Chapter 2

Pre-history

The source material for early history of Kerala is travel records

and Sanghom literature. These belong to first century A, D, onwards.
Hence the period before Christ can be called pre-history so far as
Kerala history is concerned. The source material for study of pre
history consists mainly of implements used for living and structures
made with thoseimplements. The implements were mainlyof stone,
copper and iron. Since copper was not available in Kerala, the tools
were mostly of stone and iron. As iron came to be used in India only
from 10h century B.C, the period before that was Stone Age in Kerala.
Stone structures such as tombs and memorials appeared in Kerala
from 5 century B. C. The period of such structures is known as
Megalithic period.
Stone Age
R. B.Foot who isconsidered to be the father of Indian
pre-historic
research. hadcarried out investigations in Kerala also by the end of
the 19" century. Since he could not collect any evidence to prove the
existence of Stone Age in Kerala. he contended that there was no
Such period in Kerala. In order to substantiate this claim, he als
pointed out that Kerala was not ideal for human inhabitationduc 0
heavy rainfall, dense forests and marshy lands near the sea
Shore.
Moreover, quartzite., suitable for the production of stone implemenis
Was not available here. Perhans due to this assertion: there waS
research inthat direction for about a century, It was only in 1974 tnat
Dr. P. Rajendran found out an ancient stone impiiient from
Kanjirapuzha of Palakkad district. Subscquent researches have
 the and The Polished is
qualitatively the Chert case district):
andCharakkalpadi.
Pandikkad Ayannur.
Agali,
district: Bhavani quartzite
Karimpuzhakkal
were of
The Thenkara, implements.
Neolithic Pre-history
to
include claim,
excavated Kerala." received
Karnataka'TTamarasseri because
his Wayanad age. Onlbelieved Chirakkadavu were the
y
technology Angode of Dr., paleolithic
Kottyam Paleolithic
existencethereforeabodes The can located. located discovery
any and Paleolithic Walayar, Rajendran and
Dr. Similar
from Neolithic stone very that Thenmala flakes
Mesolithic
Ochanthuruth geographically
of and
also (Malappuram
Chaliyar mainly district: Mukkali
production inferior be and (two They implements
of it Aluva
Neolithic those axes few in to implementsthat and
doubts is Keralamake seen age.Neyyar Malampuzha, has of
Mesolithic doubtful situation Kundoormedu from toolNeolithic s and (two and of many
tools river to locations) reported
are rivers. fromcould Karalikkod Palakkad
occasionally.
weapons atquartzite Kuvakkad
centrecontends were peopleprevailed Kalpetta. recovered Mesolithic
beads thdistrict);Chembara,
locations).Odanavattom
(Thiruvananthapuram Nirmalagiri the be places
from and and tools were
whether
ageraised available banks
that discovered used
of cannot are was Narasimokkai of
(three district:
Manrothuruthu have politically have like Podippara. altogether and of
discovered with
such(wenty that also. by Pulppalli.Puthadi. til the
from civilization Though used Palakkad of for
Malappuram
In Dr. there not be been chopper in and Kallada,cutting Abhayagiri
Kunnathubaalu, Paleolithic,
tools. tothough 18" claimedcharacteristicsth e other in
ur order John from
was been century.
Wayanad Kanyakad recovered quartzite the Kuppakotti Maadaipara twenty
locations. must lasted was parts
Mesolithic
district;Mankara. Meenachil. and from
OchanthuruthDr. to a
traced to district). these district:
of
Neolithic available (Kollam scratching.
substantiate
Rajendran be"The belong ti l of in locations) and Mesolithic Kollam
Kanjirapuzha.Mesolithic
from Parambikulan,
was of the (Wayanadu Chellur places Valluvasseri,
they accidental." stone mountains
from 3000 Kerala
As
Kulappalli. of Kunnonni
toNeolithic country. age district) Kannur Ponnani. district.
do about ageKerala partKerala Kerala. then. in They were
axes B.C was also. and sites and
not had this in the 13
of ot It
14 Early History of Keralu
It is believed that Stone Age people might have come to Kerala
from Karnataka and Tamil Nadu but due to hostile circumstances
their flow might have stopped. The evidences received so far supports
this hypothesis. Even if it is accepted that there was a Mesolithic
age in Kerala, it must have been before 3000 B.C." There is no
concrete evidence to contend that Neolithic people were present
throughout Malainadu after that. Outside Wayanad, one stone axe
each was retrieved from Aluva River and Munrothuruth. These might
have come there at a later time. Rajan Gurukkal and Raghava Varrier
hold the view that due to the onset of Iron Age, the Neolithic period
might have been reduced. " But Alchins had established that Iron
Age in India started in 1050 B. C." Megalithic age started only
thereafter.! It is stated that settlements of people could not be
identified in Kerala even during Megalithic age." But tribals were
spread throughout Malainadu during Megalithic period. Then who
were the inhabitants of Malainadu between 3000 and 1000 B. C.? It
has to be assumed that Mesolithic people had continued in Malainadu
till 1000B.C. but Neolithic people had reached only up to Wayanad.
Quality quartzite, essential for the production of fine implements of
the Neolithic period, was conspicuous by it absence in Kerala.
Some implements made of copper and bronze belonging to the
pre-historic period have been recovered."Copper which was rare in
India was not at all produced in Kerala. Therefore, there is little
possibility of the existence of acopper age in Kerala.
Stone engravings
The stone engravings of tribals are the true reflections of their
lifestyle. These pictures, therefore, are very helpful in evaluating
the socio-cultural background. Therock paintings of Kerala
to attract the attentionof the world since Faucet, the began
of Police of Malabar, discovered the Edakkal cave Superintendent
of Wayanad in
1894. But it took more than a century for the Indian
take up further studies in this direction. In 1973,archeologists to
Thampi of Archeology Department, Government of Kerala, Padmanabhan
the wall pictures of Marayur.The stone studied
of engravings of Ezhuthupara
Tovari hills belonging to the Ambalavayal Panchayat where
Edakkal is situated, are also significant. The engravings in
Pre-history 15

