Introduction to Engineering Mechanics
Introduction to Engineering Mechanics
1.1. DEFINITIONS
Engineering mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of a
body when the body is at rest or in motion. The engineering mechanics may be divided into
Statics and Dynamics. The branch of science, which deals with the study of a body when the
body is at rest, is known as Statics while the branch of science which deals with the study of a
body when the body is in motion, is known as Dynamics. Dynamics is further divided into
kinematics and kinetics. The study of a body in motion, when the forces which cause the
motion are not considered, is called kinematics and if the forces are also considered for the
body in motion, that branch of science is called kinetics. The classification of Engineering
Mechanics are shown in Fig. 1.1 below.
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
1. Statics 2. Dynamics
(Body is at rest) (Body is in motion)
1.3.1. Free Vector. A vector which can be moved parallel to its position anywhere in
space provided its magnitude, direction and sense remain the same, is known as free vector.
Fig. 1.3 (a) shows free vector.
1.3.2. Fixed Vector. A vector whose initial point is fixed, is known as fixed vector.
Fig. 1.3 (b) shows fixed vector.
A B A
A
Line of
action
The law of parallelogram of forces is used to determine the resultant* of two forces
acting at a point in a plane. It states, “If two forces, acting at a point be represented in magnitude
and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented
in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.”
B B C
Q Q R
α
α θ α
O P A O P A D
Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.4 (a)
Let two forces P and Q act at a point O as shown in Fig. 1.4. The force P is represented
in magnitude and direction by OA whereas the force Q is presented in magnitude and direction
*The resultant of a system of forces may be defined as a single force which has the same effect as
system of forces acting on the body.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 5
by OB. Let the angle between the two forces be ‘α’. The resultant of these two forces will be
obtained in magnitude and direction by the diagonal (passing through O) of the parallelogram
of which OA and OB are two adjacent sides. Hence draw the parallelogram with OA and OB as
adjacent sides as shown in Fig. 1.4 (a). The resultant R is represented by OC in magnitude
and direction.
1.4.1. Magnitude of Resultant (R)
From C draw CD perpendicular to OA produced.
Let α = Angle between two forces P and Q = ∠AOB
Now ∠DAC = ∠ AOB (Corresponding angles)
=α
In parallelogram OACB, AC is parallel and equal to OB.
∴ AC = Q.
In triangle ACD,
AD = AC cos α = Q cos α
and CD = AC sin α = Q sin α.
In triangle OCD,
OC2 = OD2 + DC2.
But OC = R, OD = OA + AD = P + Q cos α
and DC = Q sin α.
∴ R2 = (P + Q cos α)2 + (Q sin α)2 = P2 + Q2 cos2 α + 2PQ cos α + Q2 sin2 α
= P2 + Q2 (cos2 α + sin2 α) + 2PQ cos α
= P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos α (Q cos2 α + sin2 α = 1)
∴ R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α ...(1.1)
Equation (1.1) gives the magnitude of resultant force R.
1.4.2. Direction of Resultant
Let θ = Angle made by resultant with OA.
Then from triangle OCD,
CD Q sin α
tan θ = =
OD P + Q cos α
FG Q sin α IJ
∴ θ = tan–1
H P + Q cos α K ...(1.2)
2nd Case. The two forces P and Q are equal and are acting at an angle α between them.
Then the magnitude and direction of resultant is given as
R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α = P 2 + P 2 + 2 P × P × cos α (Q P = Q)
= 2 P 2 + 2 P 2 cos α = 2 P 2 (1 + cos α)
2 P 2 × 2 cos 2
α FGQ 1 + cos α = 2 cos 2
α IJ
=
2 H 2 K
α α
= 4 P 2 cos 2 = 2 P cos ...(1.3)
2 2
and θ = tan–1
FG
Q sin α IJ
= tan −1
P sin α
(Q P = Q)
H
P + Q cos α K P + P cos α
P sin α sin α
= tan–1 = tan −1
P (1 + cos α) 1 + cos α
α α
2 sin cos
2 2 FGQ α α IJ
= tan–1
2 cos 2 α
H sin α = 2 sin
2
cos
2 K
2
α
= tan–1
sin
FG
2 = tan −1 tan α = α IJ ...(1.4)
cos
α 2H K2
2
It is not necessary that one of two forces, should
be along x-axis. The forces P and Q may be in any Q
direction as shown in Fig. 1.5. If the angle between the
two forces is ‘α’, then their resultant will be given by
R
equation (1.1). The direction of the resultant would be
obtained from equation (1.2). But angle θ will be the
angle made by resultant with the direction of P.
