hybridization options.
10 Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor
(3) Sizing the power electronics for HEV.
11 How the selection of energy storage technology is carried out for HEV? Also
discuss Calculation for the ratings.
12 Why Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
is important? How it is carried out?
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
6
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
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Question: Give the types of energy storage technologies suitable for hybrid electrical
vehicle. Explain the Lithium-Ion battery in detail. (Most IMP)
Answer: Energy Storage Options available are shown in below figure
Secondary Batteries for
Energy Storage
•Lead–acid battery
•Lithium ion battery
•Lithium ion polymer battery.
•Lithium iron phosphate battery.
•Lithium–sulfur battery.
•Lithium ceramic battery.
•Magnesium-ion battery
•Lithium air battery
•Nickel–cadmium battery
•Nickel metal hydride battery
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
13
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
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However, at least a basic understanding of the battery chemistry is very important, otherwise
the performance and maintenance requirements of the different types, and most of the
disappointments connected with battery use, such as their limited life, self-discharge, reduced
efficiency at higher currents.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
22
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
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02-10-2021
Battery Modeling
Figure shows the basic battery modeling
It represents
• OCV = Open Circuit Voltage
• Rint = Internal resistance of the conductive material
(plates)
• R1 and C1 resistance and capacitance that indicates
leakage part
• V = Terminal Voltage
• i = load current (while discharging)
• Battery models have become an indispensable tool for the design of battery-powered systems.
• Their uses include battery characterization, state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH)
estimation, algorithm development, system-level optimization, and real-time simulation for
battery management system design. Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
23 Rajkot
V.V.P. Engineering College,
Battery Modeling
• The first step in the development of an accurate battery model is
to build and parameterize an equivalent circuit that reflects the
battery’s nonlinear behavior and dependencies on temperature,
SOC, SOH, and current.
• These dependencies are unique to each battery’s chemistry and
need to be determined using measurements performed on
battery cells.
Degradation
• Batteries degrade over time due to their calendar life and
charge-discharge cycles, showing a gradual loss in reserve
capacity and an increase in internal resistance.
• The battery management system (BMS) needs to adapt to these
changes for effective control of the battery.
• Battery models can help you develop a BMS that accounts for Dr. Sachin Rajani
degradation. 24
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
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02-10-2021
Question:
Give the types of Fuel Cells. With diagram explain principle and construction of PEMFC. (Most IMP)
Answer:
• A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often
hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through a pair of redox
reactions.
• These fuel cells are used to power EVs
• Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen
(usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy
usually comes from metals and their ions or oxides that are commonly already present in the
battery, except in flow batteries.
• Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
25
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte
that allows ions, often positively charged hydrogen ions (protons), to move between the two
sides of the fuel cell.
Types of fuel cells
• Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
• Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)
• Solid acid fuel cell (SAFC)
• Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)
• Solid oxide fuel cell
• Molten-carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)
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• At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate ions (often positively charged
hydrogen ions) and electrons. The ions move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte.
• At the same time, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current
electricity.
• At the cathode, another catalyst causes ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water and possibly other products.
• Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in start-up time ranging from 1 second
for proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC).
• A related technology is flow batteries, in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging.
• Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked", or placed in
series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements.
• In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of
nitrogen dioxide and other emissions.
• The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40 and 60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a
cogeneration scheme, efficiencies of up to 85% can be obtained.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
27
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
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02-10-2021
• Topics
(1) Introduction to energy storage requirements in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
(2) Battery based energy storage and its analysis
(3) Fuel cell based energy storage and its analysis
(4) Supercapacitor based energy storage and its analysis
(5) Flywheel based energy storage and its analysis
(6) Hybridization of different energy storage devices
(7) Sizing the drive system
(8) Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
(9) Sizing the propulsion motor
(10) Sizing the power electronics
(11) Selecting the energy storage technology
(12) Calculation for the ratings
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
30
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
15
02-10-2021
• Topics
(1) Introduction to energy management strategies used in hybrid and electric vehicles
(2) Classification of different management strategies
(3) Comparison of different management strategies
(4) Implementation issues of management strategies
(5) Introduction to various charging techniques and schematic of charging stations
Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
1 Discuss the Supercapacitor based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid
and Electric Vehicles.