Pandavanpara situated in the Perumkadavila Panchayat.

Neyyattinkara Taluk are known as Ankod stone engravings. The
marks on the rocks at Thenmala of Kollam district also belong to
pre-historictimes.
Edakkal is situated on the road to Wayanad from Karnataka.
Similarly. Marayur valley is on the side of the road from Tamilnadu
to the border of Malainad. Geographically, these two places and
Tovari were outside the boundaries of Malainad. Edakkal in
Malayalam means 'a stonesituated in between two stones'.The walls
of the twO-storied cave contain a number of pictures. It is believed
that these picture belong to the end of the first millennium B.C.15
The big rock placed on top of three or four rocks in Tovari gives it
the shape of apandal. The pictures are seen on the sides. The pictures
are triangular. square and circular in shape. They may be representing
agricultural implements. The pictures at Ankod are similar to those
in Tovari. They might have been drawn using quartzite in the Neolithic
age. On the other hand, the pictures in Thenmala consist of parallel
lines as in Edakkal. On the basis of the implements received from
Thenmala, it is believed that it was inhabited during the Mesolithic
period. I
locations.
The caves in Marayur Panchayat are situated at three
Chambakkad which
They are the caves at Kudakkal, Pallanad and
are called as Ezhuthala, AthalaardPutatsçhi Alä respectively. Of
these. the one at Chambakkad is very spactbus. The lines inscribed
illustrations are
In the stones at these three places are painted. The
those of horse, elephant, dancer. saint, tree, lizard. snake and the
Iike. It is believed that different pictures were drawn at different
periods. Padmanabhan Thampi is of the view that these pictures
were drawn between 7000 - 300 B.C"

Megalithic period
inhabitants
The capacity to handle huge stones was acquired by the mainly
of Kerala only with the use of iron. Heavy stones were used
tor the construction of tombs to keep theremnants of the deud and to
indicate the places where they were kept. Cave dwellings which were
not used for the upkeep of tlhe remnants of the dead also came into
existence during this period. The remnants of the megalithic period
 I6
Eorty History of Keral
are not identical in the northern and southern parts of India It is
believed that megalithic culture reached North India through the
passes at the north-west and South India through the sea shores.'
The remnants of the megalithic age seen throughout Kerala are
the following:
1. Cists: These are the caves made underground in red
stones
(cheengallu). They can be one or more adjacent to each other.
These are closed at the top with stone after depositing the dead
body and the belongings used by the deceased at the fag end of
the life. The lid has air holes.9
2. Urnburial: These are the earthen pots used for keeping the
of the dead body. These are called as urnburial or
remnants
muthunakkuthazhi. After burying the urn. it is covered by aflat
stone.