1.4.3. Law of Triangle of Forces. It states that,
“if three forces acting at a point be represented in a q P
magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle,
taken in order, they will be in equilibrium.” O Fig. 1.5
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 7
1.6.2. M.K.S. System of Units. In this system, length is expressed in metre, mass in
kilogram and time in second. The unit of force in this system is expressed as kilogram force
and is represented as kgf.
1.6.3. S.I. System of Units. S.I. is abbreviation for ‘The System International d’Units’.
It is also called the International System of Units. In this system length is expressed in metre
mass in kilogram and time in second. The unit of force in this system is Newton and is
represented N. Newton is the force acting on a mass of one kilogram and producing an
acceleration of one metre per second square. The relation between newton (N) and dyne is
obtained as
One metre
One Newton = One kilogram mass ×
s2
100 cm
= 1000 gm × (Q one kg = 1000 gm)
s2
gm × cm
= 1000 × 100 ×
s2
= 105 dyne
RSQ gm × cm
dyne =
UV
T s2 W
When the magnitude of forces is very large, then the unit of force like kilo-newton and
mega-newton is used. Kilo-newton is represented by kN.
One kilo-newton = 103 newton
or 1 kN = 103 N
and One mega newton = 106 Newton
The large quantities are represented by kilo, mega, giga and tera. They stand for :
Kilo = 103 and represented by .......k
Mega = 106 and represented by .......M
Giga = 109 and represented by .......G
Tera = 1012 and represented by ........T
Thus mega newton means 106 newton and is represented by MN. Similarly, giga newton
means 109 N and is represented by GN. The symbol TN stands for 1012 N.
The small quantities are represented by milli, micro, nano and pico. They are equal to
Milli = 10–3 and represented by .......m
Micro = 10–6 and represented by .......μ
Nano = 10–9 and represented by ........n
Pico = 10–12 and represented by .......p.
Thus milli newton means 10–3 newton and is represented by mN. Micro newton means
–6
10 N and is represented by μN.
Table 1.1 shows the multiples and sub-multiples of the S.I. units prefixes.
Table 1.1. S.I. Prefixes
The relation between kilogram force (kgf) and newton (N) is given by one kgf = 9.81 N
Weight of a body is the force with which the body is attracted towards earth. If
W = weight of a body, m = mass in kg, then W = m × g Newtons
If mass, m of the body is 1 kg, then its weight will be,
m FGQ m IJ
W = 1 (kg) × 9.81
s 2 = 9.81 N. H N = kg
s 2 K
1.6.4. Trigonometric Formulae and Expressions. The following are the trigonometric
formulae in a right-angled triangle ABC of Fig. 1.7.
AC AB
(i) sin θ = (ii) cos θ =
BC BC
AC
(iii) tan θ =
AB
C
(iv) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
(v) sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B
(vi) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B
(vii) cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
(viii) tan (A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
tan A − tan B 90°
(ix) tan (A – B) =
1 + tan A tan B A B
(x) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A Fig. 1.7
(xi) sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1.