OR
Write a short note on super capacitor and compare the same with a
battery. (Most IMP)
2 Discuss the Flywheel based energy storage and its analysis in Hybrid and
Electric Vehicles.
3 How the hybridization of energy storage devices is carried out? What are the
precautions to be taken? Also discuss battery ultracapacitor hybridization for
Evs.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
32
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
16
02-10-2021
Probable Questions
Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
7 Explain illustration of the Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for series
hybrid electric drive train. (Most IMP)
8 Explain power and energy capacity of PPS for series hybrid electric drive
train
(Most IMP)
9 Draw and explain flowchart of Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for
parallel hybrid drive train. (Most IMP)
10 Explain high-frequency transformer based isolated charger topology.
(Most IMP)
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Passive and Active Hybrid Energy Storage with Battery and Ultracapacitor
• Based on the available technologies of various
energy storages, there are several viable
hybridization schemes for EVs and HEVs:
typically, battery and battery hybrids, and battery
and ultracapacitor hybrids.
• The latter is more natural because the
ultracapacitor can offer a much higher power
than batteries, and it collaborates with various
batteries to form the battery and ultracapacitor
hybrids.
• During the hybridization, the simplest way is to
directly and parallelly connect the
ultracapacitors to the batteries as shown in
Figure. Dr. Sachin Rajani
49
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
Passive and Active Hybrid Energy Storage with Battery and Ultracapacitor
• In this configuration, the ultracapacitors simply
act as a current filter, which can significantly level
the peak current of the batteries and reduce the
battery voltage drop.
• The major disadvantages of this configuration are
that the power flow cannot be actively controlled
and the ultracapacitor energy cannot be fully used.
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Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the
power electronics for HEV
Sizing of the Electric Machine (EM)
• An EM is at the core of HEV drivetrains. The electric
energy path of HEV consists of an energy storage unit (such
as batteries, supercapacitors or fuel cells), a power
processing unit (such as DC-AC converters) and an EM.
• In Figure 1 a schematic of hybrid propulsion system is
shown. Most EMs used in HEV or EV drivetrains have
speed limit of 12000 rpm due to following reasons:
• At very high rpm, the centrifugal force acting on the rotor
increases and it is possible that the rotor might fail
mechanically.
• The control algorithms of the EM involve determination of
rotor position and this becomes very difficult at high rotor rpm.
The performance of EM is measured by following quantities:
• Torque and Power Capability Dr. Sachin Rajani
• Constant Power Speed Ratio (CPSR) 51
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the power electronics for HEV
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Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the power electronics for HEV
Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the power electronics for HEV
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Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the power electronics for HEV
• The power processing capability of power
inverters is directly related to the dc input
voltage available.
• Higher voltage means more throughput power
for the same gauge wiring. The throughput
power versus the voltage is shown in Figure 5 .
• From Figure 5a it can be seen that as automotive
voltages move towards 42V, the sustainable
power level will approach 10kW.
• For hybrid propulsion the Figure 5a shows that
voltages in excess of 150V are advisable.
• With recent advances in power electronic
switches it is possible to move to voltage beyond
300V.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
55
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
Write a note on: (1) Sizing the Drive System (2) Sizing the propulsion motor (3) Sizing the
power electronics for HEV
• Virtually all power electronics inverters for hybrid propulsion use IGBT
device technology. Power semiconductor device range in voltage withstanding
capability from 2kV to 6.5kV and current magnitudes from 3kA to 4.5kA.
• Thyristors have the highest kVA rating but are generally slow switching.
