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46 views196 pages

Advanced Transportation Engg Ce 6thsem m1, m2, M3&m4-Merged

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parthsarthi1414
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LECTURE NOTE

ADVANCED TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING (PCI6J001)


6TH SEMESTER CIVIL ENGG.
INDIAN RAILWAYS
HISTORY & backgrounds

History of Indian Railways Introduction


In the year 1832 the first Railway running on steam engine, was launched in England.
Thereafter on 1st of August, 1849 the Great Indian Peninsular Railways Company was
established in India. On 17th of August 1849, a contract was signed between the Great Indian
Peninsular Railways Company and East India Company. As a result of the contract an
experiment was made by laying a railway track between Bombay and Thane (56 Kms).
฀ On 16th April, 1853, the first train service was started from Bombay to Thane.
฀ On 15th August, 1854, the 2nd train service commenced between Howrah and Hubli.
฀ On the 1st July, 1856, the 3rd train service in India and first in South India commenced
between Vyasarpadi and Walajah Road and on the same day the section between Vyasarpadi
and Royapuram by Madras Railway Company was also opened.

Subsequently construction of this efficient transport system began simultaneously in different


parts of the Country. By the end of 19th Century 24752 Kms. of rail track was laid for traffic.
At this juncture the power, capital, revenue rested with the British. Revenue started flowing
through passenger as well as through goods traffic.
Organizational structure Railway zones
Indian Railways is divided into several zones, which are further sub-divided into divisions.
The number of zones in Indian Railways increased from six to eight in 1951, nine in 1952
and sixteen in 2003. Each zonal railway is made up of a certain number of divisions, each
having a divisional headquarters. There are a total of sixty-eight divisions. Each of the sixteen
zones is headed by a general manager who reports directly to the Railway Board. The zones
are further divided into divisions under the control of divisional railway managers (DRM).

There are fourteen public undertakings under the administrative control of the Ministry of
Railways:
฀ Bharat Wagon and Engineering Co. Ltd. (BWEL)
฀ Centre for Railway Information Systems (CRIS)[24]
฀ Container Corporation of India Limited (CONCOR)
฀ Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Limited (DFCCIL)
฀ Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Limited (IRCTC)
฀ Indian Railway Construction (IRCON) International Limited
฀ Indian Railway Finance Corporation Limited (IRFC)
฀ Konkan Railway Corporation Limited (KRCL)
฀ Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation (MRVC)
฀ Railtel Corporation of India Limited (Rail Tel)
฀ Rail India Technical and Economic Services Limited (RITES)
฀ Rail Vikas Nigam Limited (RVNL)
฀ High Speed Rail Corporation of India (HSRC)
฀ Burn Standard Company
฀ Braithwaite and Co. Ltd
Railway is basically built for three reasons:
i- Economy.
ii- Safety.
iii- Military

Traffic on railway:
1- Fright traffic = 90% ( tons/ mile ).
2- Passenger traffic = 10% ( passenger / mile ).
Classification of Transport Systems on the basis of :
1- Surface of Transport
a- Land Transport
b- Water Transport
c- Air Transport

2- Degree of Freedom
a- System of one degree of freedom.
b- System of Two degree of freedom.
c- System of three degree of freedom.

Water Transport: provide facilities for transport of heavy and bulk commodities where time
may not be of movement importance.
Air Transport: obtains maximum utility where safely of time is almost importance rather
than the others.
Land Transport: door to door service.
** Railway Transport: have the greatest utilization in the transport of large volumes of
heavy and bulk commodities over long distance.
Revenues & Cost:
Capital Expenditure:
1- Road & Equipment ( R &E ).
2- Additions & Betterment.
3- Depreciation & Renewals.
Operation Expenditure:
1- Maintenance
a- Way. b- Structure. 20%
b- Equipment 25%
2- Transportation 45%
3- Administration 10%
Operation Revenues:
Mainly revenues is from fright traffic > 95%
And the other revenues is from passengers < 5%
** Operation ratio = Operation Expenditure / Operation Revenues
The ratio should be in minimum value

Historical devlopement
1844 1st proposal for construction in india by east

First five year plan (1951-56)

 The rehavitation of railway assetsa was the main objective of railway development
under the plan

 Hepled india in achiving self suffieniency

 Station & railway facilities were improved

 Chittaranjan locomotives & tata engg were worked these days

Second five year plan (1956-61)

 New lines were devloped, open & new locomotives & passengers coaches were
placed

 Progress in electrification of railway

 Some source of supply made for self sufficient facility

Third five year plan (1961-66)

 Locomotive, wagons, coaches were developed

 Complete track renewal, sleeper renewals


 Provision of railway electrification

 Many bridges, staff quarters, railway constructions and other facilities was
undertaken.

 There was a gap of 3 years of 3rd year plan 1966-69 as the govt wanted to review the
results of proceeding capacity

Fourth five year plan (1969-74)

It Develops with twin objectives

• Demonstration the railway

• Improving the operational efficiency of the system with more intensive utilisation of
existing assets

Fifth five year plan (1974-78)

 Main objective is to development of rapid transport system in metropolitan cities

 Improve the financial with cost reduction techniques, resource mobilisation &
optimum utilisation of assets & self sufficiency
PERMANENT WAY:

Permanent way:
The permanent way or railway track consist generally of two lines of parallel steel rails which
bear and guide the flanged wheel of cars and locomotive and which are support on tie plates,
ties (sleepers), resting on ballast and subgrade.

The Typical components are – Rails, – Sleepers (or ties), – Fasteners, – Ballast (or slab
track), – Subgrade
REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL PERMANENT WAY

The following are the principal requirements of an ideal permanent way or of a good railway
track :-

 The Gauge should be uniform, correct and it should not get altered.

 Both the rails should be at the same level on tangent (straight) portion of the track.

 Proper amount of superelevation should be provided

 Permanent way should be sufficiently strong against lateral forces.

 The Curves in the track, should be properly designed.

 Even and uniform gradient should be provided through out the length of the track.

 Tractive resistance should be minimum.

 The design of the permanent way should be such that the load of the train is uniformly
distributed on both the rails so as to prevent unequal settlement of the track.

 It Should provide adequate elasticity in order to prevent the harshness of impacts


between the rails and the moving wheel loads of a train.

 It should be free from excessive rail joints and all the joining should be properly
designed and constructed.

 All the components parts such as rails, sleepers, ballast, fixtures and fastenings, etc.
should satisfy the design requirements.

 All the fixtures and fastenings such as chairs, bearing plates, fish plates, fish bolts,
spikes etc. should be strong enough to withstand the stresses occurring in the track.

 The points and crossings, should be properly designed and carefully constructed.

 It should be provided with fence near level crossings and also in urban areas.

 There should be proper drainage facilities so as to drain off the rain water quickly
away from the track.

 There should be safe and strong bridges coming in the alignment of the track.

PROBLEMS OF MULTI GAUGE SYSTEM

• The need for uniformity of gauge has been recognized by all the advanced countries
of the world.

• A number of problems have cropped up in the operation of the Indian Railways


because of the multi-gauge system (use of three gauges).
• The ill effects of change of gauge (more popularly known as break of gauge) are
numerous; some of these are enumerated here.

UNI-GAUGE POLICY OF INDIAN RAILWAYS

Indian Railways therefore took the bold decision in 1992 of getting rid of the multi gauge
system and following the uni-gauge policy of adopting the broad gauge (1676 mm)
uniformly.

Benefits of Adopting BG (1676 mm) as the Uniform Gauge The uni-gauge system will
be highly beneficial to rail users, the railway administration, as well as to the nation.
Following are the advantages of a uni-system:

No transport bottlenecks There will be no transport bottlenecks after a uniform gauge is


adopted and this will lead to improved operational efficiency resulting in fast movement
of goods and passengers.

No trans-shipment hazards

No Hazards Of Trans-shipment and as such no delays, no damage to goods, no


inconvenience to passengers of transfer from one train to another train.

Provisions of alternate routes Through a uni-gauge policy, alternate routes will be


available for free movement of traffic and there will be less pressure on the existing BG
network. This is expected to result in long-haul road traffic reverting to the railways.

Better turnaround a better turnaround of wagons and locomotives, and their usage will
improve the operating ratio of the railway system as a whole that result the community
will be benefited immensely

Improved utilization of track There will be improved utilization of tracks and reduction
in the operating expenses of the railway. Balanced economic growth The areas currently
served by the MG will receive an additional fillip, leading to the removal of regional
disparities and balancing economic growth.

No multiple tracking works The uni-gauge project will eliminate the need for certain
traffic facilities and multiple tracking works, which will offset the cost of gauge
conversions to a certain extent.

Better transport infrastructure Some of the areas served by the MG have the potential
of becoming highly industrialized; skilled manpower is also available. The uni-gauge
policy will help in providing these areas a better transportation infrastructure. Boosting
investor's confidence With the liberalization of the economic policy, the uni-gauge
projects of Indian Railways will help in boosting the investors' confidence that their
goods will be distributed throughout the country in time and without any hindrance. This
will also help in setting up industries in areas not yet exploited because of the lack of
infrastructure facilities
1- RAILS:
a- General.
1. Rails are steel girders which provide the hard and smooth surface for movement of
wheels of a locomotive and railway vehicles.
2. They are made of high carbon steel to withstand wear and tear.
3. Flat – footed rails are mostly used in railway track.

b- Functions.
 Rails provide hard, smooth and unchanging surface for passage of heavy moving
loads with minimum friction between steel rail and steel wheel
 Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, lateral and braking
forces and thermal stresses
 The rail material used is such that it gives minimum wear to avoid replacement
charges and failure due to wear
 Rails transmit the loads to sleepers and consequently reduce pressure on ballast and
formation below

Composition of rail steel


For ordinary rails Carbon (C) - 0.55 to 0.68 percent
Manganese (Mn) - 0.65 to 0.9

percent Silicon (Si) - 0.05 to 0.3


percent Sulphur (S) – 0.05 percent or below
Phosphorus (P) – 0.06 percent or below

For rails at points and crossings


Carbon (C) - 0.5 to 0.6 percent
Manganese (Mn) - 0.95 to 1.25 percent

Silicon (Si) - 0.05 to 0.2 percent


Sulphur (S) – 0.06 percent or below
Phosphorus (P) – 0.06 percent or below

REQUIREMENTS OF RAILS

 Rails should be designed for optimum nominal weight to provide for the most efficient
distribution of metal in its various components
 The vertical stiffness should be high enough to transmit load to sleepers. The height of the
rail should be adequate
 Rails should be capable of withstanding lateral forces. Large width of head and foot
provides the rail with high lateral stiffness
 The depth of head of rail should be sufficient to allow for adequate margin of vertical
wear. The wearing surface should be hard
 The web of rails should be sufficiently thick to bear the load coming to it and should
provide adequate flexural rigidity in horizontal plane
 Foot should be wide enough so that the rails are stable against overturning especially on
curves
 Bottom of the head and top of foot should be so as to enable the fish plates to transmit the
vertical load efficiently from the head to the foot at rail joint
 The centre of gravity of rail section must lie approximately at mid height so that
maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal
 The tensile strength of the rail piece should not be less than 72kg/mm2.
 To bring down the contact stresses to minimum level, the contact area between the rail
and wheel should be as large as possible

TYPES OF RAIL SECTIONS:

DOUBLE HEADED RAILS

First stage of development of rails. It consists of 3 main parts:

 Upper table

 Web

 Lower table
It is Similar to dumb bell section. Both upper and lower tables are identical When upper
table was worn out, the rail can be reversed thus lower table can be brought into use It is
Practically out of use It is Made of wrought iron The Length of the rail varying from 610
cm to 732 cm

BULL HEADED RAIL


It is Made up of steel. The Head part is larger than foot. The Foot is designed only to hold the
wooden keys with which rails are secured to chairs. It is Extensively used in England. The
Weight of standard rail or British rail is 47 kg/m of length for main lines and 42 kg/m length
on branch lines. The Length of rail usually 18.29 m

FLAT FOOTED RAIL


Foot is spread out to form a base. This rail was Invented by Charles Vignoles in 1836 and
hence also known as ―Vignoles Rails‖. Recently 90 % of railway track is made up of flat
footed rails

Advantages of flat footed rails


Chairs
No chairs are required
Foot of rail directly spiked to sleepers
Stiffness
Vertically and laterally stiffer than BHR of equal weight especially on curves
Kinks
Less liable to develop kinks and maintains regular top surface than BHR
Cost
Cheaper than BHR
Load distribution
Distributes loads over large area
Results great track stability, longer life of rails and sleepers, reduced maintenance
cost, less rail failures and few interruptions to traffic

d- Selection of rails.
A rail is designated by its weight per unit length. The various important factors
to be considered in deciding the weight of rails to be used are the following:
1- Speed of train.
2- The gauge of the track.
3- The axle load and nature of traffic.
4- Type of rails whether D.H. or B.H. or F.F. rails.

5- Spacing of sleepers or sleeper density.


6- Maximum permissible wear on top of rails. (5 percent of the weight of rail is allowed).

e- Length of rails.
The rails of larger length are preferred to smaller length of rails, because they give more
strength and economy for a railway track. The weakest point of track is the joint between two
rails. Lesser the number of joints, lesser would be the number of fish plates and this would
lead to less maintenance cost, smooth running of trains and comfort to the passengers. Length
of rail jointed shall not be less than 15 m long and desirable length is 36m.

— On Indian Railways the standard lengths are the following:

— Length = 12.80 m. (42 ft.) for BG (say 13 m) and

— Length = 11.89 m. (39 ft.) for MG (say 12 m)

DEFECTS IN RAILS

Wear On Rails

The metal from top of rail flows and forms projections. These are known as ―BURRS‖

Causes:
 The rails are worn out on top due to abrasion of rolling wheels over them
 The heavy wheel loads are concentrated on very small areas – results into
flow of metal from top
 Due t to Impact of heavy wheel load
 Due to the Grinding action of sand particles between rails and wheels

Wear of rails on top or head of rail

Causes:

• The corrosion of metal of rails especially near sea

• The metal on top of rail burns during starting when the wheels slip or when
brakes are applied to the moving trains

Wear of rails at end of rails

• Takes place at end of rail

• Much greater than wear at top of rails

• At expansion gap the wheels of the vehicle have to take a jump and during this jump,
they impart a blow to the end of rail – causes wear of rail at end

• Wear due to high static pressure combined with impact blows

• End of rail gets battered – causes rough riding in the track, loosens the ballast under
joints and disturbs sleeper

Wear of rails at end of rails

Causes:

• Due to Loose fish plates & fish bolts

• Due to Heavy loads & large joint openings

• Due to Difference in rail levels at joints

• Due to Small wheels


• Due to Bad condition of vehicle springs

• Due to Poor maintenance of track

Wear of rails on the sides of rail head

The wear on inner side of head of inner rail is due to slipping action of wheel on curves

Allowable limits of wear

In India, prescribed limit for wear is 5 % of rail weight. Allowable wear of 25 % of the
section of head is also exceptionally adopted

Methods adopted to reduce wear of rails

wear of rails can be reduced by

 Use of special alloy steel


 Good maintenance of track
 Reduction of expansion gap
 Exchange of inner and outer rails on curves
 Introducing check rails
 Use of lubricating oil
 Head hardened rails

RAIL FEATURES/FAILURES

• Corrugation

• Rail End Battens

• Broken Base

• Flaking

• Piped Rail

• Shelling

• Split Heads

• Split Web

• Square or Angular Break

• Horizontal Fissures

• Transverse Fissures
• Flowing Metal in Heads

• Horizontal Cracks

CORRUGATED OR ROARING RAILS

In certain places, head of rails are found to be corrugated rather than smooth and straight,
when the vehicles pass over such rails, a roaring sound is created which is intense enough to
be unpleasant.

Hogged Rails

Due to battering action of wheels over the end of the rails, the rails get bent down and get
deflected at the ends. These rails are called hogged rails. Measures taken to rectify the
hogged rails are:

1. Cropping

2. Replacing

3. Welding

4. Dehogging

Kinks In Rails

When the ends of adjoining rails move slightly out of position, ―shoulders‖ or ―kinks‖ are
formed.

Measures taken to rectify kinks in rails:

1. By correcting alignment at joints and at curved locations.

2. Proper packing of joints.

3. Proper maintenance of the track periodically in repect of cross levels, gauge,


alignment, welding of worn out portions etc.
Buckling of Rails

Buckling means the track has gone out of its original position or alignment due to prevention
of expansion of rails in hot weather on account of temperature variations.

Damaged Rails

These are the rails which should be removed on account of their becoming unsafe for a
railway track.
REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL RAIL JOINT

An ideal rail joint provides the same strength and stiffness as the parent rail. The
characteristics of an ideal rail joint are briefly summarized here.

Holding the rail ends: An ideal rail joint should hold both the rail ends in their precise
location in the horizontal as well as the vertical planes to provide as much continuity in the
track as possible. This helps in avoiding wheel jumping or the deviation of the wheel from its
normal path of movement.

Strength: An ideal rail joint should have the same strength and stiffness as the parent rails it
joins.

Expansion gap:The joint should provide an adequate expansion gap for the free expansion
and contraction of rails caused by changes in temperature Flexibility It should provide
flexibility for the easy replacement of rails, whenever required.

Provision for wear:It should provide for the wear of the rail ends, which is likely to occur
under normal operating conditions.

Elasticity:It should provide adequate elasticity as well as resistance to longitudinal forces so


as to ensure a trouble-free track.

Cost:The initial as well as maintenance costs of an ideal rail joint should be minimal.

Rail joint
Rail joints are the steel sections connecting the adjacent ends of rails, in distinction from a
chair, which is merely a seat. Following are the types of rail joints:

(1) Supported rail joints: When the rail ends rest on a single sleeper it is termed as
supported joint. The duplex joint sleeper with other sleepers is an example of the supported
joint.

(2) Suspended rail joint: When rail ends are projected beyond sleepers it is termed as
suspended joint. This type of joint is generally used with timber and steel through sleepers.

(3) Bridge joints: When the rail ends are projected beyond sleepers as in the case of
suspended joint and they are connected by a flat or corrugated plate called as bridge plate it is
termed as a bridge joint.

(4) Compromise joint: Where two different rail sections are required to be joined together it
is done by means of fishplates which fit both rails and this joint is termed as compromise
joint.

(5) Welded joint: To increase length of rails and to reduce the number of fish plate joints, the
rails are welded together by suitable type of welding and hence it is known as welded rail
joints.

Insulated joint

Expansion joint
GAUGE IN RAILWAY TRACK:

Gauge in Railway Track:


The gauge of a railway track is defined as
Track gauge is the clear distance between the inside heads of rail 5/8 in below the top of rail.
The distance between the inner faces of a pair of wheels is called Wheel gauge.
The different gauges types are:
1- Standard gauge = 1435 mm or 1451mm.
2- Broad (wide) gauge = 1676 mm ,1600mm, or 1524mm.
3- Meter gauge = 1000 mm or 1069mm.
4- Narrow gauge = 762mm or 610 mm

DIFFERENT GAUGES ON INDIAN RAILWAYS

Broad Gauge: - When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel
rails forming a track is 1676mm the gauge is called Broad Gauge (B.G) This gauge is also
known as standard gauge of India and is the broadest gauge of the world. The Other countries
using the Broad Gauge are Pakistan, Bangladesh, SriLanka, Brazil, Argentine, etc.50%
India‗s railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.

