1

Basic Concepts of Engineering Mechanics

1.1. DEFINITIONS

Engineering mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of a
body when the body is at rest or in motion. The engineering mechanics may be divided into
Statics and Dynamics. The branch of science, which deals with the study of a body when the
body is at rest, is known as Statics while the branch of science which deals with the study of a
body when the body is in motion, is known as Dynamics. Dynamics is further divided into
kinematics and kinetics. The study of a body in motion, when the forces which cause the
motion are not considered, is called kinematics and if the forces are also considered for the
body in motion, that branch of science is called kinetics. The classification of Engineering
Mechanics are shown in Fig. 1.1 below.
ENGINEERING MECHANICS

1. Statics 2. Dynamics
(Body is at rest) (Body is in motion)

(i) Kinematics (ii) Kinetics

(Forces which cause motion (Forces are considered)
are not considered)
Fig. 1.1
Note. Statics deals with equilibrium of bodies at rest, whereas dynamics deals with the motion
of bodies and the forces that cause them.

1.2. SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

1.2.1. Vector Quantity. A quantity which is completely specified by magnitude and

direction, is known as a vector quantity. Some examples of vector quantities are : velocity,
acceleration, force and momentum. A vector quantity is
represented by means of a straight line with an arrow as
shown in Fig. 1.2. The length of the straight line (i.e., AB) A B
represents the magnitude and arrow represents the direction
→ Fig. 1.2. Vector Quantity.
of the vector. The symbol AB also represents this vector,
which means it is acting from A to B.
3
4 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

1.2.2. Scalar Quantity. A quantity, which is completely specified by magnitude only,

is known as a scalar quantity. Some examples of scalar quantity are : mass, length, time and
temperature (4 kg mass, 3.2 m length, 2 second etc.)
1.2.3. A Particle. A particle is a body of infinitely small volume (or a particle is a body
of negligible dimensions) and the mass of the particle is considered to be concentrated at a
point. Hence a particle is assumed to a point and the mass of the particle is concentrated at
this point.

1.3. FREE, FORCED AND FIXED VECTORS

1.3.1. Free Vector. A vector which can be moved parallel to its position anywhere in
space provided its magnitude, direction and sense remain the same, is known as free vector.
Fig. 1.3 (a) shows free vector.
1.3.2. Fixed Vector. A vector whose initial point is fixed, is known as fixed vector.
Fig. 1.3 (b) shows fixed vector.
A B A
A
Line of
action

Initial point fixed

(a) Free vector A (b) Fixed vector (c) Forced vector
Fig. 1.3
1.3.3. Forced Vector. A vector which can be applied anywhere along its line of action
is known as forced vector. Fig. 1.3 (c) shows a forced vector.

1.4. LAW OF PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES

The law of parallelogram of forces is used to determine the resultant* of two forces
acting at a point in a plane. It states, “If two forces, acting at a point be represented in magnitude
and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented
in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point.”

B B C

Q Q R

α
α θ α
O P A O P A D
Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.4 (a)
Let two forces P and Q act at a point O as shown in Fig. 1.4. The force P is represented
in magnitude and direction by OA whereas the force Q is presented in magnitude and direction

*The resultant of a system of forces may be defined as a single force which has the same effect as
system of forces acting on the body.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 5

by OB. Let the angle between the two forces be ‘α’. The resultant of these two forces will be
obtained in magnitude and direction by the diagonal (passing through O) of the parallelogram
of which OA and OB are two adjacent sides. Hence draw the parallelogram with OA and OB as
adjacent sides as shown in Fig. 1.4 (a). The resultant R is represented by OC in magnitude
and direction.
1.4.1. Magnitude of Resultant (R)
From C draw CD perpendicular to OA produced.
Let α = Angle between two forces P and Q = ∠AOB
Now ∠DAC = ∠ AOB (Corresponding angles)
=α
In parallelogram OACB, AC is parallel and equal to OB.
∴ AC = Q.
In triangle ACD,
AD = AC cos α = Q cos α
and CD = AC sin α = Q sin α.
In triangle OCD,
OC2 = OD2 + DC2.
But OC = R, OD = OA + AD = P + Q cos α
and DC = Q sin α.
∴ R2 = (P + Q cos α)2 + (Q sin α)2 = P2 + Q2 cos2 α + 2PQ cos α + Q2 sin2 α
= P2 + Q2 (cos2 α + sin2 α) + 2PQ cos α
= P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos α (Q cos2 α + sin2 α = 1)