• The gate turn off thyristor (GTO) is capable of handling 3kA at 4.5kV but can
switch at only 700Hz.
• The IGBTs have made enormous progress in both the voltage and current
ratings, with some IGBTs being capable of handling 6.5kV and 3.5kA and
have switching frequency up to 100kHz.
Dr. Sachin Rajani
56
Electrical Eng. Department
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
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How the selection of energy storage technology is carried out for HEV? Also discuss
Calculation for the ratings
Energy Design of Batteries/Ultracapacitors
• The energy requirements for batteries/ultracapacitors
depend on the specific mission requirements, for
example the required time for stealth operation, silent
watch, “electric weapon” operation, and so on.
• However, when the power capacity is determined, the
energy capacity of the batteries can be obtained from
the energy/power ratio of the selected batteries.
• As mentioned above, the battery power demand is
around 675kW and the energy/power ratio of Li-ion
battery is 0.1 h (specific energy/specific power).
• Thus, 67.5kWh of energy capacity is obtained. The
battery weight is around 675 kg.
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• A good design for the PPS of a hybrid vehicle may be to combine Li-ion batteries and ultracapacitors
to constitute a hybrid energy storage, in which the batteries supply the energy and the ultracapacitors
supply the power.
• The combination of batteries and ultracapacitors meets the power and energy requirements, that is,
• where Ptot and Etot are the total power and energy required, Wb and Wc are the weights of the
battery and the ultracapacitor, Pb and Pc are the specific powers of the battery and the
ultracapacitor, and Eb and Ec are the specific energies of the battery and the ultracapacitor. For a
given Ptot, Etot, Pb, Pc, Eb, and Ec, the battery and ultracapacitor weights can be obtained as
Figure shows the weights of batteries, ultracapacitors, and the hybrid energy storage that is capable of supplying
675kW of total power. It can be seen that when the total energy requirement is less than 67.5 kWh, the hybrid
energy storage has less weight than the battery-alone energy storage.
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Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
Why Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE) is
important? How it is carried out?
• One of the most common matching elements used in hybrid electric passenger vehicles is
the epicyclic, or planetary, gear set.
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Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
• Figure 1 shows the epicyclic gear in schematic form.
• Most designs rely on a dual input and single output R = Ring Gear
where one input source is the ICE and the second
input comes from an electric M/G. C = Carrier
• This is a three port mechanical component used as a
speed summing device.
• The epicyclic basic ratio, k = R ring/ R sun where R x is
the radius of ring and sun gears (can also be defined
in terms of number of gear teeth).
S = Sun Gear
Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
Table 1
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Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine (ICE)
The governing equation for an epicyclic gear in terms of the basic ratio and gear angular speeds
can be written as
• According to Table, speed reversal occurs between sun and ring gear ports and the speed at
these ports is scaled by the basic ratio, k.
• All other input–output combinations preserve the direction of speed.
• The basic ratio, 1.5 < k < 4, is determined by gear diameters.
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• Topics
(1) Introduction to energy management strategies used in hybrid and electric vehicles
(2) Classification of different management strategies
(3) Comparison of different management strategies
(4) Implementation issues of management strategies
(5) Introduction to various charging techniques and schematic of charging stations
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Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
1 How and why the energy management strategies used in hybrid and
electric vehicles? Classify and compare of different management
strategies.
2 What are the implementation issues of management strategies in HEVs?
3 Introduce various charging techniques, draw and explain and schematic
of charging stations.
Probable Questions
Probable GTU Exam Questions
4 Explain illustration of the Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for series
hybrid electric drive train. (Most IMP) (PPS = Peaking Power Source)
(SoC = State of Charge)
OR
Draw and explain flowchart of Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for
parallel hybrid drive train. (Most IMP)
5 Explain power and energy capacity of PPS for series hybrid electric drive
train (Most IMP)
6 Explain high-frequency transformer based isolated charger topology.
(Most IMP)
Dr. Sachin Rajani
Electrical Eng. Department
72
V.V.P. Engineering College, Rajkot
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73
A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct types of power, such as:
•an internal combustion engine and batteries or ultracapacitors in diesel hybrid vehicles.