3. Capstone and Unbrella Stone: Capstone is the stone in the shape

of a cap that is placed upside down on top of the burial place.
Capstones are placed on top of the urnburials. Umbrella stone.
on the other hand. is the stone placed like an umbrellaon top of
the stones erected at the place of burial. Both the capstones and
umbrella stones are the specialties of Kerala.
4. Menhir: This is the stone pillar erected on top of the burial
place
or urnburial. The menhir seen in Kerala is quite distinct and not
seen anywhere else.
5. Dolmen: The stone tent erected on top of the surface of the
burial
ground is known as dolmen. One side of it will be the stone slab
which can be removed.
6. Rock-cut caves: These are the graves made in the
laterite
The dead body is taken inside through a two feet hole on onestone.
and placed either on a bench or in an urnburial. After placingside
the
corpse inside, the caves would be covered with stone slabs.
7. Stone alignments: These are alignments of stone made
dead body after burying it or keeping it open so as toaround the
facilitate
the birds to eat it.
The details of the megalithic tombs noted by the Department of
Archeology. Government of Kerala are given below. Most of these
have been identified by chance.
 Pre-history
CASTRICT
HGRS DLMEN,
ROCK.UT
BURIA UMBRELLA
UPNCNE CsOT STONE
TONE
CAP

KO}HIKODE KASARAGOD

MAP ERNAKULAM THRISSIR

KANNUA

I. THAUVANANTHAPURAM
Megulithic ALAPPUZH
WaYANAD
aoLAKKAD MALAPPJRAM
onuments
oRADUKXI

in KOLiAM
fPATNANAMTH:TTA:
Kerala
18 Early History of Kerala

Thiruvananthapuram District
1. Pirappancode Cists
2. KottOor Urnburial
3. Pulimathu Dolmen (7 numbers)
4. Pulimath Urnburial

5. Sreekariyam Urnburial
6. Vellayilkadavu Urnburial
7. Venjaramoodu Urnburial

Kollam District
1. Anjirandil Menhir
2. Anjirandil Capstone
3. Chittayam Menhir
4. Kadavoor Menhir

5. Mangadu Urnburial and Stone alignment

6. Panayam Menhir
7. Pavithreswaram Menhir

8. Periyanadu Menhir

Alapuzha District
1. Puliyoor Cists

Pathanamthitta District
1. Elamala Dolmen
2. Kattukutti Dolmen and Capstone
3. Kodumannu Stone alignment
4. Kodumannu Cists
5. Poothangara Dolmen above cist
6. Pouthangara Stone alignment
7. Pottangara Punam
Kottayam District
1. Athirampuzha Menhir
2. Athirampuzha Stone alignment
 District
Idukki Pre-history
Karnamoozhi Chakkimedu
9. 8. 5. 4. 8. Kainakari
Mannankandam
Kuravilangadu
7. 6. KallarKallar 3.
5. 4.
Shantanpara
T'udatoor Pannivayakara
Pupparakkutti
22. 21. 20. Periyakanal
19.Pottan
kozhu18. PambadumPura15. 14.Meppara
Mookanpara
17. 16.Mutukadu 13.Marayoor 11. Kachampara
12.Koorkuzhi Chinnacanal
10. Edamalayar 6.
7.Bodymettu 3. 2. Thirunakara
Alappara 1.
Baisan
valley
Anjanadu
Suriyanellor

Marayoor) (

DolmensMenhir Menhir
Menhir
Dolmen Menhir MenhirDolmen Dolmen
numbers)
Menhir Dolmen
(18Capstone Dolmens
Urnburial
Menhir
above Menhir
Dolmen
Cists
with Dolmen
Dolmen Cists
Urnburial
Urnburial
Capstone
Menhir
numbers) and Menhir(with
withMenhir(1Dolmen
0 Dolmen alignments)
Dolmen stone Toppikal
andabove it Urnburial
Urnburial Urnburial
(with
below
stone
Menhir
alignments)
and

