THINGS THAT MAKE LIFE ON EARTH POSSIBLE • WE HAVE AN OZONE LAYER TO BLOCK HARMFUL

• OUR LOCATION IS FAR FROM MANY HAZARDS. RAY.

- The solar system sits far from the galactic core - Ozone (03) is a gas in the atmosphere that
(almost 30,000 light-years), between two major protects everything living on the Earth from
spiral arms. Also, the solar system's circular orbit harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun. Without
helps avoid that dangerous part of the galaxy. the layer of ozone in the atmosphere, it would be
- The presence of our Jupiter, farther out in the solar very di cult for anything to survive on the surface.
system blocking Earth from much of the incoming - Nitrogen accounts for 78% of the atmosphere,
debris, has also helped Earth become a safe oxygen 21% and argon 0.9%. Greenhouse gases
haven for life. Jupiter acts like a giant broom, like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, and methane
sweeping the solar system of debris rocks. are trace gases that account for about a tenth of
• OUR SUN IS A STABLE AND LONG LASTING STAR. one percent of the atmosphere.
- Our sun is a yellow dwarf, a relatively rare type of
star that is both small and stable. It also has a EARTH’S SUBSYSTEM
long life and probably would not start to zzle out • There are 4 components of the Earth which we refer
for another ve billion years or so. as subsystems or spheres: atmosphere, geosphere,
- The sun radiates light and heat, or solar energy, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
which makes it possible for life to exist on Earth.
The sun provides the earth with energy estimated 1. ATMOSPHERE
at over 239 trillion horsepower, about 35,000 • is the gaseous layer surrounding the earth and is held
horsepower for each current resident. Plants need to its surface by gravity. It extends from less than 1 m
sunlight to grow. below the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km
• WE ARE AT JUST THE RIGHT DISTANCE FROM THE above. It receives energy from solar radiation which
SUN. warms the earth's surface and is re-emitted and
- Earth is at an average distance of 93 million miles conducted to the atmosphere. The upper portion of
or 150 million kilometers away from the sun. It the atmosphere protects the organisms of the
orbits in the so-called Goldilocks zone, where the biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also
planet receives enough energy to allow water to absorbs and emits heat.
exist as a liquid on its surface. • absorbs water from the earth's surface via the
- Too far, and the vital compound stays locked up process of evaporation; it the acts to redistribute heat
as ice. Too close, and the water would rapidly and moisture across the earth's surface. The heat on
evaporate into the atmosphere. The Earth is the the Earth's surface is redistributed through
only planet with huge bodies of water-70% of its atmospheric circulation.
surface area consists of oceans, lakes, and seas • contains 21% of oxygen necessary for respiration,
surrounding huge bodies of land. 78% of nitrogen, and 1% other gaseous such as
- Water is unique because it absorbs large amounts argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and ozone which are
of heat without much alteration in its temperature. important in absorbing harmful solar radiation.
Its absorption speed is extremely rapid--about ten
times as fast as steel.
• WE HAVE THE RIGHT STUFF TO HOST A DYNAMIC
CORE.
- The interstellar cloud of gas and dust that gave
rise to Earth contained enough radioactive
elements (potassium, uranium and thorium) to
power a churning core for billions of years. This
creates a magnetic eld which is crucial to life on
our planet because it protects the planet from
dangers like solar ares and solar wind.
- The Earth's magnetic eld de ects most of the
solar wind, whose charged particles strip away the
ozone layer that protects the Earth and the life on
it from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• WE HAVE A BIG MOON TO STABILIZE OUR AXIAL
WOBBLE.
- The Earth has a slight tilt and teeters like a top as
it spins, which can cause drastic shifts in climate
over the course of thousands of years. But 2. HYDROSPHERE
because of the moon's stabilizing e ect on our • contains the water of the Earth in its liquid, gaseous
orbit, our climate is a lot steadier. (vapor) and solid (ice) phases including the earth's
- The moon causes the tides, so if the Moon were oceans and seas; ice sheets, sea ice and glaciers;
much nearer to the Earth, say 20 times closer, it lakes, rivers, and streams; atmospheric moisture and
would exert a gravitational force 400 times greater ice crystals; and areas of permafrost. Most of Earth's
than what we are used to. It would result to huge fresh water is frozen. Thus, in some classi cations,
tides which would over ow onto the lowlands, the hydrosphere is sub-divided into the uid water
causing great ooding. systems and the cryosphere (the ice systems).
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• About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water 4. BIOSPHERE
(hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form of ocean • is the subsystem that is intimately related to the other
water (Figure 2). Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: three spheres. For example, most living organisms
two- thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining require gases from the atmosphere, water from the
one-third is present in streams, lakes, and hydrosphere and nutrients and minerals from the
groundwater. geosphere. Living organisms also require a medium
• Water is essential to the existence and maintenance for life and are adapted to inhabit one or more of the
of life on earth. It is part of the living cells. It provides other three spheres.
habitat, regulates climate, and takes part in the • The biosphere can be considered the set of all life
transport, distribution and circulation of important forms on Earth. It covers all ecosystems--from the
nutrients which are essential for life. It helps bind soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs,
together the Earth's lands, oceans, and atmosphere and from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep
into an integrated system through the hydrological sea. However, much of the biosphere is contained
(water) cycle. within a shallow surface layer encompassing the
lower part of the atmosphere, the surface of the
geosphere and approximately the upper 100 meters
of the ocean. Humans are part of the biosphere,
although they are increasingly responsible for the
creation of systems that may be largely arti cial such
as cities.

3. GEOSPHERE
• is the largest of the four spheres. This is the part of
the Earth that includes the solid crust, the molten
mantle, the liquid outer core, and the solid inner core.
The solid and rigid outer layer of the Earth is called as
the lithosphere. The term is taken from the Greek
word lithos meaning "rocky". The lithosphere is
bounded by the atmosphere above and the
asthenosphere (another part of the upper mantle)
below.
• The outermost layer consists of loose soil rich in
nutrients, oxygen, and silicon. Beneath that layer lies
a very thin, solid crust of oxygen and silicon. Next is a
thick, semi-solid mantle of oxygen, silicon, iron, and INTERACTION IN EARTH’S SPHERES
magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core of nickel • Although the four systems have their unique
and iron. At the center of Earth is a solid inner core of identities, they are closely connected. For example,
nickel and iron. many birds (biosphere) y through the air
(atmosphere), while water (hydrosphere) ows
through the soil (geosphere). These close connections
cause changes to take place in Earths spheres. These
changes are called events. This two-way relationship
between event and sphere is called interactions.