Suitability: - Broad gauge is suitable under the following Conditions:-

(i) When sufficient funds are available for the railway project.

(ii) When the prospects of revenue are very bright. This gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in
plain areas which are densely populated i.e. for routes of maximum traffic, intensities and at
places which are centers of industry and commerce.

2. Metre Gauge: - When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel
rails forming a track is 1000mm, the gauge is known as Metre Gauge (M.G) The other
countries using Metre gauge are France, Switzerland, Argentine, etc. 40% of India‗s railway
tracks have been laid to this gauge. Suitability:- Metre Gauge is suitable under the following
conditions:-

(i) When the funds available for the railway project are inadequate.
(ii) When the prospects of revenue are not very bright. This gauge is, therefore, used for
tracks in under-developed areas and in interior areas, where traffic intensity is small
and prospects for future development are not very bright.

3. Narrow Gauge:- When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel
rails forming a track is either 762mm or 610mm, the gauge is known as Narrow gauge (N.G)
The other countries using narrow gauge are Britain, South Africa, etc. 10% of India‗s railway
tracks have been laid to this gauge. Suitability: - Narrow gauge is suitable under the
following conditions:-

(i) When the construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited due to the provision of
sharp curves, steep gradients, narrow bridges and tunnels etc.

(ii) When the prospects of revenue are not very bright. This gauge is, therefore, used in hilly
and very thinly populated areas. The feeder gauge is commonly used for feeding raw
materials to big government manufacturing concerns as well as to private factories such as
steel plants, oil refineries, sugar factories, etc.

CHOICE OF GAUGE The choice of gauge is very limited, as each country has a fixed
gauge and all new railway lines are constructed to adhere to the standard gauge. However, the
following factors theoretically influence the choice of the gauge: Cost considerations There is
only a marginal increase in the cost of the track if a wider gauge is adopted. In this
connection, the following points are important

(a) There is a proportional increase in the cost of acquisition of land, earthwork, rails,
sleepers, ballast, and other track items when constructing a wider gauge.

(b) The cost of building bridges, culverts, and runnels increases only marginally due to a
wider gauge.

(c) The cost of constructing station buildings, platforms, staff quarters, level crossings,
signals, etc., associated with the railway network is more or less the same for all gauges.

(d) The cost of rolling stock is independent of the gauge of the track for carrying the same
volume of traffic. Traffic considerations The volume of traffic depends upon the size of
wagons and the speed and hauling capacity of the train. Thus, the following points need to be
considered. (a) As a wider gauge can carry larger wagons and coaches, it can theoretically
carry more traffic. (b) A wider gauge has a greater potential at higher speeds, because speed
is a function of the diameter of the wheel, which in turn is limited by the width of the gauge.
As a thumb rule, diameter of the wheel is kept 75 per cent of gauge width. (c) The type of
traction and signalling equipment required are independent of the gauge. Physical features of
the country It is possible to adopt steeper gradients and sharper curves for a narrow gauge as
compared to a wider gauge. Uniformity of gauge The existence of a uniform gauge in a
country enables smooth, speedy, and efficient operation of trains. Therefore, a single gauge
should be adopted irrespective of the minor advantages of a wider gauge and the few
limitations of a narrower gauge.
SLEEPERS

SLEEPERS Introduction Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails.
They have an important role in the track as they transmit the wheel load from the rails to the
ballast. Several types of sleepers are used on Indian Railways. The characteristics of these
sleepers and their suitability with respect to load conditions are described in this section.
REQUIREMENTS OF SLEEPERS

The main functions of sleepers are as follows:

(a) Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment

(b) Giving a firm and even support to the rails

(c) Transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider area of the ballast

(d) Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and the ballast to absorb the blows and
vibrations caused by moving loads

(e) Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the permanent way

(f) Providing the means to rectify the track geometry during their service life

(g) The initial as well as maintenance cost should be minimum.

(h) The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is convenient to handle.

(i) The designs of the sleeper and the fastenings should be such that it is possible to fix and
remove the rails easily.

(j) The sleeper should have sufficient bearing area so that the ballast under it is not crushed.
(k) The sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and adjust the gauge properly

(l) The material of the sleeper and its design should be such that it does not break or get
damaged during packing. g) The design of the sleeper should be such that it is possible to
have track circuiting.

(j) The sleeper should be capable of resisting vibrations and shocks caused by the passage of
fast moving trains,

(k) The sleeper should have anti-sabotage and anti-theft features.

FUNCTIONS.

1- To hold the rails to proper gauge.


2- To hold the rails in proper level or transverse tilt.
3- To interpose an elastic medium between the ballast and rails.
4- To distribute the load from rails to the ballast underlying it or to the girders in case of
bridges.
5- To support the rails at a proper level in straight tracks and at proper superelevation
on curves.
6- Sleepers also add to the general stability of the permanent track on the whole.
c- Classification of sleepers:
Sleepers can be classified according to the material uses in their construction, in
the following:
1- Wooden sleepers.
2- Metal sleepers.
a- Cast-iron sleepers.
b- Steel sleepers.
3- Concrete sleepers.
a- Reinforced concrete sleepers.
b- Prestressed concrete sleepers.

1- Timber or wooden sleepers:


Wooden sleepers are regarded to be best as they fulfill almost all the require-ments of an
ideal sleeper. The life of timber sleepers depends on their ability to resist wearing, decay,
attack by vermin i.e., white ants, and quality of the tim-ber used. Following are the
advantages and disadvantages of using wooden sleepers.
Advantages:-
1- Fittings for wooden sleepers are few and simple in design.
2- These sleepers are able to resist the shocks and vibrations due to heavy moving loads and
give less noisy track.
3- Wooden sleepers are easy to lay, relay, pack, lift and maintain.
4- These wooden sleepers are suitable for all types of ballast.
5- They are best for track-circuited operations as wooden sleepers are over all economical.
Disadvantages:-
1- The sleepers are subjected to wear, decay, attack by white ants, cracking and splitting, rail
cutting, etc.
2- It is difficult to maintain the gauge in case of wooden sleepers.
3- Track is easily disturbed i.e., alignment maintenance is difficult.
4- Wooden sleepers have got minimum life (12 to 15 years) as compared to other types of
sleepers.
5- Maintenance cost of wooden sleepers is highest as compared to other sleep-ers.

2- Metal sleepers:-
Metal sleepers are either of steel or cast-iron. Cast-iron is in greater use than steel for sleepers
because it is less prone to corrosion.
Advantages:-
1- Metal sleepers are uniform in strength and durability.
2- In metal sleepers, the performance of fitting is better and lesser creep oc-curs.
3- Metal sleepers are economical, as life is longer and maintenance is easier.
4- Gauge can be easily adjusted and maintained in case of metal sleepers.
Disadvantages:-
1- More ballast are required than other type of sleepers.
2- Fittings are greater in number.
3- Metal, C.I. or steel are liable to rust.
4- Metal being good conductor of electricity interferes with track circuiting.

5- Metal sleepers are unsuitable for bridges, level crossing and in case of points and
crossings.
6- Metal sleepers are only suitable for stone ballast.

3- Concrete sleeper:-
These sleepers are mainly of two types
a- Reinforced concrete sleepers.
b- Pre-stressed concrete sleepers.
Experiments have been proved that concrete is an ideal material for the sleepers for the
following reasons:
They are made of a strong homogeneous material, impervious to effect of moisture, and is
unaffected by the chemical attack of atmospheric gases or sub-soil salts.
Advantages :-
1- These sleepers free from natural decay and attack by insects.
2- They have maximum life compared with the other sleepers. And life under normal
conditions is (40 to 60 years).
3- This is not affected by moisture, chemical action of ballast, and sub-soil salts.
4- There is no difficulty in the circuiting.
5- The high weight of sleepers helps in minimizing joint maintenance by providing longer
welded lengths, greater stability of the track and better re-sistance against temperature rise.
6- The sleepers have higher elastic modulus and can resist the stresses intro-duced by fast and
heavy traffic.
Disadvantages:-
1- The weight of concrete sleeper is as high as 2.5 to 3 times of wooden sleep-er.
2- These sleepers require pads and plugs for spikes.
3- They damage the bottom edge during the packing.
SLEEPER DENSITY AND SPACING OF SLEEPERS Sleeper density is the number of
sleepers per rail length. It is specified as (M + x) or (N + x), where M or N is the length of the
rail in metres and x is a number that varies according to factors such as (a) axle load and
speed, (b) type and section of rails, (c) type and strength of the sleepers, (d) type of ballast
and depth of ballast cushion, and (e) nature of formation. If the sleeper density is M+ 7 on a
broad gauge route and the length of the rail is 13 m, it implies that 13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will
be used per rail length of the track on that route. The number of sleepers in a track can also be
specified by indicating the number of sleepers per kilometre of the track, for example, 1540
sleepers/km. This specification becomes more relevant particularly in cases where rails are
welded and the length of the rail does not have much bearing on the number of sleepers
required. This system of specifying the number of sleepers per kilometre exists in many
foreign countries and is now being adopted on Indian Railways as well. The spacing of
sleepers is fixed depending upon the sleeper density. Spacing is not kept uniform throughout
the rail length. It is closer near the joints because of the weakness of the joints and impact of
moving loads on them. There is, however, a limitation to the close spacing of the sleepers, as
enough space is required for working the beaters that are used to pack the joint sleepers. The
standard spacing specifications adopted for a fish-plated-track on Indian Railways are given
in Table below. The notations used in this table are explained in Fig. Below.

TYPES OF SLEEPERS The sleepers mostly used on Indian Railways are (i) wooden
sleepers, (ii) cast iron (CI) sleepers, (iii) steel sleepers, and (iv) Concrete sleepers.

BALLAST AND BALLAST REQUIREMENTS

Introduction Ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, rnoorum, or any other granular
material placed and packed below and around sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers
to the formation. It provides drainage as well as longitudinal and lateral stability to the track.
Different types of ballast materials and their specifications are discussed in this chapter.
FUNCTIONS OF BALLAST

The ballast serves the following functions in a railway track.

• It provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on.

• It holds the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.

• It transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to a large area of the formation.

• It provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.

• It provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal and lateral stability.

• It provides effective drainage to the track.

• It provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of the track.

Function of Ballast.
1- Distribute loads uniformly over the subgrade.
2- To hold track structure to line and grade, (prevent or reduce possibility of buckling).
3- To reduce the excess pore water pressure developed in clay subgrade.
4- To provide good drainage of track structure.
5- To reduce dust.
6- To prevent growth of brash and weeds.
7- Reduce frost heave.
8- Simplify the maintenance operations.

TYPES OF BALLAST

The different types of ballast used on Indian Railways are described here.

Sand ballast Sand ballast is used primarily for cast iron (CI) pots. It is also used with wooden.

steel trough sleepers in areas where traffic densitv is verv low. Coarse sand is preferred in
comparison to fine sand. It has good drainage properties, but has the drawback of blowing off
because of being light. It also causes excessive wear of the rail top and the moving parts of
the rolling stock.

Moorum ballast The decomposition of laterite results in the formation of moorum. It is red,
and sometimes yellow, in colour. The moorum ballast is normally used as the initial ballast in
new constructions and also as sub-ballast. As it prevents water from percolating into the
formation, it is also used as a blanketing material for black cotton soil.

Coal ash or cinder This type of ballast is normally used in yards and sidings or as the initial
ballast in new constructions since it is very cheap and easily available. It is harmful for steel
sleepers and fittings because of its corrosive action.

Broken stone ballast This type of ballast is used the most on Indian Railways. Good stone
ballast is generally procured from hard stones such as granite, quartzite, and hard trap. The
quality of stone should be such that neither it should be porous nor it flake off due to the
weathering. Good quality hard stone is normally used for high-speed tracks. This type of
ballast works out to be economical in the long run.

Other types of ballast There are other types of ballast also such as the brickbat ballast, gravel
ballast, kankar stone ballast, and even earth ballast. These types of ballast are used only in
special circumstances. The comparative advantages, disadvantages, and suitability of
different types of ballast are given in Table below

SIZES OF BALLAST Previously, 50 mm (2") ballasts were specified for flat-bottom


sleepers such as concrete and wooden sleepers, and 40 mm (1.5") ballasts for metal sleepers
such as CST-9 and trough sleepers. Now, to ensure uniformity, 50 mm (2") ballasts have
been adopted universally for all types of sleepers. Points and crossings are subjected to heavy
blows of moving loads and hence are maintained to a higher degree of precision. A small
sized, 25 mm (1") ballast: s. therefore, preferable because of its fineness for slight
adjustments, better compaction, and increased frictional area of the ballast. For uniformity
sake, the Indian Railways has adopted the same standard size of ballast for the main line as
well as for points and crossings.

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD BALLAST Ballast material should possess the following


properties,

a) It should be tough and wear resistant.

b) It should be hard so that it does not get crushed under the moving loads,

c) It should be generally cubical with sharp edges.

d) It should be non-porous and should not absorb water. e) It should resist both attrition and
abrasion.

f) It should be durable and should not get pulverized or disintegrated under adverse weather
conditions

g) It should allow for good drainage of water,

h) It should be cheap and economical.

DESIGN OF BALLAST SECTION The design of the ballast section includes the
determination of the depth of the ballast cushion below the sleeper and its profile. These
aspects are discussed as follows. Minimum Depth of Ballast Cushion The load on the sleeper
is transferred through the medium of the ballast to the formation. The pressure distribution in
the ballast section depends upon the size and shape of the ballast and the degree of
consolidation. Though the lines of equal pressure are in the shape of a bulb as discussed in,
yet for simplicity, the dispersion of load can be assumed to be roughly 45° to the vertical. In
order to ensure that the load is transferred evenly on the formation, the depth of the ballast
should be such that the dispersion lines do not overlap each other. For the even distribution of
load on the formation, the depth of the ballast is determined by the following formula:
Sleeper spacing = width of the sleeper + 2 x depth of ballast

FORMATION

Subgrade is the naturally occuring soil which is prepared to receive the ballast. The prepared
flat surface, which is ready to receive the ballast, along with sleeps and rails, is called the
formation. The formation is an important constituent of the track, as it supports the entire
track structure.

It has the following functions:

(a) It provides a smooth and uniform bed for laying the track.

(b) It bears the load transmitted to it from the moving load through the balla

(c) It facilitates drainage. (d) It provides stability to the track.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORMATION

The formation can be in the shape of an embankment or a cutting. When formation is in the
shape of a raised bank constructed above the natural ground, it is called an embankment. The
formation at a level below the natural ground is called a cutting. Normally, a cutting or an
excavation is made through a hilly or natural ground for providing the railway line at the
required level below the ground level. The formation (Fig. below) is prepared either by
providing additional earthwork over the existing ground to make an embankment or by
excavating the existing ground surface to make a cutting. The formation can thus be in the
shape of either an embankment or a cutting. The height of the formation depends upon the
ground contours and the gradients adopted. The side slope of the embankment depends upon
the shearing strength of the soil and its angle of repose. The width of the formation depends
upon the number of tracks to be laid, the gauge, and such other factors. The recommended
widths of formation as adopted on Indian Railway BG MG. and NG are given

CREEP OF RAIL

Creep is defined as the longitudinal movement of the rail with respect to the sleepers. Rails
have a tendency to gradually move in the direction of dominant traffic. Creep is common to
all railway tracks, but its magnitude varies considerably from place to place; the rail may
move by several centimeters in a month at few places, while at other locations the movement
may be almost negligible.

THEORIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CREEP

Various theories have been put forward to explain the phenomenon of creep and its causes,
but none of them have proved to be satisfactory. The important theories are briefly discussed
in the following subsections.

Wave Motion Theory According to wave motion theory, wave motion is set up in the
resilient track because of moving loads, causing a deflection in the rail under the load. The
portion of the rail immediately under the wheel gets slightly depressed due to the wheel load.
Therefore, the rails generally have a wavy formation.
Percussion Theory

According to percussion theory, creep is developed due to the impact of wheels at the rail end
ahead of a joint. As the wheels of the moving train leave the trailing rail at the joint, the rail
gets pushed forward causing it to move longitudinally in the direction of traffic, and that is
how creep develops. Though the impact of a single wheel may be nominal, the continuous
movement of several wheels passing over the joint pushes the facing or landing rail forward,
thereby causing creep.

Drag Theory According to drag theory, the backward thrust of the driving wheels of a
locomotive has the tendency to push the rail backwards, while the thrust of the other wheels
of the locomotive and trailing wagons pushes the rail in the direction in which the locomotive
is moving. This results in the longitudinal movement of the rail in the direction of traffic,
thereby causing creep.

CAUSES OF CREEP

The main factors responsible for the development of creep are as follows. Ironing effect of
the wheel The ironing effect of moving wheels on the waves formed in the rail tends to cause
the rail to move in the direction of traffic, resulting in creep. Starting and stopping operations
When a train starts or accelerates, the backward thrust of its wheels tends to push the rail
backwards. Similarly, when the train slows down or comes to a halt, the effect of the applied
brakes tends to push the rail forward. This in turn causes creep in one direction or the other.
Changes in temperature Creep can also develop due to variations in temperature resulting in
the expansion and contraction of the rail. Creep occurs frequently during hot weather
conditions. Unbalanced traffic In a double-line section, trains move only in one direction, i.e.,
each track is unidirectional. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of traffic. In a single-
line section, even though traffic moves in both directions, the volume of traffic in each
direction is normally variable. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of predominant
traffic. Poor maintenance of track Some minor factors, mostly relating to poor maintenance
of the track, also contribute to the development of creep. These are as follows:

• Improper securing of rails to sleepers

• Limited quantities of ballast resulting in inadequate ballast resistance to the movement of


sleepers

• Improper expansion gaps

• Badly maintained rail joints

• Rail seat wear in metal sleeper track

• Rails too light for the traffic carried on them

• Yielding formations that result in uneven cross levels

• Other miscellaneous factors such as lack of drainage, and loose packing, uneven spacing of
sleepers

EFFECTS OF CREEP The following are the common effects of creep. Sleepers out of
square The sleepers move out of their position as a result of creep and become out of square.
This in turn affects the gauge and alignment of the track, which finally results in unpleasant
rides. Expansion in gaps get disturbed Due to creep, the expansion gaps widen at some places
and close at others. This results in the joints getting jammed. Undue stresses are created in the
fish plates and bolts, which affect the smooth working of the switch expansion joints in the
case of long welded rails. Distortion of points and crossings Due to excessive creep, it
becomes difficult to maintain the correct gauge and alignment of the rails at points and
crossings. Difficulty in changing rails If, due to operational reasons, it is required that the rail
be changed, the same becomes difficult as the new rail is found to be either too short or too
long because of creep. Effect on interlocking The interlocking mechanism of the points and
crossings pets disturbed bv creep. Possible buckling of track If the creep is excessive and
there is negligence in the maintenance of the track, the possibility of buckling of the track
cannot be ruled out. Other effects There are other miscellaneous effects of creep such as
breaking of bolts and kinks in the alignment, which occur in various situations.