19
20
Early Hixtory of Kerula
23. Vandiperiyar Dolmen ahbove Cists and above it is
Capstone and surrounding stone
alignments
24. Vellapara Dolmen and Menhir
Ernakulam district
1. Mulantthuruthi Dolmen
2. Thondannur Rocks-cut caves with many cells
3.Tripunithura Menhir

Thrissur district
1. Alur Unburial
2. Ariyannur Umbrella stone
3. Cheramangad Umbrella stone
4. Chundal Rocks-cut caves
5. Chovvannur Rocks-cut caves
6. Edakkulathur Urnburial
7. Elanad Urnburial
8. Eranallur
Urnburial
9. Eyyal Rocks-cut caves
10. Kakkad
Urnburial
11. Kandanasseri
Urnburial
12. Karalam Urnburial
13.Kanimangalam Urnburial
14. Karunathara
Stone alignment above Cists
(No hole on the top)
I5. Konduzhi
Urnburial
16. Kotanallur Menhir
17. Kuttur
Menhir
18. Machad
Urnburil in a Cists
19. Mangud
20. Mulankunnathu Kavu Rocks-cut caves
21. Mullasseri Cupstone in Dolmen
Rocks-cut caves
re-history
22. Nadathara Urnburial
23. Nattika Urnburial
24. Panjapalliparambu Unburial
25. Pazhayannoor Urnburial
26. Parappookkara Urnburial
27. Porathusseri Urnburial
28.Porkalam Stone alignment around Capstone
29. Puzhakkal Menhir
30. Vadakkethara Dolmen above Dolmen
31. Venkidangu Menhir

Palakkad district
1. Alanallur Menhir
2. Anakatti Menhir
3. Edappal Cists
4. Elampuzhasseri Rocks-cut caves
5. Elavancheri Dolmen
6. Kongad Dolmen
7. Kornappara Urnburial
8. Kottathara Menhir
9. Kumaramputhur Urnburial
10. Manjalur Dolmen
11.Pallassana Dolmen
12. Thiruvilvamala Capstone above Cists
13. Vadakarapatti Dolmen
14. Vaniyanbara Rocks-cutcaves
15. Vellinezhi Rocks-cut caves

16. Oongallur Capstone

Malappuram district
1. Kalikkadavu Rocks-cut caves
2. Karulayil Menhir
Rocks-cut caves
3. Kottilangadi
 Early History of Kerala
22

Kozhikode district
Rocks-cut caves,Capstone,
1. Chathaparambu Umbrella Stone
Rocks-cut caves
2. Farook
Rocks-cut caves
3. Kodasseri
4. Kokkallur
Rocks-cutcaves
Rocks-cut caves
5. Malapparamba
Rocks-cut caves
6. Meppayoor
7. Muthurnacha Rocks-cut caves

8. Nagaparambu Rocks-cut caves

Rocks-cut caves
9.Neelaparamba
10. Panniyannoor Rocks-cut caves

I1. Pazhakkalipparamba Rocks-cutcaves

12.Thondannur Rocks-cut caves

13.Triprangodu Rocks-cut caves

14. Kuttiadi Dolmen
15. Velur Dolmen

Wayanad district
1. Kandathamvayal Urnburial
2. Vaithiri Dolmen
3. Kaniyambatta Dolmen
Kannur district (Including Kasargode)
1. Naduvil
Rocks-cut caves
2. Panunda
Dolmen
3. Perumgalam
4. Punnul
Rocks-cut caves
Dolmen
5. Patiyanallur
Dolmen
6. Peelikkode
Rocks-cut caves
Pre-historv 23