VOLCANOES
• Volcanoes in the geosphere may cause profound
direct and indirect e ects on the hydrosphere,
atmosphere and biosphere. This happens when
volcanoes (geosphere) emit large amount of
particulate matter into the air (atmosphere). These
particles serve as nuclei for the formation of water
droplets (hydrosphere). Rainfall (hydrosphere) often
increases often increases following an eruption,
stimulating plat growth (biosphere).
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 ACID RAIN 1. COLOR AND STREAK
• Acid rain is any form of liquid precipitation • Most minerals have a distinctive color that can be
(hydrosphere) that contains high level of nitric and used for identi cation. In opaque minerals, the color
sulfuric acid. Rain (hydrosphere) brings these acids to tends to be more consistent. Translucent to
the Earth, acidifying soil (geosphere) lakes and rivers transparent minerals have a much more varied degree
(hydrosphere). Acidic water leaches nutrients from the of color due to the presence of trace minerals.
soil (geosphere) into the water table (hydrosphere, • For example, ruby and sapphire are di erently
making the soilless fertile for the plants(biosphere and colored types of the mineral corundum (Al2O3). The
the subterranean water (hydrosphere) not potable for red color of ruby is due to the presence of the
humans (biosphere). element chromium.
• There are also lots of minerals that share the same
FOREST FIRE color while some minerals can exhibit a range of
• Forest re (an event in biosphere) may destroy all the colors. The mineral quartz for example, can be pink
plants (biosphere) in the area. This could lead to (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine), white
increase in erosion (geosphere). Increased amount of (colorless quartz) etc.
soil entering the streams (hydrosphere) can lead to • Streak, on the other hand is the color of a mineral in
increased turbidity or muddiness of the water which powdered form. Streak is the color of the mineral in
will a ect that plants and animals (biosphere) that live powdered form when rubbed against a streak plate or
in it. unglazed porcelain le.
• For example, pyrite (FeS2) exhibits golden color.
MINERALS AND ROCKS Hence, the other term of pyrite is Fool's Gold which
has a black or dark gray streak. Streak is a better
MINERALS diagnostic property as compared to color since it is
• rocks are made up of minerals which are glued inherent to almost every mineral.
together by natural processes to form into solid
lumps. There are over 4.000 di erent minerals which 2. LUSTER
have been identi ed by scientists but only a few • Luster is the amount (quantity) and appearance
forms into rocks. Both rocks and minerals are (quality) of light re ected from the surface of a
valuable to humans because of their ecological and mineral. It provides an assessment of how much the
economic uses. mineral surface "sparkles".
• Minerals possessing metallic luster are opaque and
MINERALS CAN BE DEFINED BASED ON 5 very re ective, possessing a high absorptive index.
REQUIREMENTS: This type of luster indicates the presence of metallic
• Naturally Occurring- means that people did not bonding within the crystal lattice of the material. Sub-
make it, but produced naturally. Steel is not a mineral metallic minerals have similar luster to metal but are
because it is an alloy produced by people. duller and less re ective. Those which vary in
• Inorganic- means that the substance is not made by appearance and non-lustrous possess non-metallic
an organism. Wood and pearls are made by luster.
organisms and thus, they are not minerals.
• Solid- means that it is not a liquid or a gas at TYPES OF LUSTER
standard temperature and pressure. Water is not a A. Metallic
mineral because it is a liquid. - having the look of a polished metal.
• De nite Chemical Composition- means that all - Ex: copper, gold, silver, galena, pyrite.
occurrences of that mineral have a chemical B. Sub-metallic
composition that varies within a speci c limited - having the look of a metal that is dulled by
range. weathering or corrosion. (Ex. Hematite)
• Ordered Internal Structure- means that the atoms in C. Non-metallic
a mineral are arranged in a systematic and repeating - Dull or Earthy- re ected light poorly and don’t shine.
pattern. (Ex. Kaolinite)
- Resinous- resembling that of a resin. (Ex. Sulfur)
• There are over 4000 known mineral species. Yet, a - Pearly- having the iridescence look of mother-of-
vast majority of rocks are formed from combinations pearl. (Ex. Tale)
of a few common minerals, referred to as "rock- - Greasy- looks as if it’s covered with oil / grease. (Ex.
forming minerals". Gypsum)
- Silky- having the look of a silk, ne parallel bers of
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS mineral.(Ex. Asbestos)
• Each of the minerals has a unique set of physical - Vitreous- similar to that of glass. (Ex. Quartz)
properties. The properties are related to the chemical - Adamantine- sparkling re ection. (Ex. Diamond)
composition and bonding of the minerals which
include color, streak, hardness, luster, cleavage, 3. HARDNESS
fracture, magnetism, and many more. These physical • Hardness is a measure of how resistant a mineral
properties are useful for identifying minerals. from being scratched. This physical property is
controlled by the chemical composition and structure
of the mineral. Hardness is commonly measured on
the “Mohs scale”.
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 • The hardness scale is designed by German geologist/
mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812 (Mohs Scale of
Hardness). The test compares the resistance of a
mineral relative to the 10 reference minerals with
known hardness.

4. CLEAVAGE
• Cleavage is the property of some minerals to break
along parallel repetitive planes of weakness to form
smooth, at surfaces. These planes of weakness are
inherent in the bonding of atoms that makes up the
mineral. Properties Description Example
• The gure shows the e ect when an external force is
applied on calcite that produces cleavage. Where the Magnetism allows a mineral to A. Diamagnetic
crystal breaks (the at surfaces) are called cleavage attract or repel other minerals- not attracted
planes. magnetic materials by a magnet
B. Paramagnetic
minerals- attracted by a
CLEAVAGE VS FRACTURE magnet
• Cleavage di ers from fracture in terms of breaking
properties. Cleavage occurs when mineral breaks Examples:
along a at surface. While fracture happens if mineral magnetite (Fe3O4)
-strongly magnetic
breaks with lots of jagged edges.
ilmenite (FeTiO3) -weakly
magnetic
5. CRYSTAL FORM OR HABIT
• Crystal Form or habit is the external shape of a Taste a characteristic shown A) acid or sour taste of
among water-soluble sulfuric acid.
crystal or groups of crystals that is displayed and
minerals. Some - indicates the presence
observed as these crystals grow in open spaces. The minerals are toxic. So, of sulfur
form re ects the supposedly internal structure (of tasting minerals is B) alkaline taste of
atoms and ions) of the crystal (mineral). It is the discouraged. potash
natural shape of the mineral before the development C)astringent or puckering
- alum
of any cleavage or fracture.
D)bitter taste - epsom or
• It is important to clearly di erentiate a crystal habit bitter salts
from cleavage. Although both are dictated by crystal E)saline or salty - table
structure, crystal habit forms as the mineral is salt (NaCI)
growing. Therefore, it relies on how the individual
E ervescence Property of some Chemical reaction of
atoms in the crystal come together. Cleavage on the minerals that calcium carbonate with
other hand is the weak plane that developed after the e ervesce or bubble dilute hydrochloric acid
crystal is formed. Cleavage in di erent directions is when dilute produces bubbles
presented. hydrochloric acid is because because carbon
applied to the surface. dioxide gas if released.
• The crystal form also de nes the relative growth of
the crystal in 3 dimension which are its length, width, Fluorescence the ability of a Gypsum
and height. substance to produce
• A mineral that does not have a crystal structure is light when activated
described as amorphous. by invisible ultraviolet
light (UV), X-rays and/
or electron beams.
Crystal Example Crystal Example
Form Form
7. DIAPHANEITY
Acicular Mesolite Columnar Selenite • Also known as transparency, diaphaneity is the
gypsum degree by which the mineral transmit light. It can be
described as opaque, translucent or transparent.
Banded Rhodochrosite Hexagonal Corundum
A. Opaque- The mineral does not transmit light.
B. Translucent- The mineral allows some amount
Bladed Kyanite Hopper Halite of light to pass through it in a distorted fashion.
C. Transparent- The mineral allows transmission
Botryoidal Agate Octahedral Diamond of light in an undisturbed manner.
Cubic Fluorite Rosette Barite Rose
8. FRACTURE
• occurs when a mineral is broken or crushed. The
6. SPECIFIC GRAVITY breaking happens in a direction which does not serve
• is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of as a plane of perfect or distinct cleavage. In other
an equal volume of water. A bucket of silver would words, fracture takes place along a plane possessing
weigh 10 times more than a bucket of water. It di cult or indistinct cleavage. Thus, the mineral splits
expresses the density of a mineral. The speci c into any possible direction.
gravity of a mineral is numerically equal to density.
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 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
• Rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of
minerals sometimes with non-mineral solid particles.