∴ R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α ...(1.1)
Equation (1.1) gives the magnitude of resultant force R.
1.4.2. Direction of Resultant
Let θ = Angle made by resultant with OA.
Then from triangle OCD,
CD Q sin α
tan θ = =
OD P + Q cos α
FG Q sin α IJ
∴ θ = tan–1
H P + Q cos α K ...(1.2)

Equation (1.2) gives the direction of resultant (R). C

The direction of resultant can also be obtained by
using sine rule [In triangle OAC, OA = P, AC = Q, )
OC = R, angle OAC = (180 – α), angle ACO = 180 – [θ + (–
R
180 – α] = (α – θ)] Q
sin θ sin (180 − α) sin (α − θ) (180–)
= = 
AC OC OA 
sin θ sin (180 − α) sin (α − θ) O A
= = P
Q R P Fig. 1.4 (b)
Two cases are important.
1st Case. If the two forces P and Q act at right angles, then
α = 90°
6 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

From equation (1.1), we get the magnitude of resultant as

R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos 90°
= P 2 + Q2 (Q cos 90° = 0) ...(1.2 A)
From equation (1.2), the direction of resultant is obtained as
FG Q sin α IJ
θ = tan–1
H P + Q cos α K
FG Q sin 90° IJ = tan −1 Q
= tan–1
H P + Q cos 90° K P
(Q sin 90° = 1 and cos 90° = 0)

2nd Case. The two forces P and Q are equal and are acting at an angle α between them.
Then the magnitude and direction of resultant is given as
R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α = P 2 + P 2 + 2 P × P × cos α (Q P = Q)

= 2 P 2 + 2 P 2 cos α = 2 P 2 (1 + cos α)

2 P 2 × 2 cos 2
α FGQ 1 + cos α = 2 cos 2
α IJ
=
2 H 2 K
α α
= 4 P 2 cos 2 = 2 P cos ...(1.3)
2 2
and θ = tan–1
FG
Q sin α IJ
= tan −1
P sin α
(Q P = Q)
H
P + Q cos α K P + P cos α
P sin α sin α
= tan–1 = tan −1
P (1 + cos α) 1 + cos α
α α
2 sin cos
2 2 FGQ α α IJ
= tan–1
2 cos 2 α
H sin α = 2 sin
2
cos
2 K
2
α
= tan–1
sin
FG
2 = tan −1 tan α = α IJ ...(1.4)
cos
α 2H K2
2
It is not necessary that one of two forces, should
be along x-axis. The forces P and Q may be in any Q
direction as shown in Fig. 1.5. If the angle between the
two forces is ‘α’, then their resultant will be given by
R
equation (1.1). The direction of the resultant would be
obtained from equation (1.2). But angle θ will be the
angle made by resultant with the direction of P.
1.4.3. Law of Triangle of Forces. It states that,
“if three forces acting at a point be represented in a q P
magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle,
taken in order, they will be in equilibrium.” O Fig. 1.5
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 7