The people of Malainadu during the Stone Age

Quoting Caldwell. P. K. Gopalakrishnan says that microlithic age
started by the end of Mesolithic period and that was around 4000
B.C" He alsosays, in a differentcontext. that only light implements
could be traced from Kerala and therefore inhabitation of people
might have started there only after that period, probably 6000 70o00
years back.But we have already seen that Paleolithic and Mesolithic
implements were found out from Kerala and Mesolithic period was
before 3000B.C. It was also stated that Neolithic implements were
rarely found from Kerala and therefore it is doubtful whether
Neolithic people were settled here. If that is true the present day
tribals of Kerala must be descendents of the Mesolithic people. All
the tribal groups like Kadars, Uralis, Mannans, Muthuvans, Vishavar
Malavedans, Malayar, Irular Kanikkar and Malappulayar would
belong to the adivasis. They might have recededto the wilderness
without attempting to resist the onslaught of Iron Age. These groups
which led a rustic life by hunting and collecting fruits and tubers
never attempted any change in their life style later. There is no definite
answer so far as to whoare their ancestors.
Prof. Sreedhara Menon opines that they are the descendants of
Negritos migrated from Africa thousands of years ago. "Most of
these people have curly hair. dark skin, round head and wider nose.
They adorn their head with comb. These are the similarities of these
people with the same group elsewhere." Kanikkar, Malamp
andarams, Muthuvans, Ulladans, Uralis, Panians and so on are
considered to be negritos. But Sreedahara Menon considers Irular
Kurichiar: Karimpalans, Malavaryans and Malavedans as Astraloids
Whocame afterwards. He argues that Astraloids might have occupied
he place of Negritos. L.A. Krishna lyer also corroborates the opinion
nat the aborigines of Southeast Asia are Negritos.R. D Banerjee
holds the view that the tribals who lived in Chera Kingdom constituted
à mixture of the Negritos and Astraloids who were adept in fishing
d archery respectively.*The blacks in general are called as Negro
astraloids. Asection of them isconsidered to be Proto-astraloid. The
ribals of Kerala are Proto-astraloids. Therefore, it is no wonder that
Some groups have the features of Negritos. The interclass fusion
ght have occurred even before they arrived in Kerala. This trend
24 Early History of Keralu

continued incessantly in Kerala, the land of migrants, leaving purity

of class a mere myth.

