CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this Physics Investigatory Project on the topic

Nuclear reactions-Fission and Fusion has been successfully completed
by Akash Sharma of class 12th‘F’ under the guidance of Mayank sir in
particular fulfillment of the curriculum of Central Board of Secondary
Education (CBSE) leading to annual Examination of year 2022-2023.

Teacher incharge External examiner

………………… ………………….
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my physics
teacher Mr. Mayank sir, as well as my principal Mr. Krishnakant
Dwivedi who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project on the topic “Nuclear reactions” , which also helped me in
doing a lot of Research. I am really thankful to them.

I also cannot forget to thank my parents & friends who helped me a lot
to complete this project in the time frame. I would like to thank the
internet for all the services it provided me in the completion of this
project.

Finally, I would wish to thank everyone who displayed appreciation

for my work and motivated me to continue my work.
 NUCLEAR REACTIONS
1. Introduction of nuclear energy
2. Basics of nuclear reactions
3. Nuclear Fission
4. Nuclear reactor
5. Breeder reactor
6. Nuclear fusion
7. Controlled thermonuclear fusion
8. Bibliography
 NUCLEAR ENERGY
To understand the process of energy generation from the nucleus. If
we Examine the curves of binding energy per nucleon, we see a long
fat middle region between A = 30 and A = 170, therefore binding
energy/nucleon in this region is almost constant (8.0 MeV) for A < 30
and A > 170, the average binding energy/nucleon is comparatively
low.
From binding energy curve nuclei in the middle region 30 ≤ A ≤ 170
are more tightly bound than nuclei with A < 30 and A > 170.
Therefore, the transition of less stable nuclei into more stable nuclei,
energy will be released. Fission and Fusion are two such process as
referred earlier.
The energies involved in conventional energy sources like coal or
petroleum through chemical reactions are of the order of electron volts
per atom, whereas energies involved in nuclear process is in MeV per
nucleon. Nuclear sources will give a million times larger energy than
conventional sources.
 NUCLEAR REACTIONS
The process of obtaining a new stable from some other stable nucleus
by bombarding it with suitable particles like a-particles, neutrons,
protons, deuterons, gamma-radiations etc., is called artificial
transmutation of the elements (or nuclear reaction). A nuclear reaction
is symbolically represented as:-
A+a C B + b + Q or A(a, b) B.
The representation A(a, b)B was devised by Bothe.
Here A (which is bombarded/struck by the particle 'a') is called target
nucleus, 'a' is called projectile or impinging particle, C is called
compound nucleus which is unstable. The compound nucleus
disintegrates to give a product nucleus B, a product particle b' plus
some energy Q, called kinetic energy released in the nuclear reaction.
In each type of nuclear reactions the following conservation laws are
always obeyed.
(1) Conservation of electric charge: ∑ZInitial = ∑ZFinal
(2) Conservation of total number of nucleons: Ai= Af , where i, f refer
to initial and final values.
(3) Mass-Energy conservation :
M1c2 + E1 + m1c2+ E2 = M2c2 + E3 + m2c2 + E4 (where E1, E2, E3
and E4 are kinetic energies of A, a, B, b respectively)
Therefore, kinetic energy released,
Q = (E3 + E4) – (E1 + E2) = [(M1 + m1) – (M2 + m2)] c2
Where, M1 is the mass of target nucleus,
m1 = mas of projectile,
M2 = mass of the product nucleus and
(4) Conservation of the linear momentum
(5) Conservation of the angular momentum