MEASUREMENT OF CREEP Creep can be measured with the help of a device called creep
indicator. It consists of two creep posts, which are generally rail pieces that are driven at 1
km intervals on either side of the track. For the purpose of easy measurement, their top level
is generally at the same level as the rail. Using a chisel, a mark is made at the side of the
bottom flange of the rail on either side of the track. A fishing string is then stretched between
the two creep posts and the distance between the chisel mark and the string is taken as the
amount of creep. According to the prescribed stipulations, creep should be measured at
intervals of about three months and noted in a prescribed register, which is to be maintained
by the permanent way inspector (PWI). Creep in excess of 150 mm (6 in.) should not be
permitted on any track and not more than six consecutive rails should be found jammed in a
single-rail track at one location. There should be no creep in approaches to points and
crossings.

ADJUSTMENT OF CREEP When creep is in excess of 150 mm resulting in maintenance


problems, the same should be adjusted by pulling the rails back. This work is carried out after
the required engineering signals have been put up and the necessary caution orders given.
The various steps involved in the adjustment of creep are as follows:

(i) A careful survey of the expansion gaps and of the current position of rail joints is
carried out.
(ii) The total creep that has been proposed to be adjusted and the correct expansion
gap that is to be kept are decided in advance.
(iii) The fish plates at one end are loosened and those at the other end are removed.
Sleeper fittings, i.e., spikes or keys, are also loosened or removed.
(iv) The rails are then pulled back one by one with the help of a rope attached to a
hook. The pulling back should be regulated in such a way that the rail joints
remain central and suspended on the joint sleepers. The pulling back of rails is a
slow process since only one rail is dealt with at a time and can be done only for
short isolated lengths of a track. Normally, about 40-50 men are required per
kilometre for adjusting creep. When creep is required to be adjusted for longer
lengths, five rail lengths are tackled at a time. The procedure is almost the same as
the preceding steps except that instead of pulling the rails with i rope, a blow is
given to them using a cut rail piece of a length of about 5 m

RAILWAY ALIGNMENT INTRODUCTION

Geometric design of a railway track discusses all those parameters which affect the
geometry of the track. These parameters are as follows: 1. Gradients in the track,
including grade compensation, rising gradient, and falling gradient 2. Curvature of the
track, including horizontal and vertical curves, transition curves, sharpness of the curve in
terms of radius or degree of the curve, cant or superelevation on curves, etc. 3. Alignment
of the track, including straight as well as curved alignment It is very important for tracks
to have proper geometric design in order to ensure the safe and smooth running of trains
at maximum permissible speeds, carrying the heaviest axle loads. The speed and axle load
of the train are very important and sometimes are also included as parameters to be
considered while arriving at the geometric design of the track.

NECESSITY FOR GEOMETRIC DESIGN The need for proper geometric design of a
track arises because of the following considerations:

(a) To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains

(b) To achieve maximum speeds


(c) To carry heavy axle loads

(d) To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent way

(e) To ensure that the track requires least maintenance

(f) For good aesthetics

DETAILS OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRACK The geometric design of the track


deals with alignment of railway track and Curves Details regarding curves and their
various aspects.

GRADIENTS Gradients are provided to negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railway
track. A rising gradient is one in which the track rises in the direction of movement of traffic
and in a down or falling gradient the track loses elevation the direction of movement of traffic

A gradient is normally represented by the distance travelled for a rise or fall of one unit.
Sometimes the gradient is indicated as per cent rise or fall. For example, if there is a rise of 1
m in 400 m, the gradient is 1 in 400 or 0.25 per cent.

Gradients are provided to meet the following objectives:

(a) To reach various stations at different elevations

(b) To follow the natural contours of the ground to the extent possible

(c) To reduce the cost of earthwork

The following types of gradients are used on the railways:

(a) Ruling gradient

(b) Pusher or helper gradient

(c) Momentum gradient

(d) Gradients in station yards Ruling Gradient

Ruling Gradient

The ruling gradient is the steepest gradient that exists in a section. It determines the
maximum load that can be hauled by a locomotive on that section. While deciding the ruling
gradient of a section, it is not only the severity of the gradient, but also its length as well as its
position with respect to the gradients on both sides that have to be taken into consideration.
The power of the locomotive to be put into service on the track also plays an important role in
taking this decision, as the locomotive should have adequate power to haul the entire load
over the ruling gradient at the maximum permissible speed. In plain terrain: 1 in 150 to 1 in
250 In hilly terrain: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150 Once a ruling gradient has been specified for a
section, all other gradients provided in that section should be flatter than the ruling gradient
after making due compensation for curvature.
Pusher or Helper Gradient In hilly areas, the rate of rise of the terrain becomes very
important when trying to reduce the length of the railway line and, therefore, sometimes,
gradients steeper than the ruling gradient are provided to reduce the overall cost. In such
situations, one locomotive is not adequate to pull the entire load, and an extra locomotive is
required.

When the gradient of the ensuing section is so steep as to necessitate the use of an extra
engine for pushing the train, it is known as a pusher or helper gradient. Examples of pusher
gradients are the Budni-Barkhera section of Central Railway and the Darjeeling Himalayan
Railway section.

Momentum Gradient The momentum gradient is also steeper than the ruling gradient and
can be overcome by a train because of the momentum it gathers while running on the
section. In valleys, a falling gradient is sometimes followed by a rising gradient. In such a
situation, a train coming down a falling gradient acquires good speed and momentum, which
gives additional kinetic energy to the train and allows it to negotiate gradients steeper than
the ruling gradient. In sections with momentum gradients there are no obstacles provided in
the form of signals, etc., which may bring the train to a critical juncture.

Gradients in Station Yards The gradients in station yards are quite flat due to the following
reasons:

(a) It prevents standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard due to the
combined effect of gravity and strong winds.

(b) It reduces the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to the extent
possible. It may be mentioned here that generally, yards are not levelled completely and
certain flat gradients are provided in order to ensure good drainage. The maximum gradient
prescribed in station yards on Indian Railways is 1 in 400, while the recommended gradient
is 1 in 1000.

GRADE COMPENSATION ON CURVES Curves provide extra resistance to the


movement of trains. As a result, gradients are compensated to the following extent on
curves:

(a) On BG tracks, 0.04 per cent per degree of the curve or 70/R, whichever is minimum

(b) On MG tracks, 0.03 per cent per degree of curve or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum

(c) On NG tracks, 0.02 per cent per degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is minimum where R
is the radius of the curve in metres. The gradient of a curved portion of the section should be
flatter than the ruling gradient because of the extra resistance offered by the curve.
Q: What should be the actual ruling gradient, if the ruling isgradient is 1 in 200 on a B.G.
track and a curve of 3 superimposed on it ? Ruling gradient = 1 in 200 = 0.50% Degree of
curve = 3 Grade Compensation = 0.04% per degree of curve = 0.04 x 3 = 0.12%

Actual ruling gradient = 0.5 – 0.12 = 0.38% or 1 in 264

Curves

Necessity of Curves

• To connect important places

• To avoid obstructions

• To have longer and easier gradients

• To balance earthwork in excavation and cutting

• Minimize construction cost

Objections for providing curves

• Speed is to be restricted

• Possibility of accident/ derailment/ collision

• Unequal distribution of loads on rails

• More fittings are needed to prevent lateral bending of rails

TYPES OF CURVE

Horizontal Curves • Provided when there is change in alignment of the track • Circular or
parabolic transition curves are provided at either ends Vertical Curves • Provided when
there is change in gradient • Parabolic curves

CLASSIFICATION OF CURVE

Simple Curve

• An arc of a circle

Compound Curve

• Composed of two or more simple curves of different radii

• Have a common tangent at the point of common radius Parabolic Curves

• Used for vertical curves

• Can be easily laid by offset method Transition Curves


Curves with smallest radius & largest degree of curvature are restricted on the basis of two
factors:-
• Wheel base: If degree of curve is large than for the length of wheel base which forms a
chord of curve, vehicle does not run freely round the curve and is liable to derailment

• Sharpness of curve: Greater effort is required on sharp curves in hauling the vehicles than
on straights Super-elevation also increases with degree of curve and should be limited to
keep vehicles stable

SUPER ELEVATION

Vehicle negotiating a curve is subjected to centrifugal force acting radially outwards


Increases weight on outer rail Provided to counteract the centrifugal force Super-
elevation (e) : Raising the level of outer rail above the inner rail at a horizontal curve so as
to introduce centripetal force Equalize the weight on either rail

Necessity of providing super-elevation on curves • To counteract centrifugal force • For faster


movement of trains on curves • Reduce wear and creep of rails • Equal distribution of wheel loads
on two rails • To provide an even and smooth running track to ensure comfortable ride to
passengers & safe movement of goods
Equilibrium Cant: When lateral forces and wheel loads are almost equal, the cant is said to
be in equilibrium. It is provided on the basis of avg. speed of trains. Super-elevation should
be provided in such a way that faster trains may travel safely without the danger of
overturning or discomfort to the passengers & slower trains may run safely without fear of
derailment due to excessive super-elevation
AIRPORT ENGINEERING

DEVELOPMENT OF AIR TRANSPORT IN INDIA


 The first air flight in India was performed in the year 1911 when a Frenchman carried
mail from Allahabad to Naini.
 The first commercial air service was established in 1930 as Tata Airlines.
 Air India entered into Jet age in 1960 when Boeing 707 Services were started between
India and London and subsequently extended to New York.
 India‘s first Boeing 747 (Jumbo-Jet) which is two and a half times the size of Boeing 707
– Emperor Ashoka was procured in 1971.

AIRPORT ENGINEERING
 Airport Engineering encompasses the planning, design, and construction of terminals,
runways, and navigation aids to provide for passenger and freight service.
 Airport engineers design and construct airports. They must account for the impacts and
demands of aircraft in their design of airport facilities.
 These engineers must use the analysis of predominant wind direction to determine
runway orientation, determine the size of runway border and safety areas, different wing
tip to wing tip clearances for all gates and must designate the clear zones in the entire
port.
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

 The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), an agency of the United Nations,
codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the
planning and development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth.

TYPES OF AIRPORT
International Airports
 An international airport has direct service to many other airports.
 Handle scheduled commercial airlines both for passengers and cargo.
 Many international airports also serve as "HUBS", or places where non-direct flights
may land and passengers switch planes.
 Typically equipped with customs and immigration facilities to handle international
flights to and from other countries.
 Such airports are usually larger, and often feature longer runways and facilities to
accommodate the large aircraft. (FBO, MRO etc..)
Domestic Airports
 A domestic airport is an airport which handles only domestic flights or flights within
the same country.
 Domestic airports don't have customs and immigration facilities and are therefore
incapable of handling flights to or from a foreign airport.
 These airports normally have short runways which are sufficient to handle
short/medium haul aircraft.
Regional Airports
 A regional airport is an airport serving traffic within a relatively small or lightly
populated geographical area.
 A regional airport usually does not have customs and immigration facilities to process
traffic between countries.
 Aircraft using these airports tend to be smaller business jets or private aircraft
(general aviation).
AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS
 The size;
– Span of wings: This decides the width of taxiway, size of aprons and hangers.
– Height: This decides the height of hanger gate and miscellaneous installations inside the
hanger.
– Wheel base: This decides minimum taxiway radius.
– Tail width: Required for size of parking and apron.
 Minimum turning radius: To determine the radii at the ends of the taxiways and to
ascertain the position on the loading apron.
 Gross Take-off weight: It governs the thickness of runway

 Take-off and landing distances: A number of factors such as altitude of the airport,
gradient of runway, direction and intensity of wind, temperature and the manner of
landing and take-off which influence the take-off and landing distances.

 Tyre pressure and contact area: It governs the thickness of the pavement.
 Range: The frequency of operations and hence the peak traffic volume and the
runway capacity depend upon the normal haul length or the range.
TYPICAL LAYOUT OF AN AIRPORT

SURVEYS FOR SITE SELECTION


Some of the main survey work is to be done while selecting the site for airport are as
Traffic survey
• To determine the amount of air traffic including the anticipated traffic for future.
Meteorological survey:
• To determine direction, duration and intensity of wind, rainfall, fog, temperature and
barometric pressure etc
Topographical survey
• To prepare contour map showing other natural features such as trees, streams etc.
• To prepare a map showing such constructed objects aspole lines, building, roadsetc.
• These maps will be helpful in the jobs of clearing, grading and drainage.
Soil survey
• To determine soil type and ground water table.
• This assists in the design of runway, taxiway, terminal building and the drainagesystem.
Drainage survey
• To determine the quantity of storm water for drainage. This can be obtained from the
rainfall intensity and the contour maps
• To locate possible outlets for drain water in the vicinity of he site.
• To study the possibility of intercepting or diverting the natural streams of nallasflowing
towards the site under consideration.
Material survey
• To ascertain the availability of suitable construction materials at a reasonable costand the
mode of transportation of these materials to the site.ground contours and the cross-
sections and longitudinal profiles
The emphasis in airport planning is normally on the expansion and improvement of existing
airports. However if an existing airport cannot be expanded to meet the future demand or the need
for a new airport is identified in an airport system plan, a process to select a new airport site may
be required.
Identification

Screening
Operational capability
Capacity potential
Ground access
Development costs
Environmental consequences
Compatibility with area-wide planning
Selection

THE AIRPORT MASTER PLAN


An airport master plan is a concept of the ultimate development of a specific airport. The
term development includes the entire airport area, both for aviation and nonaviation uses, and
the use of land adjacent to the airport. It presents the development concept graphically and
contains the data and rationale upon which the plan is based. Master plans are prepared to
support expansion and modernization of existing airports and guide the development of new
airports. The overall objective of the airport master plan is to provide guidelines for future
development which will satisfy aviation demand in a financially feasible manner and be
compatible with the environment, community development, and other modes of
transportation. More specifically it is a guide for
1. Developing the physical facilities of an airport
2. Developing land on and adjacent to the airport
3. Determining the environmental effects of airport construction and operations
4. Establishing access requirements
5. Establishing the technical, economic and financial feasibility of proposed developments
through a thorough investigation of alternative concepts
6. Establishing a schedule of priorities and phasing for the improvements proposed in the
plan
7. Establishing an achievable financial plan to support the implementation schedule
8. Establishing a continuing planning process which will monitor conditions and adjust plan
recommendations as circumstances warrant
Guidelines for completing an airport master plan are described by ICAO and in the United States
by. A master plan report is typically organized as follows:
Master plan vision, goals, and objectives

Inventory of existing conditions

Forecast of aviation demand

Demand/capacity analysis and facility requirements

Alternatives development

Preferred development plan

Implementation plan

Environmental overview

Airport plans package

Stakeholder and public involvement


RAINAGE
Drainage on the airport surface is a prime requisite for operational safety and pavement
durability. The drainage design is handled like most drainage for streets and highways.
Avoidance of ponding and erosion of slopes that would weaken pavement foundations is critical
for design. Because of the need for quick and total water removal over the vast, relatively flat
airport surface, an integrated drainage system is a must. Runoff is removed from the airport by
means of surface gradients, ditches, inlets, an underground system of pipes, and retention ponds.
One portion of an airport drainage system. Because of their large contiguous area, aprons are
critical and must have an adequate sewer system. Runoff water treatment is required when there
are fuel spills or during the winter, when a deicing chemical is used.
AIRPORT LAYOUT PLAN
The airport layout plan is a graphic representation to scale of existing and future airport
facilities on the airport. It will serve as the airport‘s public document, giving aeronautical
requirements as well as pertinent clearance and dimensional data and relationships with the
external area. The airfield configuration of runways, taxiways, aprons, and the terminal are
shown schematically.
Approach and Runway Clear Zone Plan
The approach and clear zone drawing permits the planner to determine how the airport will
interface with the surrounding area in terms of safe flight. It includes:
• Area under the imaginary surfaces defined in U.S. Code FAR, Part 77 *1975+
• Existing and ultimate approach slopes or slope protection established by local ordinance
• Runway clear zones and approach zones showing controlling objects in the airspace
• Obstructions that exceed the criteria
• Tall smokestacks, television towers, garbage dumps, landfills, or other bird habitats that
could pose a hazard to flight
Other Plans
Terminal Area Plan
The terminal area plan usually consists of a conceptual drawing showing the general plan for
the terminal, including its possible expansion. Under some changes the terminal modification
will have a major impact on the taxiway and apron and will be reflected in an altered ALP.
Noise Compatibility Plan
Using future airport traffic, noise contours should be generated to identify future impacts of
noise in the community. The plan would include alternative takeoff tracks and operational
constraints. It would also identify buildings and other facilities that might potentially need to
be moved or soundproofed.

Runway and Taxiway Width and Clearance Design Standards


The FAA has developed a set of standard dimensions that determine runway width,
separations between runways and taxiways, safety areas around runways and taxiways,
shoulder width (possible areas of lessthan- full-strength pavement), pads to deflect jet blast,
object-free areas, and the like. These standards are a function of approach speed and aircraft
size.

Runway Gradients
Longitudinal Gradient
The desire at any airport site is to have the runways and taxiways as level as possible,
allowing for drainage with the design of the transverse grade. In many locations the grading
for a perfectly level site would be too expensive when most aircraft can easily accept 1%
grade. Where longitudinal grades are used, parabolic vertical curves are used for geometric
design. The penalty for gradients is to reduce the effective runway length by 10 feet per foot
of difference between maximum and minimum elevation of the runway [FAA, 1992]. and the
lowest point along the runway of 70 feet, the effective runway length for MATOW
calculations would be 9500 (10,200 – 70 ฀ ฀ 10) feet.
Line of Sight
The line-of-sight requirements also determine the acceptable profile of the runway. Any two
points 5 feet above the runway centerline must be mutually visible for the entire runway or if
on a parallel runway or taxiway for one half of the runway. Likewise, there needs to be a
clear line of sight at the intersection of two runways, two taxiways, and taxiways that cross an
active runway. Most line-of-sight requirements are within 800 to 1350 feet of the
intersection, depending on the configuration.
Transverse Gradients
The transverse gradients are important to ensure adequate drainage from the runways and the
taxiways.
Airport Plans
Upon completion of the inventory, forecasting, requirements analysis, and site evaluation, the master
planning proceeds to the synthesis of airside and landside concepts and plans. These include an airport
layout plan and an approach and clear zone plan. Other plans could include the site plan, the access
plan, and the environmental plan.
GEOMETRIC DESIGN

AIRPORT COMPONENTS:
A typical airport, there are terminal buildings and hangars; pavements for aircraft runways,
taxiways, and aprons; roads, bridges, and tunnels for automobiles and walks for pedestrians;
automobile parking areas; drainage structures; and underground storage tanks. Aircraft
include airplanes, helicopters, and the anticipated tilt rotor aircraft. Airport engineers have the
responsibility of determining the size and arrangement of these facilities for safe, efficient,
low-cost functioning of an airport.