1.5. LAMI’S THEOREM

It states that, “If there forces acting at a point Q

are in equilibrium, each force will be proportional
to the sine of the angle between the other two
forces.”
Suppose the three forces P, Q and R are b a
acting at a point O and they are in equilibrium as
shown in Fig. 1.6. O P
Let α = Angle between force P and Q. g
β = Angle between force Q and R.
γ = Angle between force R and P. R
Then according to Lami’s theorem, Fig. 1.6
P α sine of angle between Q and R α sin β.
P
∴ = constant
sin β
Q R
Similarly = constant and = constant
sin γ sin α
P Q R
or = = . ...(1.5)
sin β sin γ sin α
Proof of Lami’s Theorem. The three forces
acting on a point, are in equilibrium and hence they b
can be represented by the three sides of the triangle
taken in the same order. Now draw the force triangle
as shown in Fig. 1.6 (a). b)
–
Now applying sine rule, we get R 80
(1 Q
P Q R
= = (180 – a)
sin (180 − β) sin (180 − γ ) sin (180 − α) (180 – g) a
O
This can also be written
P
P Q R g
= = Fig. 1.6 (a)
sin β sin γ sin α
This is same equation as equation (1.5).
Note. All the three forces should be acting either towards the point or away from the point.

1.6. SYSTEM OF UNITS

The following system of units are mostly used :

1. C.G.S. (i.e., Centimetre-Gram-Second) system of units.
2. M.K.S. (i.e., Metre-Kilogram-Second) system of units.
3. S.I. (i.e., International) system of units.
1.6.1. C.G.S. System of Units. In this system, length is expressed in centimetre, mass
in gram and time in second. The unit of force in this system is dyne, which is defined as the
force acting on a mass of one gram and producing an acceleration of one centimetre per second
square.
8 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

1.6.2. M.K.S. System of Units. In this system, length is expressed in metre, mass in
kilogram and time in second. The unit of force in this system is expressed as kilogram force
and is represented as kgf.
1.6.3. S.I. System of Units. S.I. is abbreviation for ‘The System International d’Units’.
It is also called the International System of Units. In this system length is expressed in metre
mass in kilogram and time in second. The unit of force in this system is Newton and is
represented N. Newton is the force acting on a mass of one kilogram and producing an
acceleration of one metre per second square. The relation between newton (N) and dyne is
obtained as
One metre
One Newton = One kilogram mass ×
s2
100 cm
= 1000 gm × (Q one kg = 1000 gm)
s2
gm × cm
= 1000 × 100 ×
s2
= 105 dyne
RSQ gm × cm
dyne =
UV
T s2 W
When the magnitude of forces is very large, then the unit of force like kilo-newton and
mega-newton is used. Kilo-newton is represented by kN.
One kilo-newton = 103 newton
or 1 kN = 103 N
and One mega newton = 106 Newton
The large quantities are represented by kilo, mega, giga and tera. They stand for :
Kilo = 103 and represented by .......k
Mega = 106 and represented by .......M
Giga = 109 and represented by .......G
Tera = 1012 and represented by ........T
Thus mega newton means 106 newton and is represented by MN. Similarly, giga newton
means 109 N and is represented by GN. The symbol TN stands for 1012 N.
The small quantities are represented by milli, micro, nano and pico. They are equal to
Milli = 10–3 and represented by .......m
Micro = 10–6 and represented by .......μ
Nano = 10–9 and represented by ........n
Pico = 10–12 and represented by .......p.
Thus milli newton means 10–3 newton and is represented by mN. Micro newton means
–6
10 N and is represented by μN.
Table 1.1 shows the multiples and sub-multiples of the S.I. units prefixes.
Table 1.1. S.I. Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Multiplying factor

Tera T 1012 = 1 000 000 000 000

Giga G 109 = 1 000 000 000
Mega M 106 = 1 000 000
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 9

Kilo k 103 = 1 000

Milli m 10–3 = 0.001
Micro μ 10–6 = 0.000 001
Nano n 10–9 = 0.000 000 001
Pico p 10–12 = 0.000 000 000 001