FISSION
Chadwick discovered neutron and after discovery of neutron Enrico
Fermi found that new radioactive elements are produced, when
neutron bombard various elements. Uranium nucleus broke into two
nearly equal fragments when a neutron was bombard on a uranium
target and great amount of energy was released. Various examples of
such reactions are-
It is relevant to mention here that the energy evolved is almost the
same in all the cases. Nuclei produced in fission are stable and highly
neutron-rich. They emit beta particle in succession, until each reaches
a stable end product.
The energy released in the fission of a single 𝑈 is about 200 MeV.
This is estimated from mass defect in the reaction.
This energy first appears as the kinetic energy of the fragments and
neutrons and is transferred to the surrounding matter appearing as heat.
Nuclear fission is the source of energy in nuclear reactors, from which
electricity is produced. An atomic bomb is uncontrolled nuclear fission
in which enormous energy is released. In next section we are going to
discuss how a nuclear reactor functions.
 NUCLEAR REACTORS
A nuclear reactor is based upon controlled nuclear chain reaction.
When 𝑈 undergoes a fission after bombarded by a neutron. More
Neutron on an average 2 neutrons per fission of uranium nucleus are
produced, raises the possibility of a chain reaction with each neutron
that is produced triggering another fission. First time such a possibility
was suggested in 1939 by Enrico Fermi.
Soon it was discovered that neutrons liberated in fission unless slowed
down will escape from the reactor without interacting with the
uranium nuclei. Unless a very large amount of fissionable material is
used for sustaining the chain reaction. Also it was found that slow
neutrons have a much higher intrinsic probability of inducing fission in
𝑈 than fast neutrons. Therefore to slow down the fast neutrons
elastic scattering with light nuclei is used (based on conservation of
momentum in collision).
Light nuclei in reactor is called moderators. The moderators
commonly used are water, heavy water (D2O) and graphite.
Water is used as moderator in Apsara reactor at the Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai.
Heavy water is used as moderator in other Indian reactors
The chain reaction once started will remain steady, accelerate or retard
will depend upon neutron reproduction factor or multiplication factor
(k) which is defined as
K = Rate of production of neutrons
Rate of loss of neutrons
The operation of the reactor is said to be critical for k = 1 and which is
for steady power operation. If k < 1 the chain reaction gradually comes
to a halt. The reactor power increases exponentially for k greater than
one. Unless the factor k is brought down very close to unity the reactor
will become supercritical and can even explode Such accidents in
nuclear reactor can be sudden great disaster Such accidents has taken
place in 1986 in Ukraine in the chrenobyl reactor.
Therefore to reduce k less than unity control-rods made out of neutron-
absorbing material such as cadmium is used. Further to reduce k
rapidly to less than unity in addition to control rods, reactors are
provided with safety rods, which required can be inserted into the
reactor.
On capturing a neutron, 𝑈 isotope which does not fission, leads to
the formation of plutonium, reactions are as under.

Plutonium is highly radioactive under bombardment by slow neutron

and it undergoes fission.
In this type of reactor water is used both as the moderator and as the
coolant in the primary loop. The coolant takes up the heat energy
produced in nuclear fission in primary loop and passes on this energy
to water in a heat exchanger. As a result of it superheated steam of
high temperature and pressure (at about 600 K and 150 atm) is
produced which drives a turbine coupled with an electric generator in
the secondary loop.

From the turbine the low-pressure steam is cooled and condensed to

water and forced back into the steam generator.

The energy released in nuclear reactions is million times larger than in

chemical reactions. Therefore, fuel required in the nuclear reactors is
million times less than chemical reactors of the same power capacity.
However unavoidable feature of reactor operation is the accumulation
of radioactive waste.

Historically energy has been produced form chemical reactions by

burning coal, wood, gas and petroleum products. The environmental
pollution produced by these is one of the major problems due to
greenhouse effect leading to global warming. The problem in the
nuclear power station is spent fuel is highly radioactive and extremely
hazardous to all forms of life on earth. Converting radioactive waste
into less active and short lived material is one of the major challenges
in nuclear energy.
The necessary requirements for a modern reactor are given below.

(1) Fuel: Usually, U235 or Pu239 is used as the fuel in a nuclear reactor.
We know that natural uranium contains only 0.7% of uranium. The
remaining 99.3% being U238 which is not fissionable by thermal
neutrons. Hence, enriched uranium in which U235 is increased from
0.7% to about 3% is used as the fuel in the reactor.

(2) Moderator: The neutrons produced by fission are fast with kinetic
energies of the order of 2MeV. But, fission is induced most effectively
by thermal neutrons with kinetic energies of about 0.04eV. The
substance used to slow down the fast neutrons to thermal neutrons is
called moderator.
A moderator should have the following properties.
(a) Low molecular weight
(b) It should not absorb neutron
(c) It should undergo elastic collision with neutrons and reduce their
speeds.

Commonly used moderators are water, heavy water (D2O), graphite

and beryllium-oxide. Heavy used in a reactor using uranium as fuel
since it has less absorption probability of neutrons than water. The
Apsara reactor at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai uses
water as the moderator.