•a fuel cell and batteries in fuel cell hybrid vehicles.
•an overhead electric line and batteries in Trolley hybrid buses.
- There are two different types of hybrid systems:
parallel and series hybrids
• In a parallel hybrid bus, the combustion engine and the electric motor are connected to the transmission
independently. The electric motor is designed to provide power during stop-and-go traffic while at highway
speeds the vehicle is powered solely by the internal combustion engine. During acceleration, both the electric
motor and the combustion engine power the transmission.
• A series hybrid bus is exclusively propelled by the electric motor. In a series hybrid bus, the internal
combustion engine (ICE) is connected to an electric generator which converts the energy produced by the ICE
into electric power. This electricity powers a motor which turns the wheels of the vehicle. The generator also
recharges a battery pack which provides supplemental power to the motor. Since the ICE is not connected to the
wheels, it can operate at an optimum rate and can even be switched off for short periods of time for a temporary
all-electric operation of the bus.
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Explain illustration of the Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for series hybrid electric
drive train. (Most IMP) OR
Draw and explain flowchart of Max. SOC-of-PPS control strategy for parallel hybrid
drive train. (Most IMP)
• A control strategy is a control rule that is preset in the vehicle controller and commands the
operation of each component.
• The vehicle controller receives operation commands from the driver and feedback from the drive
train and all the components, and then makes decisions to use proper operation modes.
• Obviously, the performance of the drive train relies mainly on control quality, in which control
strategy plays a crucial role.
• In practice, there are a number of control strategies that can be employed in a drive train for
vehicles with different mission requirements. In this chapter, two typical control strategies are
introduced: (1) maximum state-of-charge of peaking power source (Max. SOC-of-PPS) and (2)
engine turn-on and turn-off (engine on/off) or thermostat control strategies.
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• In this case, the PPS must produce its power to make up the power shortage of the
engine/generator. Point B represents the commanded power that is less than the power that
the engine/generator produces when operating in its optimal operation region.
• In this case, two operating modes may be used, depending on the SOC level of the PPS. If
the SOC of the PPS is below its top line, such as less than
• 70%, the engine/generator is operated with full load. (The operating point of the
engine/generator with full load depends on the engine/generator design.
• Part of its power goes to the traction motor to propel the vehicle and the other part goes to
the PPS to increase the energy level.
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• On the other hand, if the SOC of the PPS has reached its top line, the engine/generator
traction mode alone is supplied, that is, the engine/generator is controlled to produce power
equal to the demanded power, and the PPS is set at idle.
• Point C represents the commanded braking power that is greater than the braking power the
motor can produce maximum regenerative braking power).
• In this case, a hybrid braking mode is used, in which the electric motor produces its
maximum braking power and the mechanical braking system produces the remaining
braking power.
• Point D represents the commanded braking power that is less than the maximum braking
power that the motor can produce.
• In this case, only regenerative braking is used. The control flowchart of the Max. SOC-of-
PPS is illustrated in Figure 7.4.
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Q. Explain power and energy capacity of PPS for series hybrid electric drive train (Most IMP)
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Q. How and why the energy management strategies used in hybrid and electric vehicles? Classify and
compare of different management strategies.
• Controlling an HEV includes essentially two sets of tasks.
• One is the low-level or component-level control task, where each powertrain component is controlled
by using classical feedback control methods.
• The second task, referred to as high-level or supervisory control, is responsible for the optimization of
the energy flow onboard of the vehicle while maintaining the battery state of charge within a certain
range of operation.
• This layer of control, called Energy Management System (EMS), receives and processes information
from the vehicle (ωeng, ωgb, ωmot) and the driver (vveh, aveh, δ) to output the optimal set-points
sent to the actuators and executed by the low-level control layer.