The people of Malainadu during the Iron Age

Though the use of iron might have started in the Neolithic age, it
became manifested during the Megalithic Age. There is no doubt
that the Megalithic people of Kerala were totally different from Proto
astraloids of that period. It is believed that the people of Megalithic
cultur were the Dravidians who migrated to South India. The main
componènts of the Dravidians of South India were the Mediterraneans
who migrated to India pushing aside the Astraloids.* The main reason
for considering the Dravidians as the descendants of Mediterraneans
is the similarity in the funeral rites performed among Dravidians of
the Megalithic period with those of the tribals of Crete and Rhode
islands and the cities of Troy and Babylonia."" Some of the weapons
used in the Mediterranean in the middle of second millennium B.C.
had been recovered from South India. Based on this fact, K. KPilla
conjectures that Mediterraneans might have first reached West Asia
and from there migrated to South India.* P.K. Gopalakrishnan holds
the view that the main reason for the migration of the Mediteraneans
was the sinking of more than half of Crete island, the city of Minova
and many small islands consequent to the eruption of Santiago
volcano near about 1400B.C.> He also believes that king Sesostrus
of Egypt might have facilitated the migration process by the
interlinking of Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea by opening up Suez
canal.
There are many reasons to believe that the Dravidians who
migrated to Kerala from the north and south reached here at different
periods. The diversity of the megaliths and implements recovered
from them is another reason. Similarly different styles of cremation
at the same place indicate the presence of migrants from different
places at various periods. The fact that thirteen out of the fifteen
memorials seen in Kozhikode district are rock cut caves is an
exception to this diversity. Though urn burials are quite comnmon in
Kerala, there is not even one in Kozhikode district. Most of the
remnants recovered were big or small earthen pots. It is safe to assume
that the Megalithic people of Kozhikode district consisted of
from a particular place. migrants
 also toland centuriesB.C.33 infer disciple
third attained a these
ofladyrecovered
collected from Megalithic Pecovered common
from common Pre-history
dead Age belonged
capstones, Contain more Cistsmore. spears. been dead Kerala.
deposits
WmiOe IStS hey Cven these prevalent the The Kunnathunadu The
bgypt Ihe used was that bodies
kept
and
believed in bodies might influential It
and chieftains choppers, The people practice
alive. monuments. practice costly is antiquity
fully higher
such from in among
where in urn th e throughout to rock-cut clear urn period.
practice
have those the to
em absence
These thburials nor umbrella burials, inhabited. big level were a pots. animals
in materials in that grave resorted
any the of
the remnants of and of lamps, burying
might rebirth been chieftains terms caves memorials Taluk.
inscribed lt of elites
monuments
haraohs were It honoring
the among Megalithic not of of
of their culture. monuments. at Earthen and was
burning
may the stones, But beads, the to of
have or world. and with
of of Puliyoor. done
createdphysical attempts
be of number birds urSanghom
n this dead
in bodies who wealthchieftains the it AIl in pots
usedcannot been the due the mammoth many is have
Raghava
Varrier and thpractice.
e
These menhirs common monuments sure these a daggers, very burials,
as bodies
as were stone The Six of
to the worldbody. tohave toleaders androoms would not food,
rarely. dead
keep beabodes that pieces various period."It
the there indicate vault figures in
belongings constructionsof
commemorate
It not followers.
and these been bronze only bodies cists Dead
compared of belief been "Perhaps big
all for the is even earthen might man."If
so was have
the so in built identified at of sizes, the
alidentified prominent. dolmens monuments that ofa gold or earthen
bodies
thedead. after a
been Kerala bells bones rock-cut was is
materials with usedsouls.doubtful that pots. Such havestatuscommon before doubtful
soul Gurukkal Rajan bearded
Megalithis ornaments swords. after not
etc. have pots
It them. the their Urn been several indicates
the by appears from might
monuments difference. would common
The may Megalithic belonged second Kudanadu have giving caves not was
including
pyramids the whether Neither life burials. those people man tridents, whether
any have times were been have been quite
deadcostly that exist
oe was of the or had and the 25
in i1
 26
Early History of Kerala
servants needed for the other world. Egyptians believedthat souls
can be retained in the dead body. That is the reason why they kept
the dead body intact. From the Akam Song (228), it is clear that
during Sanghom period the practice of preserving the dead body of
kings in earthen pots was prevalent. But such dead bodies are
conspicuous by their absence in the monuments of Kerala. Perhaps,
there must be difference in the value systems and patterns of belief
of the ancientpeople of Tamil Nadu and Malainadu.
Notes
1. Foote. R. B. Foote Collection of Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric
Antiquities. Notes on their Ages and Distribution, 1916.
2. Rajendran. P. Pre-history of Kerala. Issues in Kerala Historiography.
ed. by K. K. Kusuman. P.2.
3. Rajan Gurukkaland Raghava Varier, M.R. Cultural History of Kerala.
Vol. 1, 1999, P.70.
4 Ibid. Pp. 74-75.
5. Though Tirunelli temple and certain portions of Wayanad were under
the control of Puravazhi kings, Wayanad became part of Malabar only
with Srirangam treaty.
6. It was Dr. P. Rajendran who excavated stone axe from
of Kollam District.
Munrothuruth
7. Rajan Gurukkal and Raghava Varier. M. R. Op.cit. P. 74.
8 John Ochanthuruthu. Pre-history of Kerala: Problens and
Issues in Kerala Historiography. ed. by K. K. Kusuman. P.I7.
Prospects.
9. Rajendran. P. op.cit. P.5
10. Rajan Gurukkal and Raghava Varier. M. R.
Op.cit. P. 76.
1|. Alchin. Bridget and Alchin, Raymond. The birth of
tion. P.21I. Indian civiliza
12. Rajan Gurukkal and Raghava Varier. M. R.
Op.cit. P. 128. It is stated
that megalithic age was from I000 B.C to 500 A. D.
13. Ibid. P.74.
15. Rajan Gurukkal and Raghava Varier. M. R.
Op.cit. P.
16. Ibid. Pp.97 -98. Thenmala is situatedon the way 90.
Kollam. lt was the land of Ay Andiran whose name from Shencotta to
literature. Itisdoubtful whether the illustrations are asappears in Sangam
old as Mesolithic
age.
17. Thampi. S. P. Pre-historic Archeology of South
Central Kerala with
specia reference to the valley of Anjanadu. Un published Ph.D. thesis.