Minerals Uses Minerals Uses

Rutile Paints Pyrite Source of

iron

Gypsum Plaster of Apatite Fertilizer

Paris

Gold Jewelry Calcite Chalk

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

IGNEOUS ROCK
• Igneous rocks or magmatic rocks are formed through
the cooling and solidi cation of magma or lava.
Igneous rock can be classi ed into:
- Intrusive
- Extrusive
• Intrusive Igneous Rocks- this type of igneous rock
is formed from solidi cation of magma below the
surface. They have large crystals of minerals that
f o r m e d o v e r t i m e t h ro u g h s l o w p ro c e s s o f
crystallization in a magma. (Ex. Granite, diorite,
gabbro, pegmatite, and peridotite)
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS • Extrusive Igneous Rocks- this type of igneous rock
• Minerals can be pure elements or compounds. Their is formed through faster rate of solidi cation of lava
chemical properties mainly re ect the kind of atoms on the surface of Earth. They can become glassy in
or molecules present in each. The properties depend appearance due to less crystallization or vesicular like
on the way the atoms or molecules are bound in the scoria, due to the air that was trapped inside when
mineral's crystal structure. And minerals are identi ed they solidi ed and formed on the surface of the earth.
by how they chemically react to certain substances. (Ex. andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian, pumice,
rhyolite and tu )
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SEDIMENTARY ROCK
• is formed by the deposition and cementation of
mineral or organic particles on the oor of oceans
and other bodies of water at the Earth surface.
• Sedimentary rock can be classi ed into:
- clastic
- chemical
- organic
• Clastic Sedimentary Rock- it is formed from the
mechanical weathering debris of rocks. Examples are
breccia (rock fragments with sharp edges),
conglomerate (rounded fragments of rocks),
sandstone (sand from beaches or sand dunes),
siltstone, and shale (clay particles).
• Chemical Sedimentary Rock- it is formed when
dissolved materials precipitate from solution.
Examples of these are rock salt, iron ore, chert, int,
some dolomites.
• Organic Sedimentary Rock- formed from the build-
up of plant or animal debris. Examples of these are
chalk, coal, and limestone with fossils. METALLIC MINERALS
• The Island of Cebu is famous for its limestone and • The metallic minerals include gold, copper, nickel,
dolomite deposits. chromite and iron. Benguet, Masbate, Camarines
Norte, Compostela Valley, Agusan del Sur, and
METAMORPHIC ROCK Surigao del Norte have large deposits of gold and
• Metamorphic rock forms from existing rock types silver, Copper with gold and silver deposits are found
called "parent rock" in the process called in Benguet, Cebu, Zamboanga del Norte and Nueva
metamorphism, which means change in form. The Vizcaya, Chromite deposits are located in Surigao del
original rock which can be an igneous, sedimentary or Norte and Samar. Large deposits of nickel are found
another metamorphic rock is subjected to heat and in Palawan, Zambales, Surigao del Norte and Surigao
pressure, causing a profound chemical or physical del Sur, as well as Dinagat Island. Iron deposits are
change. located in Leyte, Bulacan, Camarines Sur, and
• Foliated Metamorphic Rocks- formed through Zamboanga.
pressure due to compression of rocks that create
bands called foliation. Examples are gneiss, phyllite,
schist, and slate.
- Increasing metamorphism: shale, slate, phyllite,
schist, gneiss
• Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks- it has no
foliation or bands. Examples of this type are hornfels,
marble, quartzite, and novaculite.
• The Island of Romblon is famous for its marble rocks.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF MINERALS

• Minerals that are of economic value can be classi ed
as metallic or nonmetallic.
• Metallic minerals are those from which valuable
metals (e.g. iron, copper) can be extracted for
commercial use. Some important metallic minerals
IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS TO THE SOCIETY are: hematite (a source of iron), bauxite (a source of
aluminum), sphalerite (a source of zinc) and galena
PHILIPPINE MINERAL PROFILE (a source of lead). Metallic minerals occasionally but
• The Mines and Geosciences Bureau estimated that rarely occur as a single element (e.g. native gold or
the country has around USD 840 billion worth of copper).
untapped mineral wealth from metallic and
nonmetallic minerals.
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 PHILIPPINE MINERAL PROFILE IMPORTANT MINERALS IN CONSTRUCTION
• The non-metallic minerals include limestone, • In construction, skyscrapers that tower up to 50
marble, gravel and sand, and other quarry materials. stories high use durable materials like iron steel - a
Limestone deposits are found in Guimaras Island, La combination of iron and carbon and concrete that
Union, and Pangasinan and largest marble deposits is contains limestone, lime, and chalk that make them
found in Romblon - the marble capital of the strong and stand still against strong wind and
Philippines. earthquake.
• They also use glass made of silica or quartz. Floors
ECONOMIC VALUE OF MINERALS are made up of granite and marbles. Aluminum is
• Non-metallic minerals are valuable, not for the used in window and door panels.
metals they contain, but for their properties as
chemical compounds. Because they are commonly IMPORTANT MINERALS IN HEALTH AND MEDICAL
used in industry, they are also often referred to as FIELD
industrial minerals. They are classi ed according to • Titanium is a strong but very light metal and is used in
their use. making medical and dental tools. It is also known for
• Some industrial minerals are used as sources of its biocompatibility which makes it important in
important chemicals (e.g. halite for sodium chloride prosthetics and in dental implants. In taking care of
and borax for borates). Some are used for building our dental health, dentists use many tools
materials (e.g. gypsum for plaster and kaolinite for appropriate for a purpose.
bricks). Others are used for making fertilizers (e.g. • There are also lots of other minerals that they use for
apatite for phosphate and sylvite for potassium). Still cleaning and surgery. Examples are gypsum in plaster
others are used as abrasives (e.g. diamond and cast, and alloys like stainless steel that is primarily
corundum). composed of iron, chromium, and carbon in their
tools.
• For our health, the pharmaceutical industry
manufactures supplements that contain many
essential minerals that keep us strong and healthy
like Calcium that helps body in developing strong and
healthy bones, Magnesium and Zinc that are essential
in improving health by helping our immune system to
function properly.