1.6.5. Differentiation and Integration
1. Differentiations. (i) Differentiation of a quantity (say A) with respect to x is written
d dA
as ( A) or
dx dx
d d d
(ii) ( x 4 ) = 4x3, ( x n ) = n xn – 1 and ( x) = 1
dx dx dx
d
(iii) (8x + 5)4 = 4 (8x + 5)3 × 8
dx
d
(iv) (4) = 0 as differentiation of constant is zero.
dx
d dv du
(v) (u.v) = u . + v. [when u and v are functions of x]
dx dx dx
(vi) Differentiation of trigonometrical functions
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
10 ENGINEERING MECHANICS
d
(cos x) = – sin x
dx
d
(tan x) = sec2 x.
dx
2. Integrations. (i) Integration of a quantity (say A) with respect to x is written as
∫ Adx.
(ii)
z x n dx =
x n+1
n+1
(iii) ∫ 4dx = 4x
(iv) z (8 x + 5) 4 + 1
(8 x + 5) 4 dx =
(4 + 1) × 8
.
Problem 1.1. Two forces of magnitude 10 N and 8 N are acting at a point. If the angle
between the two forces is 60°, determine the magnitude of the resultant force.
Sol. Given :
Force P = 10 N
Force Q=8N
Angle between the two forces, α = 60°
The magnitude of the resultant force (R) is given by equation (1.1)
R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α = 10 2 + 8 2 + 2 × 10 × 8 × cos 60°
1
= 100 + 64 + 2 × 10 × 8 × 2 (Q cos 60° = 1
2
)
= 100 + 64 + 80 = 244 = 15.62 N. Ans.
Problem 1.2. Two equal forces are acting at a point with an angle of 60° between them.
If the resultant force is equal to 20 × 3 N, find magnitude of each force.
Sol. Given : Angle between the force, α = 60°
Resultant, R = 20 × 3
The forces are equal. Let P is the magnitude of each force.
Using equation (1.3), we have
α FG 60° IJ = 2P cos 30°
R = 2P cos
2
or 20 × 3 = 2P × cos H2K
3 FQ cos 30° = 3 I
= 2P ×
2
=P× 3 GH 2 JK
20 × 3
∴ P== 20 N.
3
∴ Magnitude of each force = 20 N. Ans.
Problem 1.3. The resultant of the two forces, when they act at an angle of 60° is 14 N. If
the same forces are acting at right angles, their resultant is 136 N. Determine the magnitude
of the two forces.
Sol. Given :
Case I
Resultant, R1 = 14 N
Angle, α = 60°
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 11
Case II
Resultant, R2 = 136 N
Angle, α = 90°
Let the magnitude of the two forces are P and Q.
Using equation (1.1) for case I.
R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α
or 14 = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ × cos 60° = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ × 1
2
or 14 = P 2 + Q 2 + PQ
Squaring, 196 = P2 + Q2 + PQ ...(i)
Using equation (1.2 A) for case II,
R= P 2 + Q2 or 136 = P 2 + Q2
or 136 = P2 + Q2 (Squaring both sides) ...(ii)
Subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i), we get
196 – 136 = P2 + Q2 + PQ – (P2 + Q2)
or 60 = PQ ...(iii)
Multiplying the above equation by two, we get 120 = 2PQ ...(iv)
2 2
Adding equation (iv) to equation (ii), we get 136 + 120 = P + Q + 2PQ
or 256 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ or (16)2 = (P + Q)2
or 16 = P + Q
∴ P = (16 – Q) ...(v)
Substituting the value of P in equation (iii), we get
60 = (16 – Q) × Q = 16Q – Q2 or Q2 – 16Q + 60 = 0
∴ This is a quadratic equation.
Q 100 N Q
P
50 N
30°
a a q P
15°
O O
B C
(a – 9
0°)
Q R
Q R
(180 – a)
(1
a
80
–
a 90°
a)
90°
O A P
P
Fig. 1.9(b)
This is the same result as given by equation (i) above.