(3) Control rods: The rate of reaction is controlled by inserting or

withdrawing control rods made of elements cadmium or boron whose
nuclei absorb neutrons without undergoing any additional reaction.
When control rods are pushed into the reactor, the fission decreases
and when they are pulled out the fission grows.
The ratio of the number of neutrons present at the beginning of a
particular generation to the number present at the beginning of the next
generation is called “multiplication factor (K)”.
 For K = 1 the operation is said to be critical and a steady power is
generated.
 For K > 1 the reaction rate increases exponentially to explode.
 For K < 1 the reaction rate reduces rapidly.

(4) Coolant: The energy released inside the reactor in the form of heat
is removed by coolant. For this purpose air, ice cold water, molten
sodium or CO2 is circulated around the reactor core area which
withdraws the heat produced in the core. This heat is utilised for
producing steam which is then used to drive turbines for generating
electricity.

(5) Shielding Wall: Various types of harmful intense rays are emitted
from the reactor. To protect the human beings from these rays, the
reactor is surrounded by 7 to 6 ft thick concrete walls.

Unlike the waste of thermal power stations the waste of a nuclear

power station is highly radioactive and extremely hazardous to all
forms of life. Hence elaborate safety measures are required.
 BREEDER REACTORS

The reactors which can produce fuel more than they use, are called
“breeder reactors”. We have known that not U236 but Pu240 is also
highly fissionable. Pu240 is obtained by bombarding Pu239 with thermal
neutrons.
But Pu239 is not a naturally occurring isotope. However, U238 can
capture a neutron to produce Pu239 which can be used as fuel.

If more than one neutron can be absorbed by U238 rods per fission, then
we produce more fuel in the form of Pu239 as we consume in the form
of U235. Thus, apart from nuclear energy, these reactors give us fresh
nuclear fuel which often exceeds the nuclear fuel used.
 NUCLEAR FUSION

In a process two light nuclei combine to form a single larger nucleus

and energy is released, this process is known as fusion.

Some examples of fusion, liberating energy are as under-

 Two protons combine to form a deuteron, a positron with a
release of 0.42 MeV energy

 Two deuterons combine to form the light isotope of helium.

 Two deuterons combine to form triton and a proton.

In all above equations two positively charged particles combine to

form a larger nucleus and this process is hindered by the Coulomb
repulsion acts to prevent particles getting close enough to be within the
range of their attractive nuclear forces and thus ‘fusing’.

The value of this Coulomb barrier depends on the charges and the radii
of the two interacting nuclei. This barrier height is 400 keV for two
protons. To overcome the Coulomb's barrier of protons in a proton gas
the temperature required is given by kT = 400 keV is about 3*109 k.

We require a large amount of energy to bring the two together for

fusion against Coulomb repulsion. This energy may be given in the
form of thermal energies by increasing temperature. This process is
called thermonuclear fusion.
Nuclear fusion must occur in bulk matter to generate useful amount of
energy.
Extreme conditions of temperature and pressure are required for
thermonuclear fusion to take place, which is available only in the
interiors of stars including sun. The energy generation in stars takes
place via thermonuclear fusion.

The fusion reaction in the sun is fusion of four hydrogen nuclei to

form a helium nucleus along with the emission of a huge amount of
energy.

The proton-proton (p, p) cycle by which this occurs, involved reactions

are-

The first three reactions must occur twice for the fourth reaction to
occur.
Summing up 2(i) + 2(ii) + 2(iii) + (iv), we obtain

Thus, four hydrogen atoms combine to form a 𝐻𝑒 atom with a release

of 26.7 MeV of energy.
Calculations show that there is enough hydrogen to keep the sun going
for another 5 billion years. By that time, the sun's core will be largely
helium. It will begin to cool and the sun will start to collapse under its
own gravity. This will raise the core temperature and cause the outer
envelope to expand, turning the sun into a red giant.

Energy can be produced through fusion once more this time by

burning helium to make carbon if the core temperature increases to
108 K again. Other elements can be formed by other fusion reactions
as a star evolves further and becomes still hotter.

However elements more massive than those near the peak of the
binding energy curve cannot be produced by further fusion.
CONTROLLED THERMONUCLEAR FUSION

Future source of unlimited and unpolluted energy is controlled

thermonuclear fusion but a sustained and controllable source of fusion
power is considerably more difficult to achieve. It is being pursued
vigorously in many countries around the world including India.

USA exploded a fusion device at Eniwetok Atoll on November 1952

first time on earth. In which equivalent to 10 million tons of TNT
energy was generated (one to TNT on explosion releases 2.6*10 22
MeV of energy).
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

NCERT textbook class 12

NCERT physics lab manual
Internet
www.google.com
H.C.verma book