The relation between kilogram force (kgf) and newton (N) is given by one kgf = 9.81 N
Weight of a body is the force with which the body is attracted towards earth. If
W = weight of a body, m = mass in kg, then W = m × g Newtons
If mass, m of the body is 1 kg, then its weight will be,
m FGQ m IJ
W = 1 (kg) × 9.81
s 2 = 9.81 N. H N = kg
s 2 K
1.6.4. Trigonometric Formulae and Expressions. The following are the trigonometric
formulae in a right-angled triangle ABC of Fig. 1.7.
AC AB
(i) sin θ = (ii) cos θ =
BC BC
AC
(iii) tan θ =
AB
C
(iv) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
(v) sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B
(vi) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B
(vii) cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
(viii) tan (A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
tan A − tan B 90°

(ix) tan (A – B) =
1 + tan A tan B A B
(x) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A Fig. 1.7
(xi) sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1.
1.6.5. Differentiation and Integration
1. Differentiations. (i) Differentiation of a quantity (say A) with respect to x is written
d dA
as ( A) or
dx dx
d d d
(ii) ( x 4 ) = 4x3, ( x n ) = n xn – 1 and ( x) = 1
dx dx dx
d
(iii) (8x + 5)4 = 4 (8x + 5)3 × 8
dx
d
(iv) (4) = 0 as differentiation of constant is zero.
dx
d dv du
(v) (u.v) = u . + v. [when u and v are functions of x]
dx dx dx
(vi) Differentiation of trigonometrical functions
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
10 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

d
(cos x) = – sin x
dx
d
(tan x) = sec2 x.
dx
2. Integrations. (i) Integration of a quantity (say A) with respect to x is written as
∫ Adx.

(ii)
z x n dx =
x n+1
n+1
(iii) ∫ 4dx = 4x

(iv) z (8 x + 5) 4 + 1
(8 x + 5) 4 dx =
(4 + 1) × 8
.
Problem 1.1. Two forces of magnitude 10 N and 8 N are acting at a point. If the angle
between the two forces is 60°, determine the magnitude of the resultant force.
Sol. Given :
Force P = 10 N
Force Q=8N
Angle between the two forces, α = 60°
The magnitude of the resultant force (R) is given by equation (1.1)
R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α = 10 2 + 8 2 + 2 × 10 × 8 × cos 60°
1
= 100 + 64 + 2 × 10 × 8 × 2 (Q cos 60° = 1
2
)
= 100 + 64 + 80 = 244 = 15.62 N. Ans.
Problem 1.2. Two equal forces are acting at a point with an angle of 60° between them.
If the resultant force is equal to 20 × 3 N, find magnitude of each force.
Sol. Given : Angle between the force, α = 60°
Resultant, R = 20 × 3
The forces are equal. Let P is the magnitude of each force.
Using equation (1.3), we have
α FG 60° IJ = 2P cos 30°
R = 2P cos
2
or 20 × 3 = 2P × cos H2K
3 FQ cos 30° = 3 I
= 2P ×
2
=P× 3 GH 2 JK
20 × 3
∴ P== 20 N.
3
∴ Magnitude of each force = 20 N. Ans.
Problem 1.3. The resultant of the two forces, when they act at an angle of 60° is 14 N. If
the same forces are acting at right angles, their resultant is 136 N. Determine the magnitude
of the two forces.
Sol. Given :
Case I
Resultant, R1 = 14 N
Angle, α = 60°
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 11

Case II
Resultant, R2 = 136 N
Angle, α = 90°
Let the magnitude of the two forces are P and Q.
Using equation (1.1) for case I.

R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α

or 14 = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ × cos 60° = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ × 1
2

or 14 = P 2 + Q 2 + PQ
Squaring, 196 = P2 + Q2 + PQ ...(i)
Using equation (1.2 A) for case II,

R= P 2 + Q2 or 136 = P 2 + Q2
or 136 = P2 + Q2 (Squaring both sides) ...(ii)
Subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i), we get
196 – 136 = P2 + Q2 + PQ – (P2 + Q2)
or 60 = PQ ...(iii)
Multiplying the above equation by two, we get 120 = 2PQ ...(iv)
2 2
Adding equation (iv) to equation (ii), we get 136 + 120 = P + Q + 2PQ
or 256 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ or (16)2 = (P + Q)2
or 16 = P + Q
∴ P = (16 – Q) ...(v)
Substituting the value of P in equation (iii), we get
60 = (16 – Q) × Q = 16Q – Q2 or Q2 – 16Q + 60 = 0
∴ This is a quadratic equation.