IMPORTANT MINERALS IN ENERGY PRODUCTION

• Minerals are also important for generation of power
and electricity.
• In nuclear power plant, radioactive minerals like
Uranium are used as source of heat to run a nuclear
reactor and generate electricity. On the hand,
batteries for electric cars need minerals like lithium,
cobalt, and nickel.
• In producing dry cell batteries, zinc and carbon are
used on its electrodes while cadmium, carbon, lead,
and nickel are also used to manufacture di erent dry
cell.
IMPORTANT MINERALS IN HOUSEHOLD
• In households, we use toothpaste that contains IMPORTANT MINERALS IN AGRICULTURE
uoride from uorite mineral. It prevents tooth decay • In agriculture, NPK Fertilizers contain vital minerals
by protecting teeth from acids in the mouth. Face for the plant to grow healthy. These minerals include
powder contains talc - the softest mineral. In the nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium.
kitchen, salts are commonly used to enhance the • Moreover, minerals like lime are also used to lower
avor of our food. the acidity of the soil.
• Stainless kitchen wares that are less reactive to food,
durable and non-corrosive, contain mostly of alloy of IMPORTANT MINERALS IN THE SOCIETY
iron and chromium while other kitchen wares like • Graphite is often referred to as the most stable form
casserole are made of aluminum - a durable metal, of carbon. Since the early 17th century, the Greeks
corrosion resistant and a better conductor of heat have used graphite as a writing tool-or pencil.
and lighter than stainless steel. Moreover, minerals • Copper is the most vital mineral to modern life, used
such as silicon, silver, and gold are used as in everything from electrical wiring in households and
components of gadgets like cellphones and cars to the saucepans in our kitchens.
computers. Copper is the mostly used electrical • Platinum serves a critical role in the circuit boards of
wiring because it is less expensive. medical apparatus, electrical and household gadgets,
including ber optic cables for telecommunication
devices. The metal is also critical in keeping people
alive, serving a huge role in pacemakers to transmit
electrical impulses to stabilize heartbeats.
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 • Iron Ore is fundamental in creating railway tracks,
which have long been a central part of daily life.
About 98% of iron is used to make steel. Some other
uses are used for magnets, metallurgy parts, auto
parts and others.
• Silver known for its rarity and value. Traditionally,
used for jewelry and silverware, the precious metal is
also resistant to corrosion and oxidation. Making it
extremely useful for other industries. In addition,
silver is the best thermal and electrical conductor of
all the metals.
• Gold is the clear breadwinner when it comes to value.
The precious metal, which is basically worshipped
across the global, is primarily used for luxury
purposes such as jewelry. ORE MINERALS: HOW THEY ARE FOUND, MINED,
• Cobalt- On a global basis, the leading use of cobalt AND PROCESSED
is in rechargeable battery electrodes. Super alloys,
which are used to make parts for gas turbine engines, MINING
are another major use for cobalt. Used as alloyed • The term usually refers to the extraction of mineral
with aluminum and nickel to make powerful magnets. resources.
• Lithium a soft silvery metal, the lowest density of all • Mining is an intensive and sophisticated process that
metals and is often alloys with aluminum and varies based on the mineral depending on whether
magnesium to improve their strength, including they are extracted, stripped, or brought via tunnels
making them lighter. Used in everything from mobile and shafts.
phones, laptops, digital cameras and electric • Mining is the process of mineral extraction from a
vehicles. rock seam or ore - a natural rock or sediment
• Bauxite is formed from a laterite soil that has been containing one or more valuable mineral. The
severely leached of silica and other soluble materials minerals can range from precious metals and iron to
in a wet tropical or subtropical climate. It is primarily gemstones and quartz.
used to create aluminum. • Modern mining technology uses geophysical
• Zinc is vital for modern life because of its resistance techniques that involve measuring the magnetic,
to corrosion. It is used to make many useful alloys gravity and sonic responses of rocks above and
including lead, tin, brass and copper. Metallic zinc is around a prospective mineral ore body.
also used to make dry cell batteries, roof cladding
and die castings. MINERAL EXPLORATION
• Prospecting or exploration can be simply described
as looking for the ore body which is a deposit that
can yield a large amount of a speci c mineral.
• Steps needed during mineral exploration:
- Formulating Project
- Field Exploration
- Detailed Exploration
- Prospect Evaluation and Feasibility Study

LOCATING ORES
• Potential ore bodies are located by recognizing that a
geologic process or combination of processes can
produce a localized enrichment of one or more
minerals, and that these processes only happen in
speci c types of environments.
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 DIFFERENT MINING METHODS

MINERAL EXPLORATION
• The location and shape of the deposit, strength of the
rock ore grade, mining costs, and current market
price of the commodity are some of the determining
factors for selecting which mining method to use. The
primary methods used to extract minerals from the
ground are underground mining surface (open pit)
mining and placer mining.

UNDERGROUND MINING
• This method of mining is utilized to extract higher-
grade metallic ores found in deep veins under the
Earth's surface.
• This type of mining is quite more expensive than
surface mining as the rock is drilled and blasted, then
moved to the surface by truck, belt conveyor, or
elevator. Once at the surface, the material is sent to a
mill to separate the ore from the waste rock.
PLACER MINING
• It is an ancient method of using water to excavate,
transport, concentrate, and recover heavy minerals
from alluvial or placer deposits.
• Placer mining is the practice of separating heavily
eroded minerals like gold from sand or gravel. The
word placer is thought to have come from Catalan
and Spanish, meaning a shoal or sand bar.

PROCESSING MINERALS
• Mineral processing is the process of extracting
minerals from the ore, re ning them, and preparing
these minerals for use. The primary steps involved in
processing minerals include:
SURFACE MINING
1. Sampling- is the removal of a portion which
• Surface mining is utilized to extract lower grade metal
represents a whole needed for the analysis of
ores which are found closer to the Earth's surface.
this material.
• This method generally costs less than underground
2. Analysis- is important to evaluate the valuable
method. In a surface mine, hard rock must be drilled
component in an ore. This includes chemical,
and blasted, although some minerals are soft enough
mineral and particle size analysis.
to mine without blasting.
3. Comminution- is the process where the
valuable components of the ore are separated
TYPES OF SURFACE MINING
through crushing and grinding. This process
1. Open-pit mining- this is the most common type of
begins by crushing the ores to a particular size
surface mining. Open pit means a big hole (or pit) in
and nishes it by grinding the ores into a
the ground. The pit in mine is created by blasting
powder form.
with explosives and drilling.It is used to mine gravel
4. Concentration- involves the separation of the
and sand and even rock.
valuable minerals from the raw materials
2. Strip Mining- involves the removal of a thin strip of
5. Dewatering- uses the concentration to convert
overburden (earth or soil) above a desired deposit,
it to usable minerals. This involves ltration and
dumping the removed overburden behind the
sedimentation of the suspension and drying of
deposit, extracting the desired deposit, creating a
the solid materials harvested from this
second, parallel strip in the same manner and
suspension.
depositing the waste materials from that second
(new) strip onto the rst strip. This method is used
ORE PROCESSING
for coal, phosphates, clays, and tar mining.
• The materials mined are rocks composed of both ore
3. Dredging- this is the process of mining materials
and waste material. High grade ores are extracted or
from the bottom of a body of water, including rivers,
separated from the rest of the deposit. While the part
lakes, and oceans. Underwater excavation of a
of the rock which contain very little, or no element or
placer deposit by oating equipment. Dredging
mineral of economic value is considered as waste
systems are classi ed as mechanical or hydraulic,
material.
depending on the method of material transport.
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 • The extracted rocks will undergo processes of • They are natural and nite resources that are very
mineral separation and recovery which is usually abundant and has a cheaper cost production
done in a mill. compared to other resources present on Earth.
• In milling, the ore is crushed and concentrated. • They are considered as non-renewable energy source
Crushing and screening are the rst stages of as they take millions of years to form.
controlled size reduction followed by grinding where
the rocks are pulverized. MAJOR TYPES OF FOSSIL FUELS