ELEMENTS OF AN AIRPORT;

Runway:- Area for landing and take-off operations.

Taxiway:- Connection between apron and runway

Apron:- Planes parking are next to the building s line in which loading takes place

Hanger: Building for storage of airplanes al so maintenance ; hangers for repair and servicing of
longer planes will usually be built for a specific air line according to its specification and most major
repairs will be done at a planes home base.

Terminal Building Consists of an administration facility and passenger services building. (Ticket
offices, Rest rooms, waiting rooming).

1-Runway length: As the first step, a basic length should be selected of a runway adequate to meet the
operation requirement of the airplanes for which the runway is intended.

Basic Runway:- LBRW Is a runway length selected for aerodrome planning purposes which are
required for landing or takeoff under standards atmospheric conditions for; (according to ICAO)

1) Sea level elevation.

2) Standard sea level temperature 59 F (15Co ).

3) Zero percent of effective gradient.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE REQUIRED RUNWAY LENGTH:

1- Performance characteristics of aircraft using airport.

2- Landing & takeoff grass weight of the aircraft.

3- Elevation of the airport.

4- Air temp.

5- Runway gradient.

6- Humidity.

7- Wind.
8- Natural & condition of runway surface

Correction to Basic Runway length due to; 1) Correction due to Elevation: Standard lengths
must increase by 7% per each 1000 ft of elevation above sea level

2) Correction due to Temperature: Standard lengths must increase by 0.5 % for each 1 Fo
which the mean temperature at the site for the no hot month of the year. Average of over
expressed of years exceeds the standard temp. for that elevation. Standard temperature site is
obtained by reducing the standard sea level temp. of 59 F o at the rate of 3.566 Fo per 1000 ft
elevation.

3) Correction due to Effective Gradient:- The effective runway gradient is found by dividing
the max. different in elevation by the total length of the runway, should be noted that the
developed as the result of experience with many different types on takeoff and landing .
Field runway required based on the

1) Aircraft characterize.

2) Safety regulation.

STOP WAY;

An area beyond the runway not less in width than the width of the runway and designed by
the airport authorities for use in decelerating the aircraft during on aborted takeoff to be
considered as such the stop way must be capable of supporting the aircraft without in during
structural.
Clear way; An area beyond the runway not less than 500 centrally located about the
extended center line of the runway and under control of the airport authorities.

2-Runway Width:

WR=TM+2C
Where; TM= Outer main gear wheel span.

C= Clearance between the outer main gear wheel and the runway edge.

2-1-Runway Width Requirements:

The width of a runway is one of the elements that is affected by several geometrical
characteristics of aeroplanes:

1. The distance between the outside edges of the main gear wheels.
2. The distance between wing mounted engines and the longitudinal axis of an
aeroplane.
3. The wing span.

However, the required runway width is also affected by the operational elements:

1. The approach speed of the aeroplane


2. The prevailing meteorological conditions.

Lack of sufficient width will cause constraints on the operations. The minimum runway width
is therefore specified in Annex 14 by interrelating both of the code elements, see Table (2)
Under normal conditions, the width of a runway should ensure that an aeroplane does run off
from the side of the runway during the take-off or landing, even after a critical engine failure
causing the aircraft to yaw towards the failed engine.

Table Minimum runway width


3-Taxiways: 3-1 Taxiway Width;

The taxiway width, WT is based on a formula: WT = TM + 2C where: WT - taxiway width


on the straight parts of the taxiway TM - outer main gear span C - clearance between the
outer main gear wheel and the taxiway edge The clearance value depends on the taxiway
code letter.

Taxiway System Design: It is often difficult to design an optimum system of taxiways. The
taxiway system may have a decisive influence on the capacity of the runway system, and
thereby also the overall capacity of the aerodrome.

1- Runway and apron connected with short right angle taxiway: In those aerodromes
where the number of aircraft movements during the peak hour traffic is relatively small, it is
usually sufficient to provide only a short taxiway at right angles to the runway to connect it to
the apron. To cope with larger airplanes, it is then usually necessary to provide additional
pavement at the ends of the runway to allow the aircraft to turn round. The runway
occupancy time is then considerable.

2- System of a parallel taxiway with right angle connections: If the number of movements
during the peak hour traffic exceeds about 12, consideration may have to be given to
construction of a taxiway parallel to the runway, and right angle connecting taxiways at the
ends of the runway. In addition, in the event of a longer runway, several right angle
connecting taxiways may be constructed, usually at one third or quarter of the runway length.
The system of a parallel taxiway with right angle connections may be sufficient for up to 25
movements during the peak hour

3-System of a parallel taxiway with right angle connections and high-speed exit taxiway:
To improve the capacity further, it is necessary to construct one or more rapid exit (high-
speed exit) taxiways, usually from the preferred direction of the main runway, whose
parameters and location need to correspond to the type of operation on the given runway
-3 Taxiway Separation: The minimum safe separation distance between the centre line of a
taxiway and the centre line of a runway

The formula for the separation distance in this case is:

S = WS + C + Z

Where: WS - Wing span C - Clearance between the outer main gear wheel and the taxiway
edge (maximum allowable lateral deviation). Z - Wing tip clearance.

4- Aprons: 4-1 Apron Requirements Aprons are designed for parking airplanes and turning
them around between flights. They should permit the on and off loading of passengers,
baggage and cargo, and the technical servicing of airplanes including refueling. 4-2 Apron
Concepts: The geometric and maneuvering characteristics of airplanes make it practically
impossible in most cases to locate all the stands required for peak traffic directly adjacent to
the central processing part of the terminal building. It is therefore necessary to generate other
solutions. Several basic concepts that have developed over time may be identified, depending
on the total size of the airport. Each concept has its advantages and disadvantages, so the
solution is often a compromise and a combination of the basic concepts discussed below.
Apron design must be consistent with the adjacent terminal. Apron and terminal design is an
iterative process where the optimum combination of apron and terminal concepts are
analyzed at the same time.

4.2.1 Simple Concept: This concept is used normally at very small airports with a few
movements of commercial aircraft a day.

4.3.2 Linear Concept At many airports the simple concept develops gradually to the linear
concept. Individual stands are located along the terminal building.
4.3.3 Open Concept: In this concept, the stands are located on one or more rows in front of
the building Figure.

One of the rows may be close-in, but most will be a long way from the terminal. The
transport of passengers to the distant stands is provided by buses or mobile lounges, with only
a short walk for passengers.

4.3.4 Pier Concept: In many large airports, the introduction or extension of piers was the
most convenient way of providing a greater number of contact stands and to increase the
capacity of the airport while providing weather protection for the passengers.

4.3.5 Satellite Concept: In this concept, each of the remote passenger loading satellites is
connected with the terminal building by underground tunnels or by overhead corridors, as in
Figure.
4.3.6 Hybrid Concept: At many airports combination of two or more above mentioned
concepts is usual. During the summer peak season it is quite common to park some,
especially charter aircraft, on the remote apron and transport passengers by busses or
transporters to the aircraft stands.

Obstruction Clearance Requirements

Aircraft landing to or taking off from a runway need an area free of obstructions to safely
operate. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) defines a series of imaginary surfaces
that define the maximum allowable height of any structures that may be placed in the vicinity
of an active runway.

IMAGINARY SURFACES

In order to determine whether an object is an obstruction to air navigation, several imaginary


surfaces are established with relation to the airport and to each end of a runway. The size of
the imaginary surfaces depends on the category of each runway (e.g., utility or transport) and
on the type of approach planned for that end of the runway (e.g., visual, nonprecision
instrument, or precision instrument). The principal imaginary surfaces are described as
follows:

1-Primary surface: The primary surface is a surface that is longitudinally centered on the
runway, extends 200 feet beyond the threshold in each direction in the case of paved
runways.

2-Approach surface: The approach surface is an inclined plane or combination of planes of


varying width running from the ends of the primary surface (40:1).

3-Horizontal surface: The horizontal surface is a horizontal plane 150 feet above the
established airport elevation. The plane dimensions of the horizontal surface are set by arcs of
specified dimensions from the end of the primary surfaces, which are connected by tangents.
4-Transitional surface: Transitional surface is an inclined plane with slope of (7:1)
extending upward and outward from the primary and approach surfaces terminating at the
horizontal surface where these planes meet.
5-Conical surface: The conical surface is an inclined plane at a slope of (20:1) extending
upward and outward from the periphery of the horizontal surface for a horizontal distance of
4,000 feet.

ZONING LAWS

 The permissible height of structures depends upon the airport and the aircrafttypes
which would use the airport.
 The use of land for manufacture of certain items which may result in smokenuisance,
foul odour etc. is also controlled by the zoning laws; It should, however,be con that all
zoning ordinances are reasonable and the application is fair;otherwise they are likely
to create resentment from t public and may result inmass disobedience.
 Whenever it is felt that the zoning laws are provocative, sufficient compensation
should be announced in order to ascertain its effective implementation.

APPROACH ZONE

 During landing, the glide path of an aircraft varies from a steep to fiat slope. But
 during take-off, the rate of climb of aircraft is limited by its wing loading and engine
power.
 As such wide clearance areas, known as approach zones are required on either side of
runway along the direction of landing and take-off of aircraft.
 Over this area, the aircraft can safety gain or loose altitude.
 The whole of this area has to be kept free of obstructions and as such zoning laws are
implemented in this area.
 The plan of approach zone is the same as that of the approach surface. , The only
 difference between the two is that while approach surface is an imaginary surface,
 the approach area indicates the actual ground area.

CLEAR ZONE

 The inner most portion of approach zone which is the most critical portion
fromobstruction view-point is known as clear zone.
 Its configuration and dimensions are shown in Figure
AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS

These are of prime importance to the airport planning and design. The following
characteristics need to be studied.

 Type of Propulsion (piston engine, jet engine and ram engine)

 Size of aircraft

 Minimum turning radius

 Minimum circling radius

 Speed of aircraft

 Capacity of aircraft

 Aircraft weight & wheel configuration

 Jet Blast

 Fuel Spillage

 Type of Propulsion:

 The size of aircraft, its circling radius, speed characteristics, weight carrying capacity,
noise nuisance etc. depend upon the type of propulsion of the aircraft.

 the basic runway length also depends on the type of propulsion used in aircraft.

 Size of aircraft:

 The Size of aircraft involves following important dimensions, (i) wing span

 (ii) height (iii) distance b/w main gears i.e. gear tread (iv) wheel base & tail width.

 Minimum Turning radius:

 In order to decide the radius of taxiway, its very essential to study the geometry of
turning movement of aircraft.
 Minimum Turning radius:

 While taking a turn, the nose gear is steered and therefore, makes an angle with the
axis of the main gear, called angle of rotation. The point of intersection of main gear
and line through axis of steered nose gear is called point of rotation.

 The maximum angle of rotation is 50ْ - 60◦

 The line joining the center of rotation and the tip of the farthest wing of the aircraft is
known minimum turning radius

 Minimum Circling Radius:

 There is certain minimum radius with which the aircraft can take turn in space.

 Its radius depends upon the type of aircraft, air traffic volume & weather conditions.

 The radii recommended for different types of aircraft are as follows.

 Small general aviation aircraft = 1.6 km

 Bigger aircraft = 3.2 km

 Piston engine aircraft = 13 km

 Jet engine aircraft = 80 km

 Speed of Aircrafts:

 The speed of aircraft can be defined in two ways. i.e. Cruising speed or air speed.

 Cruising speed is the speed of aircrafts with respect to the ground, when the aircrafts
is flying in air at its maximum speed.

 Air speed is the speed of aircraft relative to the wind.


 If the aircraft is flying at a speed of 500 kmph & there is a head wind of 50 kmph, air
speed will be 450 kmph.

 Aircraft capacity:

 The number of passengers, baggage & fuel that can be accommodated in the aircrafts
depends upon the capacity of aircraft.

 No of passengers and amount of cargo it can handle

 Dependant on

 Size

 Propulsive power of aircraft

 Speed of air craft

 Weight of aircraft & wheel configuration:

 Weight of the aircraft directly influence the length of the runway as well as the
structural requirements i.e. the thickness of the runway, taxiway, apron & hangars.

 Pavement thickness, design, materials etc., depend on the weight and wheel
distribution of aircraft.

 Different types of weights

 Maximum gross take-off weight :Total amount of weight when it is taking off from
runway

 Maximum standard landing weight :Fuel consumed during transport will be deducted
from take-off weight

 Operating empty weight : Operating at zero pay load

 Pay load n Load for which revenues are generated (passengers + freight)

 Zero-fuel weight n Air craft reaching destination and fuel is getting empty Note:
(maximum is taken considering biggest aircraft allowed at airport

 More the no of wheels, lesser the stress, hence less thickness enough.

 Different wheel combinations available based on size of aircraft.


 Single tandem, duel tandem and multi axle tandems are used based on the size and
weight of air craft.
 Some wheel configurations are shown in the next slide.

 Jet Blast:

 This is the blast that comes out of the jet engine at the rear of the aircraft and provides
the force movement of the aircraft.

 But, if we consider it in case where the aircraft is standing and the jet blast is coming
from the rear, that is so hot and it creates a severe condition for the things on which it
will be falling.

 So the severity is going to depend on two things; one is the

• height of the tail pipe from the round

• angle of the tail pipe through which this jet blast will be coming out at the tail end.

So if it is in the upward direction then it will go up if it is in the downward direction it will


create a pro effect on the pavement on which the aircraft is standing and therefore there is a
need to erect the blast fences which can control the damage to the building or damage to the
pavement.

 Fuel spillage:
 At loading aprons & shelter it is difficult to avoid spillage completely, but effort
should be made to bring it within minimum limit.

The flexible pavements are seriously affected by the fuel spillage.

 Wind Coverage: Wind coverage or usability factor of airport is the percentage of time in
a year during which the cross wind component remains within the limits as specified
above is wind coverage. .

 Calm Period: This is the period for which the wind intensity remains below 6.4 km/hr.
QThis is common to all direction & hence can be added to wind coverage

for that direction.

 The maximum permissible cross wind component QIt depends upon the size of the
aircraft and the wind configuration.

 FAA - 15 kmph for small aircrafts ,

- 25 kmph for mixed traffic

ICAO – 35 kmph for big aircrafts

AIRPORT CAPACITY AND CONFIGURATION

Airport capacity analyses are made for two purposes:

1- To measure the ability of various components of the airport system of heading passengers
and aircraft flow.

2- To estimate the delay experiment in the system at different level of demand. Capacity
analysis is required for: 1- For determining the No. of required runways.

2- To identify potentially suitable configuration.

3- To compare alternative design.

4- To estimate the delay experienced in the system at different levels of demand.

** Delay can results from problems in the airside or landside.


Runway Capacity: is the ability of runway system to accommodate aircraft operations
(landing or takeoff) per unit time (op/hr) or (op/yr).
Ultimate or Saturation Capacity of Runway: The max. number of aircraft that can
be handled during a given period under conditions at continuous demand.
Factors Effecting on Runway Capacity
1- Characteristics of demand (Traffic Mix):
Categories of aircraft for determination of airport capacity are generally as follows:
a) Type A ; 4-engine jet and larger .
b) Type B ; 2 to 3 engine jet and 4 engine piston and Turbo prop.
c) Type C ; Executive jet and transport type twin engine piston.
d) Type D; Light twin engine piston and single –engine piston.

2- Aircraft Control:
a) VFR (Operation by Visual Flight Rule).
Or VAW (Visual Airport Weather).
b) IFR (Operation by Instrument Flight Rule).
Or IAW (Instrument Airport Weather).

VFR ; Operation are made in good weather conditions.


IFR ; Operation are made in the period of bad weather conditions or poor visually under
these conditions positive traffic control is maintained by Radar and others elec-tronic devices.

3- Environmental Condition in the airport vicinity

1- PHOCAP ( Practical Hourly Capacity ).


2- PANCAP ( Practical Annual Capacity ).
There are three categories of airports according to its airspace:
a- Unrestricted airspace.
b- Normal.
c- Restricted airspace.
runways and taxiways. The chief concern is drainage and the line of sight to adjacent
runways or taxiways.

DRAINAGE
Drainage on the airport surface is a prime requisite for operational safety and
pavement durability. The drainage design is handled like most drainage for streets and
highways. Avoidance of ponding and erosion of slopes that would weaken pavement
foundations is critical for design. Because of the need for quick and total water removal over
the vast, relatively flat airport surface, an integrated drainage system is a must. Runoff is
removed from the airport by means of surface gradients, ditches, inlets, an underground
system of pipes, and retention ponds. Because of their large contiguous area, aprons are
critical and must have an adequate sewer system. Runoff water treatment is required when
there are fuel spills or during the winter, when a deicing chemical is used.

ORIENTATION AND CONFIGURATION

The orientation of a runway is defined by the direction, relative to magnetic north, of the
operations performed by aircraft on the runway. Typically, but not always, runways are
oriented in such a manner that they may be used in either direction. It is less preferred to
orient a runway in such a way that operating in one direction is precluded, normally due to
nearby obstacles. In addition to obstacle clearance considerations, which will be discussed
later in this chapter, runways are typically oriented based on the area‗s wind conditions. As
such, an analysis of wind is essential for planning runways. As a general rule, the primary
runway at an airport should be oriented as closely as practicable in the direction of the
prevailing winds. When landing and taking off, aircraft are able to maneuver on a runway as
long as the wind component at right angles to the direction of travel, the crosswind
component, is not excessive. The FAA recommends that runways should be oriented so that
aircraft may be landed at least 95 percent of the time with allowable crosswind components
not exceeding specified limits based upon the airport reference code associated with the
critical aircraft that has the shortest wingspan or slowest approach speed. When the wind
coverage is less than 95 percent a crosswind runway is recommended. The allowable
crosswind is 10.5 kn (12 mi/h) for Airport Reference Codes A-I and B-I, 13 kn (15 mi/h) for
Airport Reference Codes A-II and B-II, 16 kn (18.5 mi/h) for Airport Reference Codes A-III,
B-III, C-I, C-II, C-III and C-IV, and 20 knots (23 mph) for Airport Reference Codes A-IV
through D-VI [5]. ICAO also specifies that runways should be oriented so that aircraft may
be landed at least 95 percent of the time with crosswind components of 20 kn (23 mph) for
runway lengths of 1500 m more, 13 kn (15 mi/h) for runway lengths between 1200 and 1500
m, and 10 kn (11.5 mi/h) for runway lengths less than 1200 m.