16 ± (− 16) 2 − 4 × 60 16 ± 256 − 240 16 ± 4

∴ Q= = =
2 2 4
16 + 4 16 − 4
= and = 10 and 6.
2 2
Substituting the value of Q in equation (v), we get
P = (16 – 10) or (16 – 6) = 6 or 10.
∴ Hence the two forces are 10 N and 6 N. Ans.
Problem 1.4. Two forces are acting at a point O as shown in Fig. 1.8. Determine the
resultant in magnitude and direction.
12 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Q 100 N Q

P
50 N
30°
a a q P
15°
O O

Fig. 1.8 Fig. 1.9

Sol. Given :
Force P = 50 N, Force Q = 100 N
Angle between the two forces, α = 30°
The magnitude of the resultant R is given by equation (1.1) as

R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α = 50 2 + 100 2 + 2 × 50 × 100 × cos 30°

= 2500 + 10000 + 8660 = 21160 = 145.46 N. Ans.

The resultant R is shown in Fig. 1.9.
The angle made by the resultant with the direction of P is given by equation (1.2) as
Q sin α
tan θ =
P + Q cos α
FG Q sin α IJ = tan FG 100 × sin 30° IJ
−1
or θ = tan–1
H P + Q cos α K H 50 + 100 cos 30° K
= tan–1 0.366 = 20.10°
∴ Angle made by resultant with x-axis = θ + 15° = 20.10 + 15 = 35.10°. Ans.
Problem 1.5. The resultant of two concurrent forces is 1500 N and the angle between the
forces is 90°. The resultant makes an angle of 36° with one of the force. Find the magnitude of
each force.
Sol. Given :
Resultant, R = 1500 N
Angle between the forces, α = 90°
Angle made by resultant with one force, θ = 36°
Let P and Q are two forces.
Q sin α
Using equation (1.2), tan θ =
P + Q cos α
Q sin 90° Q×1 Q Q
or tan 36° = = = or 0.726 =
P + Q cos 90° P + Q × 0 P P
or Q = 0.726 P ...(i)
Using equation (1.1), R = P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α
or R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos α
or 15002 = P2 + (0.726P)2 + 2P(0.726P) × cos 90° (Q Q = 0.726P)
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 13

15002 = P2 + 0.527P2 + 0 (Q cos 90° = 0)

= 1.527 P2
1500 2 1500
∴ P= = = 1213.86 N
1.527 1.2357
Substituting the value of P in equation (i), we get
Q = 0.726 × 1213.86 = 881.26 N. Ans.
Alternate Method. Refer to Fig. 1.9 (a). Consider triangle OAC.
Using sine rule, we get
sin 90° sin 36° sin 54° B C
= =
R Q P
54°
sin 90° sin 36°
or =
R Q Q
R
Q
R sin 36° α
or Q= (where R = 1500 N) 90°
sin 90° θ = 36°
1500 × 0.5877 O P A
= = 881.67 N. Ans.
1 Fig. 1.9(a)
sin 90° sin 54°
Also, we have =
R P
R sin 54° 1500 × 0.8090
∴ P= =
sin 90° 1
= 1213.52 N. Ans.
Problem 1.6. The sum of two concurrent forces P and Q is 270 N and their resultant is
180 N. The angle between the force P and resultant R is 90°. Find the magnitude of each force
and angle between them.
Sol. Given :
Sum of two concurrent forces = 270 N or P + Q = 270 N
Resultant, R = 180 N
Angle between force P and resultant R = 90°
This means θ = 90°
Find : (i) Magnitude of P and Q
(ii) Angle between P and Q (i.e., angle α)
Q sin α
Using equation (1.2), tan θ =
P + Q cos α
Q sin α
or tan 90° =
P + Q cos α
But tan 90° = ∞ (i.e., infinity). This is only possible when P + Q cos α = 0
∴ P = – Q cos α ...(i)
The above result can also be obtained by using alternate method.
Alternate Method. Refer to Fig. 1.9 (b). Consider triangle OAC in which θ = 90°, ∠OAC
= 180 – α, ∠ACO = α – θ = α – 90°
sin 90° sin (180 − α) sin (α − 90)
Using sine rule, we get = =
Q R P
14 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