• The EMS also selects the best modes of operations of the hybrid powertrain, including start–stop,
power split, and electric launch.
• The two-task based control scheme of an HEV is shown in Fig. 3.1.
• It has been recognized that the adoption of systematic model based optimization methods using
meaningful objective functions to improve the energy management controllers is the pathway to go in
order to achieve near-optimal results in designing the vehicle EMS. 89
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• In a conventional (non-hybrid) vehicle, there is no need for an energy management strategy: the
driver decides the instant power delivery using the brake and accelerator pedals, and, in manual
transmission vehicles, decides what gear is engaged at each time.
• The driver’s desires are translated into actions by the low-level control: for example, the engine
control unit (ECU) determines the amount of fuel to be injected given the desired torque request; the
automatic transmission controller in the TCU decides when to shift gear based on engine conditions
and vehicle speed, etc.
• In a hybrid vehicle, on the other hand, there is an additional decision that must be taken: how much
power is delivered by each of the energy sources on-board of the vehicle.
• This is why all hybrid vehicles include an energy management controller, interposed between the
driver and the component controllers.
• As mentioned, the aim of the energy management system is to determine the optimal power split
between the on-board energy sources.
• The decision on what to consider optimal depends on the specific application: in most cases, the
strategies tend to minimize the fuel consumption, but optimization objectives could also include the
minimization of pollutant emissions, maximization of battery life, or—in general—a compromise
among all the above goals. 91
• The role of the energy management system in a hybrid vehicle can also be represented as in Fig. 3.2.
• The outer layer in the figure is the speed control, which is the human driver in a real vehicle and a driver model (typically a
PI controller) in simulation.
• The speed controller decides the total power request Preq that the powertrain must deliver in order to follow the prescribed
velocity profile.
• The inner layer is the energy management system, which decides how to split the total power request between the on-board
energy sources: the rechargeable energy storage system and the internal combustion engine.
• When designing the energy management strategy, the separation of the two controllers allows to consider only the battery
state of charge dynamics as the system state and neglect the vehicle speed, since this is controlled directly by the driver.
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• The EMS has always been a key research topic in the field of HEVs, and its strategies and control
algorithms emerge endlessly
• At present, the EMSs of HEVs can be classified according to the topological structure shown in
Figure 1 that can be divided into two categories: the RCS and the optimization-based control
strategy (OCS).
• The EMS of an HEV is the basis for a good performance of the vehicle.
• The core problem is to determine the working mode of the powertrain under various driving
conditions, as well as the power distribution between the engine and the motor in each working
mode.
• It is worth mentioning that the EMS of an HEV should not only solve the problem of energy
distribution of each power source—it should also consider the problem of braking energy recovery.
• Regenerative braking of is one of the main HEV technologies used to improve their economy.
During the driving process of an HEV, braking energy recovery is an important function that
increases the driving range and affects the fuel economy of the vehicle. HEVs have different
configurations and corresponding EMSs. For a certain configuration, it is necessary to study the
matching EMS to make full use of its advantages. 94
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• A DC charging Station gets AC power form the grid and converts it to DC voltage and
uses it charge the Battery pack directly by by-passing the On-board Charger (OBS).
• These chargers normally output high voltage of up to 600V and current up to 400A which
enables the EV to be charged in less than 30 minutes as compared with 8-16 hours on AC
charger.
• These are also called Level 3 chargers and commonly known as DC Fast Chargers
(DCFC) or Super chargers.
• The advantage of this type of charger is its fast charging time while the disadvantage
is its complex engineering where it needs to communicate with EV to charge it efficiently
and safely.
• A typical DC charging system is shown, as you can see the EVSE provides DC directly to
Battery pack bypassing the OBS.
• The EVSE is arranged in stacks to provide high current a single stack will not be able to
provide high current due to power switch limitations.
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