Once the maximum permissible crosswind component is selected, the most desirable
direction of runways for wind coverage can be determined by examination of the average
wind characteristics at the airport under the following conditions:

1. The entire wind coverage regardless of visibility or cloud ceiling 2. Wind conditions when
the ceiling is at least 1000 ft and the visibility is at least 3 mi 3. Wind conditions when ceiling
is between 200 and 1000 ft and/or the visibility is between . and 3 mi. The first condition
represents the entire range of visibility, from excellent to very poor, and is termed the all
weather condition. The next condition represents the range of good visibility conditions not
requiring the use of instruments for landing, termed visual meteorological condition (VMC).
The last condition represents various degrees of poor visibility requiring the use of
instruments for landing, termed instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). The 95 percent
criterion suggested by the FAA and ICAO is applicable to all conditions of weather;
nevertheless it is still useful to examine the data in parts whenever this is possible. In the
United States, weather records can be obtained from the Environmental Data and Information
Service of the National Climatic Center at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration located in Ashville, N.C., or from various locations found on the Internet.
Weather data are collected from weather stations throughout the United States on an hourly
basis and recorded for analysis. The data collected include ceiling, visibility, wind speed,
wind direction, storms, barometric pressure, the amount and type of liquid and frozen
precipitation, temperature, and relative humidity. A report illustrating the tabulation and
representation of some of the data of use in airport studies was prepared for the FAA. The
weather records contain the percentage of time certain combinations of ceiling and visibility
occur (e.g., ceiling, 500 to 900 ft; visibility, 3 to 6 mi), and the percentage of time winds of
specified velocity ranges occur from different directions (e.g., from NNE, 4 to 7 mi/h). The
directions are referenced to true north.
THE WIND ROSE

 The appropriate orientation of the runway or runways at an airport can be determined


through graphical vector analysis using a wind rose.
 A standard wind rose consists of a series of concentric circles cut by radial lines
using polar coordinate graph paper. The radial lines are drawn to the scale of the wind
magnitude such that the area between each pair of successive lines is centered on the
wind direction.

 The wind data i.e direction, duration & intensity are graphically represented by a
diagram called wind rose diagram.

 Application of Wind Rose diagram is for finding the orientation of the runway to
achieve wind coverage.

 The area is divided in to 16 parts using an angle of 22.5 0 .

 Average wind data of 5 to 10 years is used for preparing wind rose diagram.

WIND ROSE – METHODS;

Type – I: Showing direction & duration of wind.

Type –II: Showing direction, duration & intensity of wind.

 Type – I : Showing direction & duration of wind.

 The radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle represents the duration of
wind.

 From the wind data it is observed that the total % of time in a year during which the
wind blows from north direction is 10.3%.
 This value is plotted along the north direction in figure.

 Similarly other values are also plotted along the respective directions.

 All plotted points are then joined by straight lines.

 The best direction of runway usually along the direction of the longest line on wind
rose diagram.

 In the figure the best orientation of runway is NS direction.

 Type –II ;Showing direction, duration & intensity of wind.

 Each circle represents the wind intensity to some scale. The values entered in each
segment represents the % of time in a year during which the wind having a particular
intensity.

 Procedure: draw 3 equi-spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper strip.

 Place the transport paper strip over the wind rose diagram in such a way that the
central line passes through the centre of the diagram.

 With the centre of wind rose, rotate the tracing paper & place it in such a position that
the sum of all the values indicating the duration of wind, within the two outer parallel
lines, oriented is the maximum.

 The runway should be thus oriented along the direction indicated by the centre line.
The wind coverage con be calculated by summing up all the % shown in segment.
 Read the bearing of the runway on the outer scale of the wind rose where the central
line on the paper. That is the best orientation of runway.

BASIC RUNWAY LENGTH AND CORRECTIONS


Length of runway decided taking following assumptions:
฀ Airport altitude at sea level
฀ Temperature at airport is standard (150C)
฀ Runway is level in longitudinal direction
฀ No wind is blowing on runway
฀ No wind is blowing enroute to destination
฀ Aircraft is loaded to its full capacity
฀ Enroute temperature standard

The basic runway length is determined form the performance characteristics of aircraft using
airport. The following cases are usually considered Normal landing case Normal takeoff case
Engine failure case For jet engine aircraft all three cases are considered but for piston engine
air craft first and third case are usually considered. The longest runway length is finally
adopted. The landing case require that aircraft should come to stop within 60% of the landing
distance. The full strength pavement is provided for entire landing distance. The normal
takeoff requires a clear way which is an area beyond the runway and is alignment with the
centre line of the runway. The width of the clear way is not less than 150m ( 500 ft) and is
kept free from obstruction. The clearway ground area any object should not protrude a plane
upward at a slope of 1.25% from the runway end.
Engine failure case may require either a clearway or a stop way or both. Stopway is defined
as the area beyond runway and centrally located in alignment with the centreline of the
runway. It is used for decelerating the aircraft to stop during aborted takeoff. The strength of
the stopway should be sufficient to carry the weight of the aircraft without casing any
structural damage. If engine fail at a speed less than the designated engine failure speed, the
pilot decelerate the aircraft and use the stopway. If however engine fails at a speed higher
than the designated speed, there is no other option to pilot take-off. The pilot may latter take
turn and make a landing. For piston engine aircrafts full strength pavement is provided for
entire takeoff distance and the accelerated stop distance.

Correction for elevation, temperature and gradient Airports are constructed in different
elevation different atmospheric temperature and gradient, in contrast to the assumption made
for basic runway length. Therefore correction required for changes in each components.

Correction in elevation All other things being equal, the higher the field elevation of the
airport, results the less dense the atmosphere, requiring longer runway lengths for the aircraft
to get to the appropriate groundspeed to achieve sufficient lift for takeoff. For airports at
elevation above sea level, the design runway length is 300 ft plus 0.03 ft for every foot above
sea level. ICAO recommends the basic runway length should increase at rate of 7% per 100
m rise in elevation over MSL.

Correction in temperature With rise of reference temperature same effect is there as that of
elevation. The airport reference temperature defined as monthly mean of average daily
temperature (Ta) for the hottest month of the year plus one third the difference of this
temperature and monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature(Tw) for same month of
the year.

Reference Temperature = Ta + (Tw – Ta)/3

ICAO recommends the basic runway length after have been corrected for elevation, should
further increase at the rate of 1% for every 10C increase of reference temperature. If both
correction increases more than 35% ICAO recommended specific site study should be
conducted.
Correction for gradient Steeper gradient require greater consummation of energy and longer
length of runway to attain the desired speed. ICAO does not recommend any correction. FAA
recommend after correction for elevation and temperature a further increase in runway length
at arte of 20% for every 1 percent effective gradient.

Effective gradient is defined taking maximum difference between elevation between lowest
point and highest point in the runway divided by length of the runway.

Surface Wind Wind speed and direction at an airport also have a significance on runway
length requirements. Simply, the greater the headwind the shorter the runway length required,
and the greater the tailwind the longer the runway required. Further, the presence of
crosswinds will also increase the amount of runway required for takeoff and landing. From
the perspective of the planner, it is often estimated that for every 5 km of headwind, required
runway length is reduced by approximately 3 percent and for every 7 km of tailwind, runway
length requirements increase by approximately 7 percent. For airport planning purposes
runway lengths are often designed assuming calm wind conditions.
GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS DESIGN

Taxiways and Taxi lanes

Taxiways are defined paths on the airfield surface which are established for the taxiing of
aircraft and are intended to provide a linkage between one part of the airfield and another.
Basically it established the connection between runway, terminal building and hanger. The
term ―dual parallel taxiways‖ refers to two taxiways parallel to each other on which
airplanes can taxi in opposite directions. An apron taxiway is a taxiway located usually on the
periphery of an apron intended to provide a through taxi route across the apron. A taxi lane is
a portion of the aircraft parking area used for access between the taxiways and the aircraft
parking positions. ICAO defines an aircraft stand taxi lane as a portion of the apron intended
to provide access to the aircraft stands only. In order to provide a margin of safety in the
airport operating areas, the traffic ways must be separated sufficiently from each other and
from adjacent obstructions. Minimum separations between the centerlines of taxiways,
between the centerlines of taxiways and taxi lanes, and between taxiways and taxi lanes and
objects are specified in order that aircraft may safely maneuver on the airfield.

TAXIWAY AND TAXILANE SEPARATION REQUIREMENTS (FAA


SEPARATION CRITERIA)

The separation criteria adopted by the FAA are predicated upon the wingtips of the aircraft
for which the taxiway and taxilane system have been designed and provide a minimum
wingtip clearance on these facilities. The required separation between taxiways, between a
taxiway and a taxilane, or between a taxiway and a fixed or movable object requires a
minimum wingtip clearance of 0.2 times the wingspan of the most demanding aircraft in the
airplane design group plus 10 ft. This clearance provides a minimum taxiway centerline to a
parallel taxiway centerline or taxilane centerline separation of 1.2 times the wingspan of the
most demanding aircraft plus 10 ft, and between a taxiway centerline and a fixed or movable
object of 0.7 times the wingspan of the most demanding aircraft plus 10 ft. The taxilane
centerline to a parallel taxilane centerline or fixed or movable object separation in the
terminal area is predicated on a wingtip clearance of approximately half of that required for
an apron taxiway. This reduction in clearance is based on the consideration that taxiing speed
is low in this area, taxiing is precise, and special guidance techniques and devices are
provided. This requires a wingtip clearance or wingtip-to-object clearance of 0.1 times the
wingspan of the most demanding aircraft plus 10 ft.
SIGHT DISTANCE AND LONGITUDINAL PROFILE

As in the case of runways, the number of changes in longitudinal profile for taxiways is
limited by sight distance and minimum distance between vertical curves. The FAA does not
specify line of sight requirements for taxiways other than those discussed earlier related to
runway and taxiway intersections. However, the sight distance along a runway from an
intersecting taxiway needs to be sufficient to allow a taxiing aircraft to enter or cross the
runway safely. The FAA specifies that from any point on the taxiway centerline the
difference in elevation between that point and the corresponding point on a parallel runway,
taxiway, or apron edge is 1.5 percent of the shortest distance between the points. ICAO
requires that the surface of the taxiway should be seen for a distance of 150 m from a point
1.5 m above the taxiway for aerodrome code letter A runways, for a distance of 200 m from a
point 2 m above the taxiway for aerodrome code letter B runways, and for a distance of 300
m from a point 3 m above the taxiway for aerodrome code letter C, D, or E runways. In
regard to longitudinal profile of taxiways, the ICAO does not specify the minimum distance
between the points of intersection of vertical curves. The FAA specifies that the minimum
distance for both utility and transport category airports should be not less than the product of
100 ft multiplied by the sum of the absolute percentage values of change in slope.

EXIT TAXIWAY

The function of exit taxiways, or runway turnoffs as they are sometimes called, is to
minimize runway occupancy by landing aircraft. Exit taxiways can be placed at right angles
to the runway or some other angle to the runway. When the angle is on the order of 30°, the
term high-speed exit is often used to denote that it is designed for higher speeds than other
exit taxiway configurations. In this chapter, specific dimensions for high-speed exit, right-
angle exit (low-speed) taxiways are presented.

Aircraft paths in the test approximated a spiral. A compound curve is relatively easy to
establish in the field and begins to approach the shape of a spiral, thus the reason for
suggesting a compound curve. The following pertinent conclusions were reached as a result
of the tests [13]: 1. Transport category and military aircraft can safely and comfortably turn
off runways at speeds on the order of 60 to 65 mi/h on wet and dry pavements. 2. The most
significant factor affecting the turning radius is speed, not the total angle of turn or passenger
comfort. 3. Passenger comfort was not critical in any of the turning movements. 4. The
computed lateral forces developed in the tests were substantially below the maximum lateral
forces for which the landing gear was designed. 5. Insofar as the shape of the taxiway is
concerned, a slightly widened entrance gradually tapering to the normal width of taxiway is
preferred. The widened entrance gives the pilot more latitude in using the exit taxiway. 6.
Total angles of turn of 30° to 45° can be negotiated satisfactorily. The smaller angle seems to
be preferable because the length of the curved path is reduced, sight distance is improved,
and less concentration is required on the part of the pilots. 7. The relation of turning radius
versus speed expressed by the formula below will yield a smooth, comfortable turn on a wet
or dry pavement when f is made equal to 0.13. 8. The curve expressed by the equation for R2
should be preceded by a larger radius curve R1 at exit speeds of 50 to 60 mi/h. The larger
radius curve is necessary to provide a gradual transition from a straight tangent direction
section to a curved path section. If the transition curve is not provided tire wear on large jet
transports can be excessive. 9. Sufficient distance must be provided to comfortably decelerate
an aircraft after it leaves the runway. It is suggested that for the present this distance be based
on an average rate of deceleration of 3.3 ft/s2. This applies only to transport category aircraft.
Until more experience is gained with this type of operation the stopping distance should be
measured from the edge of the runway.

LOCATION OF EXIT TAXIWAYS

The location of exit taxiways depends on the mix of aircraft, the approach and touchdown
speeds, the point of touchdown, the exit speed, the rate of deceleration, which in turn depends
on the condition of the pavement surface, that is, dry or wet, and the number of exits. While
the rules for flying transport aircraft are relatively precise, a certain amount of variability
among pilots is bound to occur especially in respect to braking force applied on the runway
and the distance from runway threshold to touchdown. The rapidity and the manner in which
air traffic control can process arrivals is an extremely important factor in establishing the
location of exit taxiways. The location of exit taxiways is also influenced by the location of
the runways relative to the terminal area.

HOLDING APRONS

Holding aprons, holding pads, run-up pads, or holding bays as they are sometimes called, are
placed adjacent to the ends of runways. The areas are used as storage areas for aircraft prior
to takeoff. They are designed so that one aircraft can bypass another whenever this is
necessary. For piston-engine aircraft the holding apron is an area where the aircraft
instrument and engine operation can be checked prior to takeoff. The holding apron also
provides for a trailing aircraft to bypass a leading aircraft in case the takeoff clearance of the
latter must be delayed for one reason or another, or if it experiences some malfunction. There
are many configurations of holding aprons. The important design criteria are to provide
adequate space for aircraft to maneuver easily onto the runway irrespective of the position of
adjacent aircraft on the holding apron and to provide sufficient room for an aircraft to bypass
parked aircraft on the holding apron. The recommendations for the minimum separation
between aircraft on holding aprons are the same as those specified for the taxiway object-free
area. Holding pads must be designed for the largest aircraft which will use the pad. The
holding pad should be located so that all aircraft using the pad will be located outside both
the runway and taxiway object-free area and in a position so as not to interfere with critical
ILS signals.

AIRPORT LAYOUTS AND TERMINAL BUILDING Terminal building

The terminal area is the major interface between the airfield and the rest of the airport. It
includes the facilities for passenger and baggage processing, cargo handling, and airport
maintenance, operations, and administration activities. The passenger processing system is
discussed at length in this chapter. Baggage processing, cargo handling, and apron
requirements are also discussed relative to the terminal system.

The Passenger Terminal System

The passenger terminal system is the major connection between the ground access system
and the aircraft. The purpose of this system is to provide the interface between the passenger
airport access mode, to process the passenger for origination, termination, or continuation of
an air transportation trip, and convey the passenger and baggage to and from the aircraft.

Components of the System

The passenger terminal system is composed of three major components. These components
and the activities that occur within them are as follows: 1. The access interface where the
passenger transfers from the access mode of travel to the passenger processing component.
Circulation, parking, and curbside loading and unloading of passengers are the activities that
take place within this component. 2. The processing component where the passenger is
processed in preparation for starting, ending, or continuation of an air transportation trip. The
primary activities that take place within this component are ticketing, baggage check-in,
baggage claim, seat assignment, federal inspection services, and security. 3. The flight
interface where the passenger transfers from the processing component to the aircraft. The
activities that occur here include assembly, conveyance to and from the aircraft, and aircraft
loading and unloading. A number of facilities are provided to perform the functions of the
passenger terminal system. These facilities are indicated for each of the components
identified above.

The access interface

This component consists of the terminal curbs, parking facilities, and connecting roadways
that enable originating and terminating passengers, visitors, and baggage to enter and exit the
terminal. It includes the following facilities: 1. The enplaning and deplaning curb frontage
which provide the public with loading and unloading for vehicular access to and from the
terminal building 2. The automobile parking facilities providing short-term and long-term
parking spaces for passengers and visitors, and facilities for rental cars, public transit, taxis,
and limousine services 3. The vehicular roadways providing access to the terminal curbs,
parking spaces, and the public street and highway system 4. The designated pedestrian
walkways for crossing roads including tunnels, bridges, and automated devices which
provide access between the parking facilities and the terminal building 5. The service roads
and fire lanes which provide access to various facilities in the terminal and to other airport
facilities, such as air freight, fuel truck stands, and maintenance. The ground access system at
an airport is a complex system of roadways, parking facilities, and terminal access curb
fronts.

The Processing System

The terminal is used to process passengers and baggage for the interface with aircraft and the
ground transportation modes. It includes the following facilities:

1. The airline ticket counters and offices used for ticket transactions, baggage check-in, flight
information, and administrative personnel and facilities

2. The terminal services space which consists of the public and nonpublic areas such as
concessions, amenities for passengers and visitors, truck service docks, food preparation
areas, and food and miscellaneous storage

3. The lobby for circulation and passenger and visitor waiting

4. Public circulation space for the general circulation of passengers and visitors consisting of
such areas as stairways, escalators, elevators, and corridors
5. The outbound baggage space which is a nonpublic area for sorting and processing baggage
for departing flights

6. The intraline and interline baggage space used for processing baggage transferred from one
flight to another on the same or different airlines

7. The inbound baggage space which is used for receiving baggage from an arriving flight,
and for delivering baggage to be claimed by the arriving passenger

8. Airport administration and service areas used for airport management, operations, and
maintenance facilities

9. The federal inspection service facilities which are the areas for processing passengers
arriving on international flights, as well as performing agricultural inspections, and security
functions.

AIRPORT MAKING AND LIGHTING-


Visual aids assist the pilot on approach to an airport, as well as navigating around an airfield
and are essential elements of airport infrastructure. As such, these facilities require proper
planning and precise design. These facilities may be divided into three categories: lighting,
marking, and signage. Lighting is further categorized as either approach lighting or surface
lighting. Specific lighting systems described in this chapter include 1. Approach lighting 2.
Runway threshold lighting 3. Runway edge lighting 4. Runway centerline and touchdown
zone lights 5. Runway approach slope indicators 6. Taxiway edge and centerline lighting The
proper placement of these systems is described in this chapter but no attempt has been made
to describe in detail the hardware or its installation. Airfield marking and signage includes
1. Runway and taxiway pavement markings
2. Runway and taxiway guidance sign systems Airfield lighting, marking, and signage
facilities provide the following functions:
1. Ground to air visual information required during landing
2. The visual requirements for takeoff and landing
3. The visual guidance for taxiing

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR VISUAL AIDS

Since the earliest days of flying, pilots have used ground references for navigation when
approaching an airport, just as officers on ships at sea have used landmarks on shore when
approaching a harbor. Pilots need visual aids in good weather as well as in bad weather and
during the day as well as at night. In the daytime there is adequate light from the sun, so
artificial lighting is not usually required but it is necessary to have adequate contrast in the
field of view and to have a suitable pattern of brightness so that the important features of the
airport can be identified and oriented with respect to the position of the aircraft in space.
These requirements are almost automatically met during the day when the weather is clear.
The runway for conventional aircraft always appears as a long narrow strip with straight sides
and is free of obstacles. It can therefore be easily identified from a distance or by flying over
the field. Therefore, the perspective view of the runway and other identifying reference
landmarks are used by pilots as visual aids for orientation when they are approaching the
airport to land. Experience has demonstrated that the horizon, the runway edges, the runway
threshold, and the centreline of the runway are the most important elements for pilots to see.
In order to enhance the visual information during the day, the runway is painted with standard
marking patterns. The key elements in these patterns are the threshold, the centerline, the
edges, plus multiple parallel lines to increase the perspective and to define the plane of the
surface. During the day when visibility is poor and at night, the visual information is reduced
by a significant amount over the clear weather daytime scene. It is therefore essential to
provide visual aids which will be as meaningful to pilots as possible.