sin 90° sin (α − 90)

From first and last terms, we get =
Q P
1 − cos α
or = [Q sin (α – 90) = sin [– (90 – α)] = – sin (90 – α) = – cos α]
Q P
∴ P = – Q cos α

B C
(a – 9
0°)

Q R
Q R

(180 – a)
(1

a
80
–

a 90°
a)

90°

O A P
P
Fig. 1.9(b)
This is the same result as given by equation (i) above.

Using equation (1.1), R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos α

Squaring to both sides, we get R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos α
= P2 + Q2 + 2P(– P)
(Q From equation (i), Q cos α = – P)
= P2 + Q2 – 2P2 = Q2 – P2 = (Q + P)(Q – P)
or 1802 = 270 (Q – P) (Q R = 180, Q + P = 270)
32400 = 270(Q – P)
32400
∴ Q–P= = 120
270
But P + Q = 270 (given)
Adding the above two equations, we get 2Q = 270 + 120 = 390
∴ Q = 195 N. Ans.
and P = 270 – Q = 270 – 195 = 75 N. Ans.
Value of angle α
Substituting the values of P and Q in equation (i),
− 75
P = – Q cos α or 75 = – 195 cos α or cos α = = – 0.3846
195
∴ α = cos–1 (– 0.3846) = 112.618°. Ans.
Problem 1.7. A weight of 1000 N is supported by two chains as shown in Fig. 1.10.
Determine the tension in each chain.
Sol. Given : Weight at C = 1000 N
∠CAB = 30°
∠CBA = 60°
∠ACB = 90°
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 15

In right-angled triangle ADC,

∠ACD = 90° – 30° = 60°
In right-angled triangle BDC,
∠BCD = 90° – 60° = 30°

A D B
B
30° 60°

.2
No
Ch
ain a in T2
No 30° A
Ch

.1 60° 90°
T1 60°
30°
C
C 150°
120°
E

1000 N E 1000 N

Fig. 1.10 Fig. 1.11

∴ ∠ACE = 180° – 60° = 120°
∠BCE = 180° – 30° = 150°
Let T1 = Tension in chain No. 1
T2 = Tension in chain No. 2.
Applying Lami’s theorem at point C (Refer Fig. 1.11).
T1 T2 1000
= =
sin 150° sin 120° sin 90°
T1 T2
or = = 1000 (Q sin 90° = 1)
sin 150° sin 120°
∴ T1 = 1000 sin 150° = 1000 × .5 = 500 N. Ans.
and T2 = 1000 sin 120° = 1000 × .866 = 866 N. Ans.
Problem 1.8. A weight of 900 N is supported by two chains of lengths 4 m and 3 m as
shown in Fig. 1.12. Determine the tension in each chain.
Sol. Given : Weight at C = 900 N 5m
Length, AC = 4 m A D B
Length, BC = 3 m a b
Length, AB = 5 m T1
T2
In triangle ABC, 4
q 1 q2
m

m
3

AC2 + BC2 = 42 + 32 = 16 + 9 = 25
AB2 = 52 = 25 Chain
C Chain
No. 2
∴ AB2 = AC2 + BC2 No. 1
E 900 N
∴ Triangle ABC is a right-angled triangle in
which Fig. 1.12
∠ACB = 90°
BC 3
sin α = = = 0.6
AB 5
16 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