MILLING OR RECOVERY PROCESS 1. COAL

• Heavy media separation: The crushed rocks are • It is an important and primary fossil fuel present on
submerged in liquid where the heavier or denser Earth.
minerals sink. Thus, heavier minerals are separated • Coal resources are found predominantly where forest
from the lighter ones. This is commonly used to trees, plants and marshes existed before being buried
separate chalcopyrite from quartz before the re ning and compressed millions of years ago.
processes of extracting copper. • Philippines uses approximately 50% coal resource to
• Magnetic separation: Magnetic separation: If the produce energy and electricity.
metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is
separated from the waste materials using a powerful Coal Dry Carbon Moisture Dry, Volatile Heat
magnet. Content (%) Content Content (%) Content
• Flotation: The powdered ore is placed into an Before (%) (MJ/kg)

agitated and frothy slurry where some minerals and Anthracite 86-92 7-10 3-14 32-33
metals based on physical and chemical properties
may either sink to the bottom or may stick to the Bituminous 76-86 8-18 14-46 23-33
bubbles and rise to the top thus separating the Coal

minerals and metals. Sub- 70-76 18-38 42-53 18-23

• Cyanide heap leaching: This method is used for Bituminous
low-grade gold ore where the crushed rock is placed Coal

on a “leach pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed or Lignite 65-70 35-55 53-63 17-18
dripped on top of the pile.
Peat < 60 75 63-69 15
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
• Mining is a controversial industry because it is usually
associated with the neglectful and irresponsible COAL CLASSIFICATION
practices that bring about environmental problems • Anthracite
and hazards. - which is the highest rank of coal. It is a hard,
• Improper mining can cause ooding; erosion; brittle, and black lustrous coal, often referred to as
formation of sinkholes; loss of biodiversity; air hard coal, containing a high percentage of xed
pollution; and contamination of soil, ground water carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter.
and surface water by chemicals from mining • Bituminous Coal
activities. Contamination resulting from leakage of - It usually has a high heating value and is the most
chemicals a ects the health of the local population if common type of coal used in electricity
not properly controlled. generation.
• Mine site decommissioning or rehabilitation is done - If appears shiny and smooth at rst glance, but
when active mining ends. when you look closely, you will see that it has
• Republic Act 7942, otherwise known as the layers.
Philippine Mining Act of 1995 was mainly instituted • Sub-Bituminous Coal
to “govern the exploration, development, utilization - is black in color and dull, and has a higher heating
and processing of all mineral resources within the value than lignite.
territory and exclusive economic zone of the - used in generating steam to produce electricity.
Philippines”. - Moreover, sub-bituminous coal can be lique ed
• The Department of Environment and Natural and converted into petroleum and gas.
Resources (DENR) ensures the implementation this • Lignite
law with its Mines and Geosciences Bureau that is - is also known as brown coal. If is the lowest grade
responsible tasked for the conservation, coal with the least concentration of carbon.
management, development, and proper use of the - Lignite's high moisture content and lower carbon
country’s mineral resources including those in content results in more carbon dioxide emissions
reservations and lands of public domain. than harder black coals.
• Peat
FORMATION OF FOSSIL FUELS - is a soft, crumbly, dark brown substance that is
• Fossil fuels are basically remains of plants and formed from generations of dead and partially
animals that died millions of years ago. decaying organic matter.
• They are the world's primary energy source that - rst step in the formation of coal, and slowly
provide most of the energy support in transportation, becomes lignite after pressure and temperature
electricity, and industries. increase as sediment is piled on top of the
partially decaying organic matter.
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 COAL FORMATION • The proportion of liquids and gas generated in this
• Coali cation is the formation of coal from plant way depends on the type of source rock. If the
material by the processes of diagenesis and organic debris is composed mostly of animal origin, it
metamorphism. Also known as bituminization or will produce more oil than gas. If it is composed
carboni cation. mainly of plant debris, the source rock will produce
• It all starts with a swamp on the edge of a mostly gas.
sedimentary basin, such as a lagoon or a lake. • With an estimated average sedimentation of 50
Tectonic activity raises sea levels, covering and killing meters every million years, it takes 60 million years for
vegetation. Plant debris accumulates and is buried dead animals to become liquid hydrocarbons. It is
under layers of mud and sand in a process known as hardly surprising; therefore, that oil is classi ed as a
sedimentation. non-renewable energy source.
• The sedimentary basin gradually sinks under the
weight of the sediments, and the layers of dead
plants are subjected to rising temperatures that
gradually "cook" them, leading to their
transformation.
• The di erent stages of sedimentation turn cellulose,
the main component of wood, from peat to lignite
(brown coal), then sub-bituminous coal, followed by
bituminous coal and, nally, anthracite.

FOSSIL FUEL POWER GENERATION

• Electrical energy generation using steam turbines
involves three energy conversions, extracting thermal
energy from the fuel and using it to raise steam,
converting the thermal energy of the steam into
kinetic energy in the turbine and using a rotary
generator to convert the turbine's mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
2. OIL (Petroleum)
• Most of the oil that we are using today started
forming millions of years ago.
• Oil is an organic material, mostly algae, which was
buried in mud at the bottom of the sea and lakes.
• It is used mainly to produce transportation fuels and
petroleum-based products.
• Philippines imports crude oil and petroleum from
Saudi Arabia and Russia.

3. NATURAL GAS
• A naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas with the
mixture of methane. It is the Earth's cleanest fossil
fuel and is odorless and colorless in its natural state.
Natural gas is produced from sedimentary rock
formation by forcing chemicals, water, and sand
down a well under high pressure.
• The Philippines' main domestic source of energy is
the Malampaya natural gas eld which is located at GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Palawan Island. • The heat generated beneath the ground, that when
harnessed can generate electrical energy. This is
OIL AND NATURAL GAS FORMATIOM possible when a geothermal power plant is
• At a depth of 2,000 meters, when the temperature established equipped with technology that runs the
reaches 100°C, hydrocarbon is released. process of energy conversion.
• Between 2,000 and 3,800 meters, it turns into oil.
This depth interval is known as the oil window. HARNESSING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
• When the source rock sinks further, to between 3,800 • In areas with greater geologic activity, water pockets
and 5,000 meters, production of liquid hydrocarbons are heated by the magma from the mantle. The water
peaks. The liquids produced become increasingly pockets a ected and heated by the hot magma is
lighter and gradually turn into methane gas, the called geothermal reservoirs. Heated water rises and
lightest hydrocarbon. This depth interval is known as expands, turning to steam and naturally looks for a
the gas window. way up to the surface in cracks in the crust.
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 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
• Geothermal power plants are carbon neutral,
meaning that they have little to no carbon emission
unlike non-renewable power plants that burn fuel to
produce steam. Geothermal power plants are ideal
ways of generating electrical energy in a clean and
environment-friendly way.

STEPS IN TAPPING THE ENERGY IN GEOTHERMAL

POWER PLANT
1. Water from the geothermal reservoir is heated by
the magma of the earth.
2. Wells are drilled deep into the ground to tap the
GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP
energy from heat of the Earth.
• Geothermal energy is not only used by a power plant 3. The steam makes the turbine move activating the
for electricity generation. Another way of using the generator, thus producing electricity.
energy is through heat pumps that can be installed at 4. Steam is directed to the cooling tank to condense
home. Heat pump works depending on the season and turn back to water.
using water or a refrigerant and obtaining the Earth’s 5. Cool water is brought back to the injection well to
constant temperature (50 F - 60 F) below the ground. be dropped back to the reservoir to restart the
process.

HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY
• Since approximately 71% of the Earth's surface is
covered in water and water is renewed and recycled
everyday through the water cycle, tapping the energy
from water is a viable option. To be speci c, it is the
energy harnessed from the stored gravitational
potential energy of water and its kinetic energy when
released or allowed to ow that is used in generating
electrical energy.

HARNESSING HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY

• Hydroelectric power plants convert the mechanical
energy of owing water to electrical energy.
Commonly, this is done by constructing a dam over a
TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT naturally owing water like a river or falls. A dam is a
structure that holds back the water and stores it
making its level higher that the other side of the dam,
the higher level water Is referred as the reservoir. This
elevated water stores potential energy.