A D B
B
30° 60°
.2
No
Ch
ain a in T2
No 30° A
Ch
.1 60° 90°
T1 60°
30°
C
C 150°
120°
E
1000 N E 1000 N
m
3
AC2 + BC2 = 42 + 32 = 16 + 9 = 25
AB2 = 52 = 25 Chain
C Chain
No. 2
∴ AB2 = AC2 + BC2 No. 1
E 900 N
∴ Triangle ABC is a right-angled triangle in
which Fig. 1.12
∠ACB = 90°
BC 3
sin α = = = 0.6
AB 5
16 ENGINEERING MECHANICS
1 1
T1 sin 45° = T2 sin 30° or T1 × = T2 ×
2 2
2
∴ T2 = T1 × = 2 × T1 ...(i)
2
Resolving all forces at C in the vertical direction,
T1 cos 45° + T2 cos 30° = 15
1 3
or T1 × + T2 ×
= 15 ...(ii)
2 2
Substituting the value of T2 from equation (i) into equation (ii),
1 3
T1 × + 2 × T1 × = 15
2 2
T1 3T1 FQ 2 2 1 I
or
2
+
2
= 15 GH 2
=
2× 2
= J
2K
or T1 + 3 T1 = 15 × 2 or T1(1 + 3 ) = 15 × 2
15 × 2
∴ T1 = = 7.76 N. Ans.
1× 3
Substituting this value of T1 in equation (i), we get
T2 = 2 × T1 = 2 × 7.76 = 10.98 N. Ans.
V 83.64
The direction of the resultant force is given by equation (1.9), tan θ = =
H 119
83.64
∴ θ = tan–1 = 35.10°. Ans.
119
Here θ is the angle made by resultant R with x-axis.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 19
Problem 1.11. Three forces of magnitude 40 kN, 15 kN and 20 kN are acting at a point
O as shown in Fig. 1.17. The angles made by 40 kN, 15 kN and 20 kN forces with X-axis are
60°, 120° and 240° respectively. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Sol. Given : Y
R1 = 10 kN, θ1 = 60° 15 kN 40 kN
R2 = 15 kN, θ2 = 120°
R3 = 20 kN, θ3 = 240°
The sum of components of all forces along X-axis is given
°
120
by equation (1.6) as
60°
H = R1 cos θ1 + R2 cos θ2 + R3 cos θ3
240°
= 40 × cos 60° + 15 × cos 120° + 20 × cos 240° O X
1 1 1
= 40 × 2
+ 15 × (– 2
) + 20 × (– 2
)
= 20 – 7.5 – 10 = 2.5 kN.
The resultant component along Y-axis is given by equation 20 kN
(1.7) as Fig. 1.17
V = R1 sin θ1 + R2 sin θ2 + R3 sin θ3
= 40 × sin (60°) + 15 × sin (120°) + 20 × sin (240°)
3 3 − 3 F I
= 40 +
3
+ 15 ×
2
+ 20 ×
2 GH JK
= 20 × 3 + 7.5 × 3 – 10 × 3 = 17.5 × 3 kN = 30.31 kN.
The magnitude of the resultant force is given by equation (1.8)
R= H 2 + V 2 = 2.5 2 + 30.312 = 30.41 kN. Ans.
The direction of the resultant force is given by equation (1.9)
V 30.31
tan θ = = = 12.124 = tan 85.28°
H 2.5
∴ θ = 85.28° or 85° 16.8′′. Ans.
Problem 1.12. Four forces of magnitude 10 kN , 15 kN, 20 kN and 40 kN are acting at
a point O as shown in Fig. 1.18. The angles made by 10 kN, 15 kN, 20 kN and 40 kN with
X-axis are 30°, 60°, 90° and 120° respectively. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force.
Sol. Given :
Y
R1 = 10 kN and θ1 = 30°
R2 = 15 kN and θ2 = 60° 20 kN 15 kN
40 kN
R3 = 20 kN and θ3 = 90° R4
R3 R2
R4 = 40 kN and θ4 = 120°
The resultant components along X-axis is given 10 kN
by (1.6) as R1
120°
3 1 1 FG IJ
= 10 ×
2
+ 15 × + 20 × 0 + 40 × −
2 2 H K (Q cos 90° = 0 and cos 120° = – 1
2
)
1 3 3 X
= 10 × + 15 × + 20 × 1 + 40 × X¢ H = 3.84 O
2 2 2
Y¢
= 5 + 7.5 × 3 + 20 + 20 × 3
= 25 + 27.5 × 3 = 72.63 kN. Fig. 1.19
Positive sign means that V is acting along OY as shown in Fig. 1.19.