∴ α = 36° 52′ and α + β = 90°

∴ β = 90° – α = 90° – (36° 52′) = 53° 8′.
Let T1 = Tension in chain AC
T2 = Tension in chain BC
In right-angled triangle ADC,
θ1 = 90° – α = 90° – 36° 52′ = 53° 8′
In right-angled triangle BDC,
θ1 = 90° – β = 90° – 53° 8′ = 36° 52′
∴ ∠ACE = 180° – θ1 = 180° – 53° 8′ = 126° 52′
∠BCE = 180° – θ2 = 180° – 36° 52′ = 143° 8′ and ∠ACB = 90°.
Applying Lami’s theorem at C
T1 T2 900
= =
sin of ∠ BCE sin of ∠ ACE sin 90°
T1 T2 900
or = = (Q sin 90° = 1)
sin 143° 8′ sin 126° 52′ 1
∴ T1 = 900 × sin 143° 8′ = 900 × .597 = 537.44 N. Ans.
T2 = 900 × sin 126° 52′ = 720 N. Ans.
Problem 1.9. An electric light fixture weighing 15 N hangs from a point C, by two
strings AC and BC. AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the vertical as
shown in Fig. 1.13. Using Lami’s theorem or otherwise determine the forces in the strings
AC and BC. (AMIE Summer, 1975)
Sol. Given : Weight at C = 15 N
∠OAC = 60° O
A
∠CBD = 45° F
60°
Let T1 = Force in string BC
T2 = Force in string AC B
1st Method T2
Using Lami’s theorem at C 45°
T1
15 T1 T2 45°
30°
= =
sin of ∠ BCA sin of ∠ ACE sin of ∠ ACE
But ∠ BCA = 45° + 30° = 75° D C
∠ACE = 180° – 30° = 150° E

∠BCE = 180° – 45° = 135° 15 N

15 T1 T2 Fig. 1.13
∴ = =
sin 75° sin 150° sin 135°
15 × sin 150°
∴ T1 = = 7.76 N. Ans.
sin 75°
15 × sin 135°
and T2 = = 10.98 N. Ans.
sin 75°
2nd Method
The point C is in the equilibrium. The forces acting at C are 15 N, T1 and T2.
Resolving all forces at C in the horizontal direction
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 17

1 1
T1 sin 45° = T2 sin 30° or T1 × = T2 ×
2 2
2
∴ T2 = T1 × = 2 × T1 ...(i)
2
Resolving all forces at C in the vertical direction,
T1 cos 45° + T2 cos 30° = 15
1 3
or T1 × + T2 ×
= 15 ...(ii)
2 2
Substituting the value of T2 from equation (i) into equation (ii),
1 3
T1 × + 2 × T1 × = 15
2 2

T1 3T1 FQ 2 2 1 I
or
2
+
2
= 15 GH 2
=
2× 2
= J
2K

or T1 + 3 T1 = 15 × 2 or T1(1 + 3 ) = 15 × 2
15 × 2
∴ T1 = = 7.76 N. Ans.
1× 3
Substituting this value of T1 in equation (i), we get
T2 = 2 × T1 = 2 × 7.76 = 10.98 N. Ans.

1.7. RESOLUTION OF A FORCE

Resolution of a force means “finding the components Y

of a given force in two given directions.”
Let a given force be R which makes an angle θ with B
C
X-axis as shown in Fig. 1.14. It is required to find the
components of the force R along X-axis and Y-axis. R sin q R
Components of R along X-axis = R cos θ.
Components of R along Y-axis = R sin θ.
q
Hence, the resolution of forces is the process of finding O A X
R cos q
components of forces in specified directions.
Fig. 1.14
1.7.1. Resolution of a Number of Coplanar
Forces. Let a number of coplanar forces (forces acting Y
in one plane are called co-planar forces) R1, R2, R3, ....
R2
are acting at a point as shown in Fig. 1.15. R1
Let θ1 = Angle made by R1 with X-axis
θ2 = Angle made by R2 with X-axis
q2
θ3 = Angle made by R3 with X-axis q3 q1
H = Resultant component of all forces
O X
along X-axis
V = Resultant component of all forces R3
along Y-axis Fig. 1.15
18 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