SIZES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

• Large Hydropower- facilities that have a capacity of
more than 30 megawatts (MW).
• Small Hydropower- projects that generate between
100 kilowatts and 10 MW.
• Micro Hydropower- capacity of up to 100 kilowatts.
• A small or micro hydroelectric power system can
produce enough electricity for a single home, farm,
ranch, or village.
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 TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS S T E P S I N TA P P I N G T H E E N E R G Y I N
HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT
1. RUN-OF-RIVER HYDROPOWER 1. Water is blocked by a dam creating a higher level
• a facility that channels owing water from a river on one side called the reservoir.
through a canal or penstock to spin a turbine. 2. The control gate allows the controlled amount of
Typically a run-of-river project will have little or no water to ow through the penstock.
storage facility. 3. The owing water in the penstock, carrying kinetic
energy makes the turbine spin which in turn
activated the generator to produce electricity.
4. The generator produces electricity that is then
stepped-up by the transformer for distribution.
5. The used water that owed through the penstock is
released as an out ow and ows in the river or
stream as it naturally would have.

WATER RESOURCES

WATER
• is a simple compound, made of two atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen bonded together.
More than any other substance on the Earth, water is
important to life and has remarkable properties.

2. STORAGE HYDROPOWER SOURCES OF WATER

• typically a large system that uses a dam to store • Nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface is covered
water in a reservoir. Electricity is produced by with water. Most of which is found in the ocean. Great
releasing water from the reservoir through a turbine, amount of the freshwater is found below the earth's
which activates a generator. surface called ground water and the rest of the
freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, streams. Water is
also present in air in the form of water vapor.

DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
• Oceans cover an area of 139 million miles? or 361
million km, and contain a volume of about 1.37 billion
km° of water.

3. PUMPED STORAGE HYDROPOWER

• provides peak-load supply, harnessing water which is
cycled between a lower and upper reservoir by
pumps which use surplus energy from the system at
times of low demand.
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE OR WATER CYCLE
• The unending exchange of water among the
continents, surface water, and the atmosphere is
called the. This cycle of water maintains the quantity
of water on earth.
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 SOURCES OF WATER • The chemical characteristics of natural water are a
• Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds and re ection of the soils and rocks with which the water
springs are natural sources of water. Dams, wells, has been in contact. In addition, agricultural and
tube wells, hand-pumps, canals, etc., are man-made urban runo and municipal and industrial treated
sources of water. wastewater impact the water quality.

MAIN SOURCES OF WATER WATER’S CHEMICAL RESOURCES

• DISSOLVED OXYGEN- Fish and other organisms
SOURCES OF WATER that live in water need oxygen to survive. The oxygen
• Rain water is collected on Earth in the form of surface that is dissolved in water is called dissolved oxygen,
water and underground water. or DO. If the DO in water is too low, many organisms
can become sick or die.
SURFACE WATER • pH- The pH of water is a measure of how acidic the
• Water present on the surface of the earth in the form water is. Most organisms cannot live in very acidic
of rivers, lakes, reservoir, ponds and streams is called water. Acid rain and some kinds of wastes can make
surface water. The water in rivers and lakes comes water bodies more acidic. Water with a high alkalinity,
from rain and melting of snow on mountains. or ability to react with acids, can protect organisms
from acid rain and other pollution.
UNDERGROUND WATER
• Groundwater lies under the surface of the land, where
it travels through and lls openings in the rocks. The
rocks that store and transmit groundwater are called
aquifers.
• An aquifer is a body of rock and/or sediment that
holds groundwater.