THE AIRPORT BEACON

Beacons are lighted to mark an airport. They are designed to produce a narrow horizontal and
vertical beam of high-intensity light which is rotated about a vertical axis so as to produce
approximately 12 flashes per minute for civil airports and 18 flashes per minute for military
airports. The flashes with a clearly visible duration of at least 0.15 s are arranged in a white-
green sequence for land airports and a white yellow sequence for landing areas on water.
Military airports use a double white flash followed by a longer green or yellow flash to
differentiate them from civil airfields. The beacons are mounted on top of the control tower
or similar high structure in the immediate vicinity of the airport.

OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING

Obstructions are identified by fixed, flashing, or rotating red lights or beacons. All structures
that constitute a hazard to aircraft in flight or during landing or takeoff are marked by
obstruction lights having a horizontally uniform intensity duration and a vertical distribution
design to give maximum range at the lower angles (1.5° to 8°) from which a colliding
approach would most likely come.
THE AIRCRAFT LANDING OPERATION

An aircraft approaching a runway in a landing operation may be visualized as a sequence of


operations involving a transient body suspended in a three-dimensional grid that is
approaching a fixed two-dimensional grid. While in the air, the aircraft can be considered as a
point mass in a three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate system in which it may have
translation along three coordinate directions and rotation about three axes. If the three
coordinate axes are aligned horizontal, vertical, and parallel to the end of the runway, the
directions of motion can be described as lateral, vertical, and forward. The rotations are
normally called pitch, yaw, and roll, for the horizontal, vertical, and parallel axes,
respectively. During a landing operation, pilots must control and coordinate all six degrees of
freedom of the aircraft so as to bring the aircraft into coincidence with the desired approach
or reference path to the touchdown point on the runway. In order to do this, pilots need
translation information regarding the aircraft‗s alignment, height, and distance, rotation
information regarding pitch, yaw, and roll, and information concerning the rate of descent
and the rate of closure with the desired path.

ALIGNMENT GUIDANCE

Pilots must know where their aircraft is with respect to lateral displacement from the
centerline of the runway. Most runways are from 75 to 200 ft wide and from 3000 to 12,000
ft long. Thus any runway is a long narrow ribbon when first seen from several thousand feet
above. The predominant alignment guidance comes from longitudinal lines that constitute the
centerline and edges of the runway. All techniques, such as painting, lighting, or surface
treatment that develop contrast and emphasize these linear elements are helpful in providing
alignment information.

HEIGHT INFORMATION

The estimation of the height above ground from visual cues is one of the most difficult
judgments for pilots. It is simply not possible to provide good height information from an
approach lighting system. Consequently the best source of height information is the
instrumentation in the aircraft. However, use of these instruments often requires the
availability of precision ground or satellite based navigation technologies.
APPROACH LIGHTING

Approach lighting systems (ALS) are designed specifically to provide guidance for aircraft
approaching a particular runway under night time or other low-visibility conditions. While
under night time conditions it may be possible to view approach lighting systems from
several miles away, under other low-visibility conditions, such as fog, even the most intense
ALS systems may only be visible from as little as 2500 ft from the runway threshold. Studies
of the visibility in fog have shown that for a visual range of 2000 to 2500 ft it would be
desirable to have as much as 200,000 candelas (cd) available in the outermost approach lights
where the slant range is relatively long. Under these same conditions the optimum intensity
of the approach lights near the threshold should be on the order of 100 to 500 cd. A transition
in the intensity of the light that is directed toward the pilot is highly desirable in order to
provide the best visibility at the greatest possible range and to avoid glare and the loss of
contrast sensitivity and visual acuity at short range.

SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS

The configurations which have been adopted are the Calvert system‗ which has been widely
used in Europe and other parts of the world, the ICAO category II and category III system
shown in and the four system configurations which have been adopted by the FAA in the
United States. The FAA publishes criteria for the establishment of the approach lighting
systems and other navigation facilities at airports. Approach lights are normally mounted on
frangible pedestals of varying height to improve the perspective of the pilot in approaching a
runway.

MALSR SYSTEM.
At smaller airports where precision approaches are not required, a medium ALS with
sequential flashers (MALSF) or with sequenced flashers (MALS) is adequate. The system is
only 1400 ft long compared to a length of 2400 ft for a precision approach system. It is
therefore much more economical, an important factor at small airports. The runway
alignment indicator lights and these are only provided in the outermost 400 ft of the 1400-ft
system to improve pilot recognition of the runway approach in areas where there are
distracting lights in the vicinity of the airport. The MALS system does not have the runway
alignment indicator lights or the sequential flashers. At international airports in the United
States, the 2400-ft ALSs are often extended to a distance of 3000 ft to conform to
international specifications. Sequenced-flashing high-intensity lights are available for airport
use and are installed as supplements to the standard approach lighting system at those airports
where very low visibilities occur frequently. These lights operate from the stored energy in a
capacitor which is discharged through the lamp in approximately 5 ms and may develop as
much as 30 million cd of light. They are mounted in the same pedestals as the light bars. The
lights are sequence-fired, beginning with the unit farthest from the runway. The complete
cycle is repeated every 2s. This results in a brilliant ball of light continuously moving toward
the runway. Since the very bright light can interfere with the eye adaptation of the pilot,
condenser discharge lamps are usually omitted in the 1000 ft of the approach lighting system
nearest the runway.
VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE AIDS
Visual approach slope aids are lighting systems designed to provide a measure of vertical
guidance to aircraft approaching a particular runway. The principle of these aids is to provide
color-based identification to the pilot indicating their variation from a desired altitude and
descent rate while on approach. The two most common visual approach slope aids are the
visual approach slope indicator (VASI), and the precision approach path indicator (PAPI).
VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR
The visual approach slope indicator (VASI) is a system of lights which acts as an aid in
defining the desired glide path in relatively good weather conditions. VASI lighting
intensities are designed to be visible from 3 to 5 mi during the day and up to 20 mi at night.
There are a number of different VASI configurations depending on the desired visual range,
the type of aircraft, and

whether large wide bodied aircraft will be using the runway. Each group of lights transverse
to the direction of the runway is referred to as a bar. The downwind bar is typically located
between 125 and 800 ft from the runway threshold, each subsequent bar is located between
500 and 1000 ft from the previous bar. A bar is made up of one, two, or three light units,
referred to as boxes. The basic VASI-2 system, is a two-bar system consisting of four boxes.
The bar that is nearest to the runway threshold is referred to as the downwind bar, and the bar
that is farthest from the runway threshold is referred to as the upwind bar. If pilots are on the
proper glide path, the downwind bar appears white and the upwind bar appears red; if pilots
are too low, both bars appear red; and if they are too high both bars appear white. In order to
accommodate large wide bodied aircraft where the height of the eye of the pilot is much
greater than in smaller jets, a third upwind bar is added. For wide bodied aircraft the middle
bar becomes the downwind bar and the third bar is the upwind bar. In other words, pilots of
large wide bodied aircraft ignore the bar closest to the runway threshold and use the other two
bars for visual reference.. The more common systems in use in the United States are the
VASI-2, VASI-4, VASI-12, and VASI-16. VASI systems are particularly useful on runways
that do not have an instrument landing system or for aircraft not equipped to use an
instrument landing system

PRECISION APPROACH PATH INDICATOR


The FAA presently prefers the use of another type of visual approach indicator called the
precision approach path indicator (PAPI) [20]. This system gives more precise indications to
the pilot of the approach path of the aircraft and utilizes only one bar as opposed to the
minimum of two required by the VASI system. The system consists of a unit with four lights
on either side of the approach runway.
THRESHOLD LIGHTING
During the final approach for landing, pilots must make a decision to complete the landing or
―execute a missed approach.‖ The identification of the threshold is a major factor in pilot
decisions to land or not to land. For this reason, the region near the threshold is given special
lighting consideration. The threshold is identified at large airports by a complete line of green
lights extending across the entire width of the runway, and at small airports by four green
lights on each side of the threshold. The lights on either side of the runway threshold may be
elevated.

Threshold lights in the direction of landing are green but in the opposite direction these lights
are red to indicate the end of the runway.
RUNWAY LIGHTING
After crossing the threshold, pilots must complete a touchdown and roll out on the runway.
The runway visual aids for this phase of landing are be designed to give pilots information on
alignment, lateral displacement, roll, and distance. The lights are arranged to form a visual
pattern that pilots can easily interpret. At first, night landings were made by floodlighting the
general area. Various types of lighting devices were used, including automobile headlights,
arc lights, and search lights. Boundary lights were added to outline the field and to mark
hazards such as ditches and fences. Gradually, preferred landing directions were developed,
and special lights were used to indicate these directions. Floodlighting was then restricted to
the preferred landing directions, and runway edge lights were added along the landing strips.
As experience was developed, the runway edge lights were adopted as visual aids on a
runway. This was followed by the use of runway center line and touchdown zone lights for
operations in very poor visibility. FAA Advisory Circular 150/5340-30C provides guidance
for the design and installation of runway and taxiway lighting systems.
RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS
Runway edge lighting systems outline the edge of runways during night time and reduced
visibility conditions. Runway edge lights are classified by intensity, high intensity (HIRL),
medium intensity (MIRL), and low intensity (LIRL). LIRLs are typically installed on visual
runways and at rural airports. MIRLs are typically installed on visual runways at larger
airports and on non-precision instrument runways, HIRLs are installed on precision-
instrument runways. Elevated runway lights are mounted on frangible fittings and project no
more than 30 in above the surface on which they are installed. They are located along the
edge of the runway not more than 10 ft from the edge of the full-strength pavement surface.
The longitudinal spacing is not more than 200 ft. Runway edge lights are white, except that
the last 2000 ft of an instrument runway in the direction of aircraft operations these lights are
yellow to indicate a caution zone.
RUNWAY CENTER LINE AND TOUCHDOWN ZONE LIGHTS
As an aircraft traverses over the approach lights, pilots are looking at relatively bright light
sources on the extended runway center line. Over the runway threshold, pilots continue to
look along the center line, but the principal source of guidance, namely, the runway edge
lights, has moved far to each side in their peripheral vision. The result is that the central area
appears excessively black, and pilots are virtually flying blind, except for the peripheral
reference information, and any reflection of the runway pavement from the aircraft‗s landing
lights. Attempts to eliminate this ―black hole‖ by increasing the intensity of runway edge
lights have proven ineffective. In order to reduce the black hole effect and provide adequate
guidance during very poor visibility conditions, runway center line and touchdown zone
lights are typically installed in the pavement.

RUNWAY END IDENTIFIER LIGHTS

Runway end identifier lights (REIL) are installed at airports where there are no approach
lights to provide pilots with positive visual identification of the approach end of the runway.
The system consists of a pair of synchronized white flashing lights located on each side of the
runway threshold and is intended for use when there is adequate visibility.
TAXIWAY LIGHTING
Either after a landing or on the way to takeoff, pilots must maneuver the aircraft on the
ground on a system of taxiways to and from the terminal and hangar areas. Taxiway lighting
systems are provided for taxiing at night and also during the day when visibility is very poor,
particularly at commercial service airports. The following overall guidance should be applied
in determining the lighting, marking, and signing visual aid requirements for taxiways:
฀ In order to avoid confusion with runways, taxiways must be clearly identified.

฀ Runway exits need to be readily identified. This is particularly true for high-speed runway
exits so that pilots can be able to locate these exits 1200 to 1500 ft before the turnoff point.

฀ Adequate visual guidance along the taxiway must be provided.

฀ Specific taxiways must be readily identified.

฀ The intersections between taxiways, the intersections between runways and taxiways, and
runway-taxiway crossings need to be clearly marked.

฀ The complete taxiway route from the runway to the apron and from the apron to the
runway should be easily identified. There are two primary types of lights used for the
designation of taxiways. One type delineates the edges of taxiways and the other type
delineates the center line of the taxiway.

TAXIWAY EDGE LIGHTS


Taxiway edge lights are elevated blue colored bidirectional lights usually located at intervals
of not more than 200 ft on either side of the taxiway. The exact spacing is influenced by the
physical layout of the taxiways. Straight sections of taxiways generally require edge light
spacing in 200-ft intervals, or at least three lights equally spaced for taxiway straight line
sections less than 200 ft in length.
Closer spacing is required on curves. Light fixtures are located not more than 10 ft from the
edge of full strength pavement surfaces. Taxiway centerline lights are in-pavement
bidirectional lights placed in equal intervals over taxiway centerline markings. Taxiway
centreline lights are green, except in areas where the taxiway intersects with a runway, where
the green and yellow lights are placed alternatively. Research and experience have
demonstrated that guidance from centerline lights is superior to that from edge lights,
particularly in low visibility conditions. For normal exits, the centerline lights are terminated
at the edge of the runway. At taxiway intersections the lights continue across the intersection.
For long-radius high-speed exit taxiways, the taxiway lights are extended onto the runway
from a point 200 ft back from the point of curvature (PC) of the taxiway to the point of
tangency of the central curve of the taxiway. Within these limits the spacing of lights is 50 ft.
These lights are offset 2 ft from the runway centerline lights and are gradually brought into
alignment with the centerline of the taxiway. Where the taxiways intersect with runways and
aircraft are required to hold short of the runway, several yellow lights spaced at 5-ft intervals
are placed transversely across the taxiway.

RUNWAY GUARD LIGHTS

Runway guard lights (RGLs) are in-pavement lights located on taxiways at intersections of
runways to alert pilots and operators of airfield ground vehicles that they are about to enter
onto an active runway. RGLs are located across the width of the taxiway, approximately 2 ft
from the entrance to a runway, spaced at approximately 10-ft intervals,

RUNWAY STOP BAR

Similar to runway guard lights, runway stop bar lights are in-pavement lights on taxiways at
intersections with runways. As opposed to RGLs that provide warning to pilots approaching a
runway, runway stop bar lights are designed to act as ―stop‖ lights, directing aircraft and
vehicles on the taxiway not to enter the runway environment. Runway stop bar lights are
activated with red illuminations during periods of runway occupancy or other instances where
entrance from the taxiway to the runway is prohibited. In-pavement runway stop bar lighting
is typically installed in conjunction with elevated runway guard lights located outside the
width of the pavement.

RUNWAY AND TAXIWAY MARKING


In order to aid pilots in guiding the aircraft on runways and taxiways, pavements are marked
with lines and numbers. These markings are of benefit primarily during the day and dusk. At
night, lights are used to guide pilots in landing and maneuvering at the airport. White is used
for all markings on runways and yellow is used on taxiways and aprons.
RUNWAYS
The FAA has grouped runways for marking purposes into three classes: (1) Visual, or
―basic‖ runways, (2) Nonprecision instrument runways, and (3) Precision instrument
runways. The visual runway is a runway with no straight-in instrument approach procedure
and is intended solely for the operation of aircraft using visual approach procedures. The
nonprecision instrument runway is one having an existing instrument approach procedure
utilizing air navigation facilities with only horizontal guidance (typically VOR or GPS-based
RNAV approaches without vertical guidance) for which a straight-in nonprecision approach
procedure has been approved. A precision instrument runway is one having an existing
instrument approach procedure utilizing a precision instrument landing system or approved
GPS-based RNAV (area navigation) or RNP (required navigation performance) precision
approach. Runways that have a published approach based solely on GPS-based technologies
are known as GPS runways. Runway markings include runway designators, center lines,
threshold markings, aiming points, touchdown zone markings, and side stripes. Depending on
the length and class of runway and the type of aircraft operations intended for use on the
runway, all or some of the above markings are required.
RUNWAY DESIGNATORS
The end of each runway is marked with a number, known as a runway designator, which
indicates the approximate magnetic azimuth (clockwise from magnetic north) of the runway
in the direction of operations. The marking is given to the nearest 10° with the last digit
omitted. Thus a runway in the direction of an azimuth of 163° would be marked as runway 16
and this runway would be in the approximate direction of south-south-east. Therefore, the
east end of an east-west runway would be marked 27 (for 270° azimuth) and the west end of
an east-west runway would be marked 9 (for a 90° azimuth). If there are two parallel runways
in the east-west direction, for example, these runways would be given the designation 9L-
27R and 9R-27L to indicate the direction of each runway and their position (L for left and R
for right) relative to each other in the direction of aircraft operations. If a third parallel
runway existed in this situation it has traditionally been given the designation 9C-27C to
indicate its direction and position relative (C for center) to the other runways in the direction
of aircraft operations.
RUNWAY THRESHOLD MARKINGS
Runway threshold markings identify to the pilot the beginning of the runway that is safe and
available for landing. Runway threshold markings begin 20 ft from the runway threshold
itself. Runway threshold markings consist of two series of white stripes, each stripe 150 ft in
length and 5.75 ft in width, separated about the centerline of the runway. On each side of the
runway centerline, a number of threshold marking stripes are placed, For example, for a 100-
ft runway, eight stripes are required, in two groups of four are placed about the centerline.
Stripes within each set are separated by 5.75 ft. Each set of stripes is separated by 11.5 ft
about the runway centerline.
Centerline MARKINGS
Runway centerline markings are white, located on the centerline of the runway, and consist of
a line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. The stripes are 120 ft long and the gaps are 80 ft
long. Adjustments to the lengths of stripes and gaps, where necessary to accommodate
runway length, are made near the runway midpoint. The minimum width of stripes is 12 in
for visual runways, 18 in for nonprecision instrument runways, and 36 in for precision
instrument runways. The purpose of the runway centerline markings is to indicate to the pilot
the center of the runway and to provide alignment guidance on landing and takeoff.
AIMING POINTS
Aiming points are placed on runways of at least 4000 ft in length to provide enhanced visual
guidance for landing aircraft. Aiming point markings consist of two bold stripes, 150 ft long,
30 ft wide, spaced 72 ft apart symmetrically about the runway centerline, and beginning 1020
ft from the threshold.