The magnitude of the resultant force is given by equation (1.8) as
R= H 2 + V 2 = (− 3.84) 2 + 72.63 2
= 14.745 + 5275.117 = 72.73 kN. Ans.
The direction of the resultant force is given by equation (1.9) as
V 72.63
tan θ = = = – 18.91.
H − 3.84
From Fig. 1.19 it is clear that θ lies between 90° and 180°.
The angle whose tangent is 18.91° is 86.97.
∴ θ = (180° – 86.97°) = 93.03°. Ans.
The product of a force and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force
from a point is known as moment of the force about that point.
Body
P = A force acting on a body as shown in Fig. 1.20. Point
r = Perpendicular distance between the point O and line of O
action of the force P. r
(i) Resultant component of forces along any direction is zero i.e., resultant component
of forces in the direction of x, in the direction of y and in the direction of z are zero.
(ii) Resultant moments of the forces about any point in the plane of the forces is zero or
clockwise moment is equal to anti-clockwise moments.
Note. If the resultant component of forces acting on a body along any direction is zero but the net
moment of the forces about any point is not zero the body will not be in equilibrium. The body will have
the tendency to rotate about the point.
Problem 1.13. A beam of span 10 m is carrying a point load of 200 N at a distance 4 m
from A. Determine the beam reactions.
200 N
Sol. Given :
A C B
Span AB = 10 m
Load at C, W = 200 N
4m 6m
Distance, AC = 4 m
RA RB
Distance, BC = 10 – 4 = 6 m
Fig. 1.21
Let RA = Reaction at A and
RB = Reaction at B
As the beam is in equilibrium, the clockwise moments of all forces about any point must
be equal to anti-clockwise moments about that point. Also the resultant force in any direction
must be zero.
Taking moments about A,
Clockwise moment = Anti-clockwise moments
200 × 4 = RB × 10
200 × 4
∴ RB = = 80 N. Ans.
10
Also RA + RB = 200 N
∴ RA = 200 – RB = 200 – 80 = 120 N. Ans.
Problem 1.14. Four forces of magnitudes 10 N, 20 N, 20 N
30 N and 40 N are acting respectively along the four sides of 30 N D C
a square ABCD as shown in Fig. 1.22. Determine the
magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force.
Sol. Given :
Force along AB = 10 N
Force along BC = 20 N
Force along CD = 30 N
Force along DA = 40 N
A
(i) Magnitude and direction of the resultant force B 10 N
40 N
The net force in the horizontal direction is given as,
H = 10 – 30 = – 20 N Fig. 1.22
Y
= 400 + 400 = 2 × 400
= 20 × 2 N. Ans.
The direction of the resultant force is given by
equation (1.9) as H = 20 N
X′ θ X
V − 20
tan θ = = =1
H − 20
R
∴ θ = 45°. V = 20 N
or 20a + 30a = 20 × 2 ×L
R L
50 a 5a
or L= = . Ans.
20 × 2 2× 2 A B
The following basic laws and principles are considered to be the foundation of mechanics :
(i) Newton’s first and second laws of motion
(ii) Newton’s third law
(iii) The gravitational law of attraction
(iv) The parallelogram law
B
(v) The Principle of Transmissibility of forces.
1.9.1. Newton’s First and Second Laws of F2
Motion. Newton’s first law states, “Every body
–F2
continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line unless it is compelled to change that A
B
state by some external force acting on it.” F1
Newton’s second law states, “The net external A –F1
force acting on a body in a direction is directly
proportional to the rate of change of momentum in
that direction.” Fig. 1.24