SALT WATER RESOURCES

• Oceans and seas are interconnected bodies of
seawater. The percentage of salt in a given volume of • Water with good qualities is good for human
seawater is called salinity. Ocean water is a source of consumption. Water availability is de ned as the
dissolved minerals like salts. quantity of water that can be used for human
purposes without signi cant harm to ecosystems or
IMPORTANCE OF WATER RESOURCES other users.
• Residential, Commercial and Industrial Use-
Residential water use includes drinking, cleaning, THREATS TO THE QUALITY OF WATER SYSTEM
personal hygiene and car washing • In farming, sewage runo s from farms and gardens
• Hydropower - Hydroelectric facilities use the power may contain nitrogen and phosphorous triggers
of owing water to turn turbines that produce uncontrolled plant growth. This will also lead to
electricity. bioaccumulation of toxic materials which might be
• Irrigation- Water for irrigation comes from either taken in by aquatic organisms that may have an
groundwater or surface water. active e ect once it enters circulation in the food
• Navigation- Agricultural and commercial goods are chain.
moved on water on a large scale, making navigation • Improper waste disposal during industrial
an important economic concern. production causes water pollution. The dissolved
oxygen in bodies of water decreases which leads to
WATER QUALITY low production of aquatic resources.
• describes the condition of the water, including • The excessiv e water w it hdrawal redu ces
chemical, physical, and biological characteristics, considerable amount of water supply intended for
usually concerning its suitability for a particular public utility use.
purpose such as drinking or swimming. • The clearing of land to build roads and other
construction structures increase surface runo and
WATER’S PHYSICAL CHARACTERS cause landslides or ash oods in sloping areas. This
• COLOR- It can indicate the presence of organic also leads to low and slow in ltration in recharging
substances, such as algae or other compounds. groundwater supply. In addition, the slow in ltration
More recently, color has been used as a quantitative of surface runo water results to ooding in low lying
assessment of the presence of potentially hazardous areas.
or toxic organic materials in water. • Fossil fuel production is another human activity that
• TASTE AND ODOR- Organic materials discharged places considerable strain on drinking water — and
directly to water, such as falling leaves, runo , etc., not just because fracking and coal mining use a great
are sources of tastes and odor-producing deal of water, but because their waste products can
compounds released during biodegradation. pollute groundwater, and therefore drinking water, as
• TURBIDITY- It is a measure of the light-transmitting well.
properties of water and is comprised of suspended
and colloidal material. It is important for health and
aesthetic reasons.
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 HOW CAN DIRTY WATER BE CLEANED? • Though pesticides are found bene cial to soil, it was
• Sewage treatment plants are facilities that clean found to have long term harmful e ects on the overall
waste materials out of water. After water has passed activity or population of soil organisms.
through a sewage treatment plant, it can safely be • Construction of Structure. Construction activities,
released into the environment. such as grading and lling, reduce soil quality on
• A septic tank is a large underground tank that cleans construction sites. Land use conversion usually done
the wastewater from one household. The wastewater to support urbanization activities can cause rapid soil
ows into the tank, where the solids sink to the degradation and sedimentation. Soil nutrients are
bottom. Bacteria break down these solids. The water washed away making it unsuitable for farming.
then ows into pipes buried underground. • Waste Disposals. Soil quality is adversely a ected
by improper waste disposal. Soil pollution happens
WAYS TO CONSERVE AND PROTECT WATER when hazardous chemicals from human and industrial
RESOURCES: sewage are carelessly disposed of, altering soil's
• Use less water. natural health and quality.
• Keep harmful substances out of the Water.
• Keep pipes and appliances in good condition. WAYS TO PROTECT SOIL
• Use water-e cient appliances. • Forest Protection. Trees as well as other plants and
• Use water e ciently outdoors. vegetation in the forest are important in the creation
of new soil as leaves and other vegetation rot and
• Water Scarcity occurs when the amount of water decompose. Hence, soil qualities are ensured when
withdrawn from lakes, rivers or groundwater is so forest are protected and conserved.
great that water supplies are no longer adequate to • Bu er Strips. Bu ers are strips or corridors of
satisfy all human or ecosystem requirements, permanent vegetation used to reduce water and wind
resulting in increased competition between water erosion. They provide protection where stream banks
users and other demands. exist. They can be created with grass, trees and
• Although it is di cult to instantly put an end to such shrubs. Bu er strips are designed to intercept runo
problems, man must manage, develop, and protect using permanent vegetation.
water and related resources in an environmentally • No-Till Farming. No-till farming is an approach that
and economically sound manner. allows crops to remain in place for a season. This
keeps the soil from being left bare and unprotected.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY Farmers grow crops with minimal disturbance to their
AND QUANTITY OF SOIL elds and the organisms that call them home.
• Soil con be de ned as the organic and inorganic • Fewer Concrete Surfaces. Lots of concrete
materials on the surface of the earth that provide the surfaces, especially in residential areas make it
medium for plant growth. Soil develops slowly over di cult for water to get to the soil. Using paving
time and is composed of many di erent materials stones for patios and gardens work to protect the
through the process of weathering. soil. They are also a tool to prevent soil erosion in
• Soil is a necessary resource because it helps sustain speci c areas.
life on Earth including humans, animals and plants. • Plant Windbreak Areas. Windbreaks are narrow
Aside from life sustaining roles, soil helps purify, or strips of trees, shrubs, and/or grasses planted in a
clean, water as it drains through the ground and into row to slow and redirect the wind. This is a method
rivers, lakes, and oceans. that can work to prevent erosion of the soil. Also
known as shelterbelt.
FARMING • Terrace Planting. This type of planting is done by
• Farming is the act or process of working the ground, maximizing the topography of the land. It bene ts
planting seeds, and growing edible plants. It can also from the way the rain water ows naturally. This is a
be in a form of raising animals. way to protect the soil from erosion. It is also a
proven method to encourage growth from moist soil
POSITIVE EFFECT OF FARMING areas.
• Application of herbicide, a pesticide used to kill • Plant Trees. Simply planting trees is a good
unwanted plants used in farming has a positive conservation method. As the tree grows, its roots
bene t on soil health. become even more secure in the soil. This soil is
• Lime and mineral fertilizers added to soil provide protected in numerous ways because of the trees'
stable optimum growing conditions for plants. existence. Erosion is prevented from this planting
• Organic manures and other organic fertilizers provide process.
a source of food/energy for many soil organisms thus • Crop Rotation. Crop rotation is a process that works
making the soil healthy and good for planting. Even to conserve soil. Crop rotation is the practice of
the growing plants help in stabilizing the soil planting di erent crops sequentially on the same plot
structure. of land to improve soil health, optimize nutrients in
the soil, and combat pest and weed pressure.
NEGATIVE EFFECT OF FARMING • Maintain pH. Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication
• Tillage in farming is the preparation of soil for planting of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is measured in
and the cultivation of soil after planting. It can cause pH units. A pH range of approximately 6 to 7
direct damage to soil microorganisms and potentially promotes the readiest availability of plant nutrients.
expose them to new predators.
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 The pH levels in the soil can be a ected by a number WASTE GENERATION AND MANAGEMENT
of pollutants and acid. • The United Nations Environment described wastes
• Indigenous Crops. Indigenous crops are native crop as unwanted or unusable materials which are
options that enhance the soil. Indigenous crops are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are
well-adapted to the regions where they originate. required to be disposed of by the provisions of
They often are free of pests and diseases, and are national law.
able to grow in extremely di cult conditions (in very • The sum total production of waste from human
dry areas or in very acidic or alkaline soil, for example) society, including agricultural, industrial, municipal
• A orestation. Planting trees is a method of and mining is called waste stream.
conserving the soil. A orestation is the establishment
of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there TYPES OF WASTE
was no recent tree cover. It encourages healthy soil • Solid Waste. This type of wastes is in solid form like
and water absorption. domestic, commercial and industrial wastes such as
• Monitor Grazing. Animal grazing plays a critical role plastics, styrofoam, papers, scrap iron, and sludge
in conserving soil. Monitoring the areas where cows from a wastewater treatment plant or air control
and other animals graze is important. This helps to facility.
prevent depletion of the soil. It also addresses the • Liquid Waste. This type of wastes is in liquid form
issue of hoof damage, which can occur to the soil. such as chemicals, oils, and waste water from ponds
• Fertilizers. Not all fertilizer products are e ective for and manufacturing industries. It includes sewage as
conservation e orts. The composition of these well as wastewater from industrial processes and
fertilizers can be the problem. The use of organic agricultural processing.
fertilizer improves the quality of soil because it is • Gaseous Waste. This type of waste are wastes in
composed of readily biodegradable materials make gas form. These include oxides of carbon, Sulphur
better nutrient sources. dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons, aerosols,
• No Soil Compacting. Soil compaction occurs when carbon monoxide, methane, Greenhouse gases like
soil particles are pressed together, reducing pore chloro uorocarbon (CFC) etc. The increasing number
space between them. A compacted soil has a of factories, industrial areas and the number of
reduced rate of both water in ltration and drainage. vehicles causes a large amount of gaseous wastes
• Contour Plowing. Contour plowing was a method of coming to the atmosphere.
plowing furrows that follow the curves of the land
rather than straight up and down slopes. Furrows that SOURCES OF WASTE
run up and down a slope form a channel that can • Agricultural Waste. Are all the leftovers after a
quickly carry away seeds and topsoil. Contour harvest is completed. Typically, these are generated
plowing forms ridges, slows the water ow and helps by agricultural activities. These may include leaves,
save precious topsoil. vegetable peels, excreta of farm animals, empty