TOUCHDOWN ZONE MARKINGS

Runway touchdown zone markings are white and consist of groups of one, two, and three
rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway centerline. These markings
begin 500 ft from the runway threshold. The bars are 75 ft long, 6 ft wide, with 5 ft spaces
between the bars, and are longitudinally spaced at distances of 500 ft along the runway. The
inner stripes are placed 36 ft on either side of the runway centerline. For runways less than
150 ft in width, the width and spacing of stripes may be proportionally reduced. Where
touchdown zone markings are installed on both runway ends on shorter runways, those pairs
of markings which would extend to within 900 ft of the runway midpoint are eliminated.

SIDE STRIPES

Runway side stripes consist of continuous white lines along each side of the runway to
provide contrast with the surrounding terrain or to delineate the edges of the full strength
pavement. The maximum distance between the outer edges of these markings is 200 ft and
these markings have a minimum width of 3 ft for precision instrument runways and are at
least as wide as the width of the centerline stripes on other runways.

DISPLACED THRESHOLD MARKINGS


At some airports it is desirable or necessary to ―displace‖ the runway threshold on a
permanent basis. A displaced threshold is one which has been moved a certain distance from
the end of the runway. Most often this is necessary to clear obstructions in the flight path on
landing. The displacement reduces the length of the runway available for landings, but
takeoffs can use the entire length of the runway. These markings consist of arrows and arrow
heads to identify the displaced threshold and a threshold bar to identify the beginning of the
runway threshold itself. Displaced threshold arrows are 120 ft in length, separated
longitudinally by 80 ft for the length of the displaced threshold. Arrow heads are 45 ft in
length, placed 5 ft from the threshold bar. The threshold bar is 5 ft in width and extends the
width of the runway at the threshold.

BLAST PAD MARKINGS


In order to prevent erosion of the soil, many airports provide a paved blast pad 150 to 200 ft
in length adjacent to the runway end. Similarly, some airport runways have a stopway which
is only designed to support aircraft during rare aborted takeoffs or landing overruns and is not
designed as a full strength pavement. Since these paved areas are not designed to support
aircraft and yet may have the appearance of being so designed, markings are required to
indicate this.
CENTERLINE AND EDGE MARKINGS
The centerline of the taxiway is marked with a single continuous 6-in yellow line. On taxiway
curves, the taxiway centerline marking continues from the straight portion of the taxiway at a
constant distance from the outside edge of the curve. At taxiway intersections which are
designed for aircraft to travel straight through the intersection, the centerline markings
continue straight through the intersection. At the intersection of a taxiway with a runway end,
the centerline stripe of the taxiway terminates at the edge of the runway.
TAXIWAY HOLD MARKINGS
For taxiway intersections where there is an operational need to hold aircraft, a dashed yellow
holding line is placed perpendicular to and across the centerline of both taxiways. When a
taxiway intersects a runway or a taxiway enters an instrument landing system critical area, a
holding line is placed across the taxiway. The holding line for a taxiway intersecting a
runway consists of two solid lines of yellow stripes and two broken lines of yellow stripes
placed perpendicular to the centerline of the taxiway and across the width of the taxiway. The
solid lines are always placed on the side where the aircraft is to hold. The holding line for an
instrument landing system critical area consists of two solid lines placed perpendicular to the
taxiway centerline and across the width of the taxiway joined with three sets of two solid
lines symmetrical about and parallel to the taxiway center line.
TAXIWAY SHOULDERS
In some areas on the airfield, the edges of taxiways may not be well defined due to their
adjacency to other paved areas such as aprons and holding bays. In these areas, it is prudent
to mark the edges of taxiways with shoulder markings. Taxiway shoulder markings are
yellow in

colour, and are often painted on top of a green background. The shoulder markings consist of
3-ft-long yellow stripes placed perpendicular to the taxiway edge stripes, On straight sections
of the taxiway, the marks are placed at a maximum spacing of 100 ft. On curves, the marks
are placed on a maximum of 50 ft apart between the curve tangents.

ENHANCED TAXIWAY MARKINGS

Beginning in 2008, all airports serving commercial air carriers are required to mark certain
critical areas of the airfield with enhanced taxiway markings. These markings are designed to
provide additional guidance and warning to pilots of runway intersections. Enhanced
markings consist primarily of yellow-painted lines, using paint mixtures with imbedded glass
beads to enhance visibility. In addition, yellow markings must be marked on top of a
darkened black background. Taxiway centerlines are enhanced for 150 ft from the runway
hold-short markings. The centerline enhancements include dashed yellow lines 9 ft in length,
separated longitudinally by 3 ft. These yellow lines are placed 6 in from each end of the
existing centerline.

Closed Runway and Taxiway Markings When runways or taxiways are permanently or
temporarily closed to aircraft, yellow crosses are placed on these trafficways. For
permanently closed runways, the threshold, runway designation, and touchdown markings are
obliterated and crosses are placed at each end and at 1000 ft intervals. For temporarily closed
runways, the runway markings are not obliterated, the crosses are usually of a temporary type
and are only placed at the runway ends. For permanently closed taxiways, a cross is placed on
the closed taxiway at each entrance to the taxiway. For temporarily closed taxiways
barricades with orange and white markings are normally erected at the entrances.

Runway Pavement Design


Pavement design methods are based on the gross weight of the aircraft. Since it is impracticable
to develop design curves for each type of aircraft, composite aircraft are determined and loads are
converted from the actual aircraft to the design aircraft, the design aircraft being the one that
requires the greatest thickness of pavement. The traffic forecast, which includes the mix of
aircraft anticipated, is converted to a traffic forecast of equivalent annual departures. FAA
Advisory Circular AC150/5320-6C CHG 2 [1978] presents a number of curves to be used to
design the pavement thickness for both flexible and rigid pavements.

INSTRUMENTAL LANDING SYSTEMS AND AIR NAVIGATION AIDS

Aids to navigation, known as NAVAIDS, can be broadly classified into two groups, ground-
based systems and satellite-based systems. Each system is complimented by systems installed
in the cockpit.

GROUND-BASED SYSTEMS NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON

The oldest active ground-based navigational aid is the nondirectional beacon (NDB). The
NDB emits radio frequency signals on frequencies between 400 and 1020 Hz modulation.
NDBs are typically mounted on a pole approximately 35 ft tall. They may be located on or
off airport property, at least 100 ft clear of metal buildings, power lines, or metal fences.
While the NDB is quickly being phased out in the United States, it is still a very common
piece of navigational equipment in other parts of the world, particularly in developing
nations. Aircraft navigate using the NDB by referencing an automatic direction finder (ADF)
located on the aircraft‗s panel. The ADF simply points toward the location of the NDB.

VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIRANGE RADIO

The advances in radio and electronics during and after World War II led to the installation of
the very high frequency omnirange (VOR) radio stations. These stations are located on the
ground and send out radio signals in all directions. Each signal can be considered as a course
or a route, referred to as a radial that can be followed by a aircraft. In terms of 1° intervals,
there are 360 courses or routes that are radiated from a VOR station, from 0° pointing toward
magnetic north increasing to 359° in a clockwise direction. The VOR transmitter station is a
small square building topped with what appears to be a white derby hat. It broadcasts on a
frequency just above that of FM radio stations. The very high frequencies it uses are virtually
free of static. The system of VOR stations establish the network of airways and jet routes and
are also essential to area navigation. The range of a VOR station varies but is usually less
than 200 nm.

Aircraft equipped with a VOR receiver in the cockpit have a dial for tuning in the desired
VOR frequency. A pilot can select the VOR radial or route he wishes to follow to the VOR
station. In the cockpit there is also an omnibearing selector (OBS) which indicates the
heading of the aircraft relative to the direction of the desired radial and whether the aircraft is
to the right or left of the radial.

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT

Distance measuring equipment (DME) has traditionally been installed at VOR stations in the
United States. The DME shows the pilot the slant distance between the aircraft and a
particular VOR station. Since it is the air distance in nautical miles that is measured, the
receiving equipment in an aircraft flying at 35,000 ft directly over the DME station would
read 5.8 nm. An en route air navigation aid which best suited the tactical needs of the military
was developed by the Navy in the early 1950s. This aid is known as TACAN, which stands
for tactical air navigation. This aid combines azimuth and distance measuring into one unit
instead of two and is operated in the ultra-high-frequency band. As a compromise between
civilian and military requirements, the FAA replaced the DME portion of its VOR facilities
with the distance measuring components of TACAN. These stations are known as VORTAC
stations. If a station has full TACAN equipment, both azimuth and distance measuring
equipment, and also VOR, it is designated as VORTAC. NDB and VOR systems are often
located on airport airfields. The location of these systems on airport, known as TVORs, are
significant to airport planners and designers, as the location of other facilities, such as large
buildings, particularly constructed of metal, may adversely affect the performance of the
navaid. TVORs should be located at least 500 ft from any runways and 250 ft from any
taxiways. Any structures or trees should be located at least 1000 ft from the TVOR antenna.
There should also be a clearance angle of at least 2.5° for any structures and 2.0° for any trees
beyond 1000 ft.

AIRPORT TRAFFIC CONTROL

Air traffic control facility provide the basis for communication with aircraft and the relay and
clearance of flight plans for air traffic. There are three basic types of facilities: air route
traffic control centre, airport traffic control tower and flight service station. The first attempt
to set up rules for air traffic control was made by the International Commission for Air
Navigation (ICAN), which was under the direction of the League of Nations. The procedures
which the commission promulgated in July of 1922 were adopted by 14 countries. Although
the United States was not a member of the League of Nations, and therefore did not officially
adopt the rules, many of the procedures established by ICAN were used in the promulgation
of air traffic procedures in the United States as well as in most regions of the world.
Construction and operation of the airways system in the United States prior to 1926 were
controlled by the military and by the Post Office Department. The formal entry of the federal
government into the regulation of air traffic came with the passage of the Air Commerce Act
of 1926 (Public Law 64-254). This act directed the Bureau of Air Commerce to establish,
maintain, and operate lighted civil airways. At the present time the Federal Aviation
Administration maintains and operates the airways system of the United States.

AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL CENTRE (ARTCC)

There are several domestic air route traffic control the movement of aircraft along the
airways. Each centre has control of a definite geographical area and is concern primarily with
the control of aircraft. At the boundary limit of the control area of the centre, aircraft is
released either to adjacent centre or to an airport control tower. Nowadays most of the aircraft
separation is maintained by radar. Each ARTCC is broken down into sectors in order to
increase efficiency of the personnel in the centre. Each sector are smaller geographical areas,
air traffic is monitored in each sector by remote radar unit at the geographical location. In the
process aircraft flight plan is transferred between the sectors within an air route traffic control
centre and between the air tarfic control centre when crossing the ARTCC boundary.

AIRPORT TRAFFIC CONTROL TOWER


Airport control towers are the facilities that supervise, direct and monitor traffic within the
airport area. The control tower provides a traffic control function for aircraft arriving or
departing from an airport for 5 to 20km radius. Some control tower have approach control
facilities and associated airport surveillance radar (ASR) which guide aircraft to the airport
from a number of specific positions, called ―fixes‖ within approximately 40 km of airport.
Aircraft are brought to this position by ARTCCs. It is often at these fixes; aircraft are held or
―stacked‖ for landing during periods of heavy traffic.

FLIGHT SERVICE STATION (FSS)


FSS which are nowadays fully automated, are located long the airways and at airports. Thir
main functions are
฀ Relay traffic control messages between en route aircraft and air route traffic control centre.

฀ Brief pilots, before flight and in flight, on weather, navigational aids, airports that are out
of commission, and changes in procedure and new facilities.

฀ Disseminate weather information.

฀ Monitor navigation aids.


DOCK & HARBOUR ENGINEERING
 HARBOUR

It is partly enclosed area which provides safe and suitable accommodation for
supplies, refueling, repair, loading and unloading cargo.

 PORT

A port is a harbour where marine terminal facilities are provided. A port is a place
which regularly provides accommodation for the transfer of cargo and passengers to and from
the ships.

Port = Harbour + Storage Facility + Communication Facility + Other Terminal


Facility.

a port includes a harbour i.e. every port is a harbour.

Harbour Components

 Entrance Channel
 Break Water
 Turning Basin
 Shelter Basin
 Pier
 Wharf

 Quay
 Dry Dock
 Wet Dock
 Jetty
 ENTRANCE CHANNEL:-

Water area from which ships enter in the harbour and it should have
sufficient width, 100 for small harbour, 100 to 160m for medium and 160 to 260m for large
harbour.

 BREAK WATER:-

A protective barrier made up of Concrete or Course Rubble Masonry


constructed from shore towards the sea to enclose harbour .

 TURNING BASIN:-

It is water area which is required for maneuvering the ship after


entering to the harbour and it is large enough to permit free turning.

 SHELTER BASIN:-

It is area protected by shore and breakwater.

 PIER:-

It is a solid platform at which berthing of ships on both the sides are possible.

 WHARF:-

It is a docking platform constructed parallel to shoreline providing berthing facility on one


side only.

 QUAY:-

It is also dock parallel to the shore which is solid structure providing berthing
on one side and retaining the earth on the other.

 DRY DOCK:-

It is a chamber provided for maintenance, repairs and construction of ships. It


includes walls, floor and gate.

 WET DOCK:-

Due to variation in tidal level, an enclosed basin is provided where in number


of ships can be berthed. It has an entrance which is controlled by a lock gate.

 JETTY:-
It is a solid platform constructed perpendicular to the shoreline for berthing of
ships.

 QUAY:-

It is also dock parallel to the shore which is solid structure providing berthing
on one side and retaining the earth on the other.

 DRY DOCK:-

It is a chamber provided for maintenance, repairs and construction of ships. It


includes walls, floor and gate.
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD HARBOUR

 It should be connected with roadway and railway.

 Surrounding land should be fertile and densely populated.

 Ship channels must have sufficient depth for draft or vessel.

 Breakwaters must be provided to protect against destructive wave action.

 The bottom should furnished secure anchorage to hold ships against the wind force.
 Numbers of quay, piers and wharfs should be sufficient for loading and unloading
cargo.

 It should have facilities like fuel, repair and etc. for ships.

 Harbour area should be sufficiently large.

 It should have enough cold storage.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARBOURS

 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE PROTECTION NEEDED

 Natural Harbour:-

Harbour protected by storms and waves by natural land contours, rocky out crops, or
island that is called Natural Contour. (Eg. Kandla port, Cochin port & Mumbai Harbour)

 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE PROTECTION NEEDED

 Semi - Natural Harbour:-

A semi – natural harbour is protected on the sides by the contours of land and requires
manmade protection only to the entrance. (Eg. Mandvi, Veraval & Visakhapatnam port)

 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE PROTECTION NEEDED


 Artificial Harbour:-

An artificial harbour is one which is manmade and protected from storms and waves
by engineering works. (Eg. Chennai Harbour)

 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON UTILITY

 Commercial Harbour:-

It is an harbour in which docks are provided with necessary facilities for loading and
unloading of cargo. (Eg. Chennai Harbour)

 Refuge Harbour:-

These are used as a heaven for ships in a storm or it may be part of a commercial
harbour. (Eg. Chennai Harbour & Visakhapatnam Harbour)

 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON UTILITY

 Military Harbour:-

It is a naval base for the purpose of accommodating naval ships or vessels and it serves
as a supply depot. (Eg. Mumbai Harbour & Cochin Harbour)

 Fishing Harbour:-

These harbours have facilities for departure and arrival of fishing ships. They have
also necessary arrangement to catch fish.

 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON LOCATION

 Ocean Harbour

 River Harbour

 Canal Harbour

 Lake Harbour
Classification of Ports

 Ocean Port:-

This is a port intended for large ocean going ships.

 River Port:-

River port is located on the banks of the river inside the land.

 Entry Port:-

This is location where foreign citizens and goods are cleared through custom house.

 Free Port:-

This is an isolated and enclosed area within which goods may be landed, stored, mixed,
repacked, manufactured and reshipped without payment of duties.

Harbour Planning

 It is necessary to carry out a topography survey of the neighborhood including the


foreshore and the depths of water in the vicinity.

 The borings and soundings should be taken to ascertain the character of the ground.
 The borings on land should also be made so as to know the probable subsurface
conditions on land. It will be helpful in locating the harbour works correctly.

 The nature of harbour, whether sheltered or not, should be studied.

 The existence of sea insects which undermine the foundations should be noted.

 The problem of silting or erosion of coastline should be carefully studied.

 The natural meteorological phenomena should be studied at site especially with


respect to frequency of storms, rainfall, range of tides, maximum and minimum
temperature, direction and intensity of winds, humidity, direction and velocity of
currents, etc.

Site Selection For Harbour

Great care ahs to be exercised at the time of making selection of site for a harbour. The
guiding factors which play a great role in choice of site for a harbour are as follows:

 Availability of cheap land and construction material;

 Transport and communication facilities;

 Natural protection from winds and waves;

 Industrial development of the locality;

 Sea – bed, subsoil and foundation conditions;

 Traffic potentiality of harbour;

 Availability of electrical energy and fresh water;

 Favorable marine conditions;

 Defense and strategic aspects; etc.

Size of Harbour

 Size of harbour depends upon the number and size of ships likely to use the harbour at
one time. Some of the biggest modern ships are 275m to 300m long and about 30m
wide.

 There should be sufficient area for maneuvering them without collision. Thus, the size
is determined by:

 Accommodation required.

 Convenience for maneuvering and navigation.

 Adaptability to natural features.


 WIDTH OF ENTRANCE TO THE HARBOUR:-

The entrance width should be in proportion to the size of the harbour and ships using
it. To reduce the wave height with in the harbour, the entrance width should not be more than
that necessary to provide safe navigation and also to prevent dangerous currents, when the
tide is coming in and going out.

 For Small Harbours = 90m

 For Medium Harbours = 120 to 150m

 For Large Harbours = 150 to 250m

WIDTH OF ENTRANCE CHANNEL:-

 WIDTH OF ENTRANCE CHANNEL:-

The entrance channel width is divided into:

(I) Manouvering lane width = 2B

(II) Ship clearance lane width = B

(III) Bank clearance-depends on the side slopes.

From Fig.,

The width of entrance channel for single lane traffic,

L = 4B + 2 (bank clearance)

 TURNING BASIN:-
The radius of turning basin should be equal to two times the length of the largest ship
calling at the harbour.

R = 2l

Where, R = Radius of turning basin,

l = length of the largest ship

 WAVE HEIGHT WITHIN THE HARBOUR:-

Where, h = Height of reduced waves any point P in harbour, m

H = Height of wave at entrance, m

B = Breadth of entrance, m

L = Breadth of harbour at P, m

D = Distance of P from entrance, m

 DEPTH OF HARBOUR:-

The channel depth is generally determined by the following formula:

Where, D‘ = The draft of the largest ship to be


accommodated

H = The height of storm waves, crest to trough

D‘‘ = Allowance for squat.

Since harbour is designed and constructed for providing berthing and cargo handling
facilities for the ships, it is necessary to be familiar with the various ship features related to
harbour planning.

 LOAD LINE:-
It indicate a line showing the water level to which they may legally be
loaded.

 DISPLACEMENT LOAD:-

The weight of ship and its contents when fully loaded with cargo to the
load line is known as displacement load.