containers of pesticides and unused fertilizers.
SOIL CONSERVATION PROGRAMS • Industrial Wastes. Liquid and solid wastes that are
• Soil is threatened due to progressing degradation generated by manufacturing and processing units of
processes caused by climate change and other various industries like chemical, petroleum, coal,
factors. Thus, soil conservation and protection are in metal, gas, sanitary, and papers.
the limelight emphasizing the informational, • Municipal Solid Waste. Solid wastes that include
educational, and motivational impact of all the household garbage, rubbish, construction and
measures. demolition debris, sanitation residues, packaging
• Soil is one of the most important natural resources materials, trade refuges, and others managed by any
that require conservation practices. Most of the municipality. RA 9003, also known as "The Ecological
methods that are utilized to promote sustainable use Solid Waste Management Act of 2000", de nes
of the soil are: municipal waste as those that are produced from
- Tree Planting activities within local government units which include
- Terraces Building a combination of domestic, commercial, institutional
- No-till Forming and industrial waste and street litters.
- Contour Plowing • E - Wastes. also known as waste electrical and
- Crop Rotation electronic equipment (WEEE). E-waste are electronic
- Maintaining Soil pH waste or various forms of electronic and electric
- Wafer the Soil equipment that have ceased to be useful or nearing
- Salinity Management the end of their lives. These would include busted
- Promote Helpful Soil Organisms bulbs, unused battery, broken appliances and
- Grow Indigenous Crops outdated models of cellphones.
• Getting involved in advocacy plan on how to • Biomedical wastes. Are generated in hospitals and
conserve and protect the soil can be an e ective area clinics. These includes infectious wastes which have
of advocacy work for local communities who may be been used in medical treatments like cotton swabs,
a ected by problems such as the farming, gauzes, or bandages. Another biomedical waste is
construction development and waste disposal. classi ed as sharps which re used syringes, needles
and blades. There are also radioactive wastes in
hospitals which are used in X-rays r cancer
treatments.
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 • Commercial wastes. are produced in schools, WASTE GENERATION
shops, markets, malls and o ces. • Waste generations by residents in the Philippines,
• Domestic wastes. are generated during household especially in the urban areas have accelerated
activities like cooking and cleaning. recently due to fast pace industrialization,
urbanization and population growth.
CLASSIFICATION OF WASTES • Since incineration of solid waste is not allowed under
• According to their properties. Republic Act 9003 or the "Ecological Solid Waste
- Biodegradable waste is also known as organic Management Act of 2000", enacted on January 26,
waste. It can be decomposed by bacteria and 2001; for the safety of human health and protection of
other organisms. It comes from plant and animal environment, land lling and the 3 Rs integrated
sources. It includes food waste, trimmings from waste management method (Reduce, Reuse and
your gardens and excreta from animals. Recycle) are the main types of solid waste
- Non-biodegradable waste cannot be management in the country.
decomposed by bacteria and other organism. • The law also requires mandatory segregation of solid
Non-biodegradable waste is also known as waste into containers labelled as: compostable,
inorganic waste and can persist for a long time recyclable, non-recyclable, and special use.
like plastics. • The National Solid Waste Management Commission
• According to e ect on life and environment. (NSWMC) calculated that from 37, 427.46 tons per
- Non-hazardous wastes do not bring harm to the day in 2012, the country's waste generation steadily
environment or to life. They are mostly municipal increased to 40,087.45 tons in 2016. On the average,
solid waste. each person in the country produces about 0.5
- Hazardous wastes are those that bring potential kilogram and 0.3 kilogram everyday in the urban and
harm to life or the environment. Hospital and rural areas respectively.
mining wastes are classi ed as hazardous
because they are potential health hazards. They WASTE MANAGEMENT
are health hazards because they may contain
disease-causing components. Hazardous wastes CAUSES OF INCREASE IN SOLID WASTE
may also contain toxic substances. They may be 1. Population growth
found in a lot of household products. They can be 2. Increase in industrials manufacturing
classi ed as ammable or combustible, explosive, 3. Urbanization
corrosive and toxic. 4. Modernization, technological advancement, and an
increase in the global population created rising in
CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTES demand for food and other essentials
• Corrosive: these are wastes that include acids or
bases that are capable of corroding metal containers, MAJOR WASTE TREATMENT & DISPOSAL METHOD
e.g., acid, or alkaline solution, rust remover, battery • Incineration- is one of the most common waste
acid, and caustic hot tank waste. treatments. This approach involves the combustion of
• Ignitability: this is waste that can create res under waste material in the presence of oxygen. It is
certain conditions, e.g., waste oils and solvents. commonly used as a means of recovering energy for
• Reactive: these are unstable in nature, they cause electricity or heating. The advantages of this
explosions, toxic fumes when heated, e.g., lithium- approach are it is quickly reduced waste volume,
sulfur batteries and explosives. lessens transportation costs, and decreases harmful
• Toxicity: waste that is harmful or fatal when ingested greenhouse gas emissions.
or absorbed, e.g., the household products in homes • Open Burning- thermal waste treatment that is
that are improperly disposed of such as old batteries, environmentally harmful. The incinerators used have
pesticides, paint, and car oil. no pollution control devices. This method is still
• Non-Hazardous waste: is any type of industrial practiced by many local authorities internationally, as
waste which, according to regulations, cannot be it o ers an inexpensive solution to solid waste.
added to a dumpster or sewage line. e.g., garbage, • Sanitary Land lls- provide the most used waste
sludge, municipal trash. disposal solution that is desired to eliminate or
• Hazardous waste: The most common examples of reduce the risk of environmental or public health
hazardous waste found within the home include hazards due to waste disposal. These sites are
paints, batteries, solvents, cleaning agents, situated where land features work as natural bu ers
pesticides, heavy metals, and chemical sludges. between the environment and the land ll.
• Radioactive: high and low-level radioactive waste. • Composting- is another most frequently used waste
May include: disposal or treatment method which is the controlled
- Spent nuclear fuel. aerobic decomposition of organic waste materials by
- Fuel that has been withdrawn from a nuclear the action of small invertebrates and microorganisms.
reactor after use. • Anaerobic Digestion- also uses biological processes
- High-level radioactive wastes are the highly to decompose organic materials. Anaerobic
radioactive materials produced as a byproduct of digestion, however, uses oxygen and a bacteria free
the reactions that occur inside nuclear reactors environment to decompose the waste material where
composting must have air to enable the growth of
microbes.
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 • Open Dumping- piling up trash in a designated area NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF THE IMPROPER REMOVAL
and is thus the easiest method of waste disposal. AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE
Open dumps can support populations of organisms • Soil contamination- It does not only a ect plant
that house and transmit disease. A simple and growth, but it is also unhealthy to humans and
inexpensive method that involves the deliberate animals feeding on those plants.
disposal of garbage in an open space. • Air contamination- Waste that releases dioxins are
• Recycling- The conversion of waste material into also dangerous and pose a health risk when they
new products. It aims to reduce strain on the di use into the air that we breathe.
environment by minimizing the waste that is added to • Water contamination- Untreated sewages can
the water, air, and land. destroy and su ocate marine habitats, such as
• Proper waste disposal and management can be done corals. Contaminated water is also dangerous and
by applying the 3Rs- Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. harmful to humans who consume sh.
Reducing means lessening the amount of trash / • Bad impact on human health- Improper disposal of
garbage produced. Reusing involves the repeated waste can greatly a ect the health of the population
use of items or parts of items that still have usable living nearby the polluted area or land lls.
aspects. Recycling means the use of waste itself as • Impact on animals and marine life- The e ects of
a resource. pollution caused by improperly disposed wastes and
rubbish, Styrofoam, and cigarette butts have been
THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT KIND OF WASTE TO known to cause deaths in marine animals.
PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT • Disease-carrying pests- Mosquitoes breed in cans
• How is waste a ecting our environment? Disposing of and tires that collect water and can carry diseases
waste has huge environmental impacts and can such as malaria and dengue.
cause serious problems. Some waste will eventually • Adversely a ect the local economy- Land ll
rot, but not all. In the process, it may smell, or facilities that are mismanaged can cause the local
generate methane gas, which is explosive and economy to sink, which can then a ect the livelihood
contributes to the greenhouse e ect. of the locals.
• How does waste a ect people’s health? The more • Causes extreme climate changes- Decomposing
emissions we produce due to how much trash we waste emits gases that rise to the atmosphere and
generate, may a ect us in the long term. One can trap heat.
develop diseases like asthma, birth defects, cancer, • Missed recycling opportunities- There is revenue in
cardiovascular disease, childhood cancer, infectious recycling. Cities that do not implement proper
diseases, low birth weight, and preterm delivery. removal and recycling of wastes miss on this, miss
out on the resources that can be reused, and on the
SOURCES OF HUMAN EXPOSURES employment opportunities that a recycling center
1. Exposures occur through brings.
- Ingestion of contaminated water or food.
- Contact with disease vectors.
- Inhalation.
- Dermal
2. Points of contact, Soil adsorption, storage, and
biodegrading
3. Plant uptake
4. Ventilation
5. Runo
6. Leaching
7. Insects, birds, rats, ies, and animals
8. Direct dumping of untreated waste

IMPACTS OF SOLID WASTE ON HEALTH

• Chemical poisoning through chemical inhalation
• Uncollected waste can obstruct the storm water
runo resulting in a ood
• Cancer
• Congenital malformations
• Neurological disease
• Nausea and vomiting

IMPACTS OF SOLID WASTE ON ENVIRONMENT

• Waste breaks down in land lls to form methane, a
potent greenhouse gas
• Change in climate and destruction of the ozone layer
due to waste biodegradable
• Littering, due to waste pollutions, illegal dumping.
• Leaching is a process by which solid waste enters
soil or groundwater and contaminates them.
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