 DISPLACEMENT LIGHT:-

The weight of ship without cargo, fuel and stores is known as


displacement light.

 GROSS REGISTERED TOUNAGE (G. R. T):-

This is the total measured internal capacity of a ship expressed in units


of 2.83 m3 or 100cu.ft.

 NET REGISTERED TOUNAGE (N. R. T):-

This is the carrying capacity of a ship expressed in units of 2.83m3.

 DEAD WEIGHT TOUNAGE (D. W. T):-

This is the carrying capacity of a ship by weight. It is a weight of


cargo, fuel, stores, passengers, crew etc.

D. W. T = Displacement Load – Displacement Light

 DISPLACEMENT TOUNAGE:-

This is the actual weight of the ship. It is the weight of water displaced
when afloat and may be either loaded or light.

 DRAFT:-

It is the depth of the keel of the ship below water level.

 CARGO TOUNAGE:-

It is a commercial expression which forms the basis of freight charge.


It can be measured by volume or weight.

 BALLAST:-

It is the weight added in the ballast compartments of a ship to increase


its draft after it has discharged its cargo an dto improve its stability.
Points and crossings
Points and crossings are provided to transfer trains from one
track to another:

o POINT (SWITCH): The device that is use to divert the


wheels
o CROSSING: Gaps in the rail that enables the actual
diversion
o TURNOUT: Complete set of points and crossing including
the main (lead) rail
Necessity of Points & Crossings
1. Diversion of train from one track to another is controlled
automatically by
2. wheel flanges, unlike steering the wheels of roadway
vehicles.
3. Points and crossings are special arrangement for this
diversion
4. Provide flexibility of movement by connecting one line to
another
5. Helps to impose restrictions over turnouts to retard
movement Weak kinks or points in the track and are
susceptible to derailment
6. Simplest combination of points and crossings
7. Enables one track either a branch line or a siding, to take off
from another track
Turnout - Definition
• Simple arrangement of points and crossings by the manipulation of
which the train from one track may be diverted to the another track or
branch line or to siding is known as turnout.
• 2 tracks either merge or diverge, or 2 tracks parallel to each other but
are still connected to each other- This connection helps in changing the
direction of trains.
• for this points and crossings are used.
• The combination of lead rails with curved rails (and fastenings) helps
in diverting rolling stock from one track to another track.
• Rails depending on curvature
– Lead rails are straight
– Curved rails have curvature
• Turnouts are also provided in yards and sidings
Right Hand Turnout: Left Hand Turnout:
If a train is diverted from If a train is diverted from main
main track is diverted to track is diverted to the left of
the right of the main the main route in the facing
direction, then the diversion is
route in the facing
known as Left Hand Turnout.
direction, then the
diversion is known as
Right Hand Turnout.
Right hand turnout with full components
Component Parts of a
Turnout
1. A pair of tongue rails
2. A pair of stock rails
3. Two check rails
4. Four lead rails
5. A Vee crossing
6. Slide chairs
7. Stretcher bar
8. A pair of heel blocks
9. Switch tie plate or gauge
10. Parts for operating
points-
Rods, cranks, levers etc
11. Locking system which
includes locking box, lock
bar, plunger bar etc
Facing direction:
– Standing at switch and looking towards crossing
Trailing direction:
– Standing at crossing and looking towards switches
Points:
– A pair of tongue rails with stock rails
– Train diverting from the main track will negotiate these points
first.
Tongue Rail:
– It is a tapered movable rail, made of high-carbon or manganese
steel to withstand wear.

– At its thicker end, it is attached to a running rail.

– A tongue rail is also called a switch rail.


Stock Rail:
– It is the running rail against which a tongue rail operates.
Switch angle:
– angle between the gauge face of the stock rail and tongue rail
at the theoretical toe of switch.
Throw of switch:
– Distance by which the tongue rail moves laterally at the toe of
switch
Types of Switches:
 There are two types of switches:
 1. Stub switch
 2. Split switch
 Split switch are of two types:
 a. Loose heel type
 b. Fixed heel type
Stub Switch

Split Switch
POINTS OR SWITCHES
o Switch consists of a stock rail & a tongue rail
o Set of switches or points consists of a left-hand switch & a right-
hand switch
o Heel – thicker end of tapered rail fixed to main track
o Toe – thinner end which is movable, to divert train from one
route to another
Point(Switches):-
o Stock rail: It is the running rail against which a tongue rail
operates.
o Tongue rail: It is a tapered movable rail, made of high carbon
or manganese steel to withstand wear. At this end, it is attached
to a running rail. A tongue rail is also called a switch rail.
o Heel Block: These blocks are inserted between the heel of the
tongue rail and stock rail. These are made of C.I. and are used
to provide a clear gap for the wheel flange.

o Switch tie plate: This is provided below the slide chairs at the
toe. There are two butt straps at the ends to ensure the definite
location of slide chair and hence of the rails. Standard sections
are 25×1.25 cm for BG and 22.5×0.9 cm for MG.
o Stretcher bar: The toes of both the tongue rails are connected
together by means of stretcher bars, so that each tongue moves
through the same distance or gap while changing the points.
Generally two or three bars are used near the toe.
Design Calculations of Turnouts
o Design calculation are based on three factors

o Method of calculating various leads

o Method employed for crossing angle

o Type of tongue rail used


Curve Lead (CL)
Distance b/w TNC & tangent point „T‟ measured along the length of
main track
Switch Lead (SL)
Distance b/w tangent point „T‟ & heel of the switch (H.S.) measured
along the length of main track
Crossing Lead (L)
Distance b/w TNC & heel of the switch (H.S.) measured
along the length of main track

Note: Lead rails, being curved,


are not measured along curved
length, but projected length on
adjacent straight rail is measured
Crossings
• A Crossing is a device which provide two flange ways through
which the wheels of the flanges may move, when two rails
intersect each other at an angle.

Types of crossings:
Based on shape of crossing: Based on assembly of crossing:
1. Actual angle crossing 1. Spring crossing
2. obtuse angle crossing 2. Cross crossing
3. Right angle crossing 3. Diamond crossing
4. Scissors crossing
5. Ladder track or gathering line
• use at goods yard.
Signalling

o Signalling is the device by which the movement of trains is

controlled

o Highly important in terms of safety

o Trains can be operated efficiently, utilization of tracks and

tracks can be done at maximum levels

o Signalling includes signals, points, blocks and other

equipment;
Objects of Signalling

o Maintain safe distance between trains running in the same

direction on a single line.

o Safe distance between trains which are approaching or

crossing a crossing.

o To run the trains at restricted speeds during repair works

o At junctions to prevent the trains from colliding


CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
Classification of signals
 Depending on the functional characteristics
• Stop or semaphore type signals
• Warner signals
• Shunting signals
• Coloured light signals
Depending on the location characteristics
• Outer receptional signals
• Home receptional signals
• Starter signals
• Advance starter signals
Depending on the operational characteristics
• Fog or audible or detonating signals
• Visual indication hand signals
• Visual indication fixed signals
Special / operation signals
• Routing signals
• Calling on signals
• Point indicators
• Repeater or co-acting signals
• Modified lower quadrant semaphore signals
• Miscellaneous signals
Controlling signals
Which are mandatory to
observe for train movement

Indicating signals

Correspond to the traffic


signs of highways. Also
mandatory to observe.
Warning signals
 They provide a pre-hand
warning to the driver about the
controlling signals ahead. These
only enhance the efficiency and
provide a further safety caution.
Detonating Signals
 Used when hand and fixed signals or not visible (foggy and
cloudy conditions)
 Also used during emergencies (derailment, accidents etc.,)
 These are in the form of detonators fixed on the top of rails
 When engine passes over it explodes with big sound and alerts
the driver to stop the train.
 3 to 4 detonators are placed at an interval of
about 10 to 15m at 400 to 500m ahead.
Hand Signals
 Given by the guard using coloured flags or by bare arms
 During night times kerosene lamps fitted with movable
green, red and yellow coloured glasses are used.
o Green - proceed
o Red - dead stop
o Yellow – proceed with caution
Semaphore Signals
 Consist of a vertical post on which a movable arm is pivoted at
the top.
 Arm can be kept horizontal or it can be inclined at 45 degree to
horizontal
 Outer end of arm is 2.45cm broader than that at post.
 Movable arm is controlled by means of levers and cables from
the cabin.
 Spectacles of red and green or fixed in the arm
 These are fixed on the left hand side of track, with spectacles
towards driver.
 Horizontal arm indicates “
DANGER –STOP ”
 and the inclined arm
indicates “ CLEAR –
PROCEED”.
 In the day time position of
arm indicates the signal.
 During the night time light
of lamp passing through
spectacle gives the signal.
Warner Signal
 This is similar to semaphore signal
 Difference is it contains a fish tailed arm
 These signals are placed ahead the semaphore
 signals to warn the driver before entering the railway station.
 When the arm is horizontal – indicates signal ahead is stop
 Warner signals are placed 540m away from the first stop signal.
 Some times warner signals are provided with yellow lights instead
of red to distinguish them from semaphore signals during nights.
 Some times both warner and semaphore signals are placed on the
same pole
 Both horizontal – stop line not clear
 Semaphore lower, warner horizontal – proceed with caution
 Both lowered – proceed on with confidence (this section and
next section both are clear)
Shunting Signals
 Also called as disc or ground signals or miniature semaphore
signals
 Used during shunting operations
 Consist of a circular disc painted white with a red band along
its diameter.
 Red band is horizontal – stop
 Red band is inclined – proceed
 Similar to semaphore these are also provided with lamp and
colored glasses
Coloured light signals

Used for automatic signalling these days


No moving arm is present
Give indication by electric light both during day and night
o Red – Stop
o Green – Proceed
o Yellow – Proceed with caution
Outer Signal
This is the warner signal first seen by the driver
 Trains moving at high speed require certain distance for
stopping
 Hence driver informed about the position in advance that
platform is clear or not.
 This signal gives the position of stop signal ahead.
 As it is provided at some distance away from station it is also
called as distant or outer or warner signal.
In horizontal or stop position it indicates that the driver must bring
his train to halt within 90 m before outer signal and than proceed
to the home signal with caution
In the inclined or proceed position it indicates that track and
platform is clear and proceed normally without any danger.
Home signal
 It is next signal after outer signal towards station
 It is a simple semaphore signal and indicates whether platform
is clear or not
HOME SIGNAL
After the outer signal towards station is a stop signal and exactly
placed at the station limit is called home or stop signal. Its main
function is to protect the stations. The permission to enter the
platform is given by the operation of this signal. The maximum
unprotected distance between the signal and the point, it is intended
to protect is specified as 180 m due to its location at the door of
station, it is called home signal.
STARTER SIGNAL
 This signal is provided at the forward end of platform and
controls the movement of the train as they leave the station. It
gives permission to the train to leave the platform for next
station. No train can leave the platform unless this signal is
lowered, that is why it is called starter signal. A separate signal is
provided for each line.
ADVANCE STARTER SIGNAL

 The limit of a station section lies between the home signal and
the advance starter signal. The signal which allows the train to
enter in block section is called advance starter signal. It is
always placed beyond the outer most set of the point
connections. These signals are placed about 180m beyond the
last point or switches.
ROUTING SIGNAL

When many branch lines diverge in different directions from the


main line, it is very difficult to provide individual signal for each
line at the divergent point.
In such situations various signals for main line and branch lines are
fixed on the same vertical post. These signals are called routing
signal. Generally signal for main line is kept higher than those for
branch lines
REPEATING SIGNAL

When the view of the main signal is obstructed due to some


structures or on curves etc. some signals are used to repeat the
information of the main signal. Such signal are know as repeating
signal.
CALLING ON SIGNAL

These signal are similar to semaphore signal, but they are smaller in
size and are fixed on the same post below the main signals. A calling
on signal permits a train to proceed with caution after the train has
been brought to a halt by the main signal. These are helpful when
repair works are going on.
Signalling Systems
฀ Absolute block system

฀ Space interval system

฀ Time interval system

฀ Pilot guard system


Absolute Block System
 This system involves dividing the entire length of the track
into sections called block sections.
 A block section lies between two stations that are provided
with block instruments
 The block instruments of adjoining stations are connected
through railway lines.
 A token can be taken from the block instrument of a
particular station with the consent of both the station
masters.
 In the absolute block system, the departure of a train from
one station to another is not permitted until and unless the
previous train has completely arrived at the next station.
 i.e., trains are not permitted to enter the section between two
stations at the same time.
 Each station has two block instruments; one for the station
ahead and the other for the previous station
 These are electrically interconnected
Absolute Block System
Time interval method

 Trains are Spaced Over an length of a track in such a way


that, if the first train stops, the following train driver should
be able to stop the train in sufficient distance without
colliding with the first one.
 This type is used where traffic is less and weight of the trains
are less, e.g: Trams
 This Type of System cannot be used in Passenger rails since
weight and traffic is High
Space interval method
 In this method of “Control Over Movement”, the length of
the track is divided in to sections called Blocks.
 The Entry of a train in to the „Block‟ is controlled in such a
way that only when it is free, a train can be allowed to enter
it.
 This means that between two consecutive trains , there is
definite space interval.
Interlocking system
 Arrangement of of signals, points and other appliances, so
interconnected by mechanical or electrical locking that
their operation takes place in a predetermined sequence to
ensure that conflicting movement of signals and points do
not take place and train runs safely.

Necessity
 increase in the number of points and signals
 Increase in speeds
 Points and signals arranged in fool proof manner.
Conflicting movements are avoided
 Helps in proper and safe working of the system
 An arrangement of signals, points and appliances, operated from
a panel or lever frame or VDU, so interconnected by
Mechanical locking or electrical locking or both that their
operation must take place in proper sequence to ensure safety
Standards
฀ 1st standard : makes use of key interlocking
 Running speed for trains restricted to 50kmph
฀ 2nd standard:
 used on non trunk main routes
 Operated mechanically or electrically
 Speed less than 75kmph
฀ 3rd standard;
 Makes used of mechanically or electrically interconnected
 Uses latest interlocking techniques also.
Key Interlocking
 Simplest method of interlocking
 Involves the manipulation of keys in one form or other
 This type of interlocking is normally provided with standard 1
interlocking
 Arrangement of key interlocking is done as below when a
main line and branch line exist on a single track.
Key Interlocking
Key interlocking
 Point can be set either for main line or branch line
 A, B are the keys for main and branch lines. At any point only one of
the keys can be taken out.
 Lever frame operating the signals is provided with 2 signals and will
be operated by keys A and B only.
 If the train is to be received on main line, the key is locked for point
on main line, and A is taken out and inserted in the lever for signal of
main line.
 Thus lowering the signal of main line.
 This type of signal is called indirect interlocking.
 If there are multiple lines succession interlocking will be used.
Mechanical Interlocking
 Improved form of interlocking
compared to key interlocking
 Greater safety and
 less manpower
 Done using plungers and tie bars
 Plungers are of size 30cm x
1.6cm and have notches in them
 Tie bars are placed at right
angles to plungers
 and are provided with suitable
shaped riveted cast iron pieces
(tappets) that exactly fit in
notches.
 Main components are
• Locking frame
• Point frame
• Signal fittings
• And connecting devices
 Levers are arranged in a row in the frame
 Pulling a point lever operates the point to which it is connected
through a steel rod.
 Pulling a signal lever changes the signal by pulling the wire
connecting the lever and signal.
 This entire arrangement is provided in a locking trough where
tappets are provided, which move at right angles to the plungers.
 When lever is pulled, it causes the plunger which it is connected
to move.
 Due to wedge action, the tappet accommodated in the notch of
the plunger is pushed out at right angles to the movement of
plunger.
Mechanical interlocking
 The motion gets transferred to the other tappets which are
connected to the other tappets by means of tie rod.
 Some tappets gets pushed in, some pushed out as a result.
 In case a tappet is free and pushed into the notch, it locks the
lever connected to that plunger.
 Else if it is already locked, it will come out of notch, and the
lever becomes free to be operated.
Different cases of mechanical interlocking
฀ Normal interlocking:
• Pulling one lever locks other lever in normal position
฀ Back locking or release locking:
• Lever in normal position locks the other lever in normal
position.
• When pulled other lever released and is free to operate
• When other pulled, first one gets locked in pulled position.
฀ Both wall locking:
• Once the lever is locked other lever locked in current position.
฀ Conditional locking:
• Pulling one lever locks other lever only when certain
Electrical interlocking
 Achieved through electrical switches known as relays
 Manipulation of relays achieves interlocking
 In the place of plungers or in addition to plungers, lever locks
are attached with levers.
 These work by making use of the principle of
 electromagnetism.
 Soft iron core wrapped inside a iron core turns into magnet
when current passes through it.
 An arrangement named armature is attached to this magnet.
 Depending on whether the armature is attached or not
interlocking works here.
 This entire system is housed
in a glass or metal box
known as relay.
Panel interlocking
 All points and signals are operated electrically from a central
location
 The switches for operating these points and signals are mounted
on a panel, which also bears the diagram of the yard layout
 Electrical interlocking is achieved by means of relays
 Centralized controlling of greater area is great advantage
 With elimination of inter cabin controlling greater number of
trains can be run with less
Route Relay Interlocking
 Improvement over panel interlocking
 In panel interlocking each point in the line has to be individually
setup with a switch and clearance of signal is obtained by
operating the switch.
 In R.R.I only a pair of switches are used for doing all these
operations automatically.
 Signal is also cleared in the similar automated manner
 The main requirement for this type of interlocking is entire track
needs to be track circuited.
 The conditions of track circuit and various indications of all
signal are mirrored on the panel that carries the diagram of the
yard.
 By looking at these indications a panel operator can a panel
operator can easily know whether a track is free or not.
 Once the route is set to allow, the portion gets illuminated with
white light.
 If the route is occupied, it will show in red colour.
 If the train has cleared the track, the lights will off.
The Automatic Warning System (AWS)
 It is a device that triggers the automatic application of brakes if
the signal is indicating danger and the driver has not taken any
action.
 The system consists of a track device located at a desirable
braking distance at the rear end of the first stop signal.
 The track device is activated when the signal indicates danger
and is ineffective when the signal is „clear‟.
 Alarm will sound if driver don‟t take action during a stop
signal.
 Then emergency brakes are applied automatically.
Different components.
Points:
 Points are set mechanically and are kept in locks and stretcher
bars.
 The mechanical arrangement for operating them includes a solid
rod and cranks.
 Point locks, detectors and lock bars used for controlling and
directing the points.
Point locks
 A point lock is provided to ensure that each point is set
correctly.
 It is provided between two tongue rails and near the toe of the
switch assembly.
 The point lock consists of a plunger, which moves in a plunger
casing.
 The plunger is worked by means of a plunger rod, which is
connected to the signal cabin through a lock bar.
Detectors:
 Provided at all points
 To detect any defect or failure in the connection between
points and levers
 To ensure the correct signal is lowered
 It can be mechanical or electrical
Lock bar
 A lock bar is provided to make it impossible to change the
point when a train is passing over it.

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