R = Resultant of all forces

θ = Angle made by resultant with X-axis.
Each force can be resolved into two components, one along X-axis and other along
Y-axis.
Component of R1 along X-axis = R1 cos θ1
Component of R1 along Y-axis = R1 sin θ1.
Similarly, the components of R2 and R3 along X-axis and Y-axis are (R1 cos θ2, R2 sin θ2)
and (R3 cos θ3, R3 sin θ3) respectively.
Resultant components along X-axis
= Sum of components of all forces along X-axis.
∴ H = R1 cos θ1 + R2 cos θ2 + R3 cos θ3 + ... ...(1.6)
Resultant component along Y-axis.
= Sum of components of all forces along Y-axis.
∴ V = R1 sin θ1 + R2 sin θ2 + R3 sin θ3 + ... ...(1.7)
Then resultant of all the forces, R = H2 + V2 ...(1.8)
V
The angle made by R with X-axis is given by, tan θ = ...(1.9)
H
Problem 1.10. Two forces are acting at a point O as shown in Fig. 1.16. Determine the
resultant in magnitude and direction.
Sol. The above problem has been solved earlier. Hence it Q
will be solved by resolution of forces. 100 N

Force P = 50 N and force Q = 100 N.

Let us first find the angles made by each force with X-axis.
Angle made by P with x-axis = 15° P
Angle made by Q with x-axis = 15 + 30 = 45° 50 N
30°
Let H = Sum of components of all forces along X-axis. α
15°
V = Sum of components of all forces along Y-axis. O
The sum of components of all forces along X-axis is given by, Fig. 1.16
H = P cos 15° + Q cos 45°
= 50 × cos 15° + 100 cos 45° = 119 N
The sum of components of all forces along Y-axis is given by,
V = P sin 15° + Q sin 45°
= 50 sin 15° + 100 sin 45° = 83.64 N
The magnitude of the resultant force is given by equation (1.8),

R= H 2 + V 2 = 119 2 + 83.64 2 = 145.46 N. Ans.

V 83.64
The direction of the resultant force is given by equation (1.9), tan θ = =
H 119
83.64
∴ θ = tan–1 = 35.10°. Ans.
119
Here θ is the angle made by resultant R with x-axis.
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 19

Problem 1.11. Three forces of magnitude 40 kN, 15 kN and 20 kN are acting at a point
O as shown in Fig. 1.17. The angles made by 40 kN, 15 kN and 20 kN forces with X-axis are
60°, 120° and 240° respectively. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Sol. Given : Y
R1 = 10 kN, θ1 = 60° 15 kN 40 kN
R2 = 15 kN, θ2 = 120°
R3 = 20 kN, θ3 = 240°
The sum of components of all forces along X-axis is given

°
120
by equation (1.6) as
60°
H = R1 cos θ1 + R2 cos θ2 + R3 cos θ3
240°
= 40 × cos 60° + 15 × cos 120° + 20 × cos 240° O X
1 1 1
= 40 × 2
+ 15 × (– 2
) + 20 × (– 2
)
= 20 – 7.5 – 10 = 2.5 kN.
The resultant component along Y-axis is given by equation 20 kN
(1.7) as Fig. 1.17
V = R1 sin θ1 + R2 sin θ2 + R3 sin θ3
= 40 × sin (60°) + 15 × sin (120°) + 20 × sin (240°)

3 3 − 3 F I
= 40 +
3
+ 15 ×
2
+ 20 ×
2 GH JK
= 20 × 3 + 7.5 × 3 – 10 × 3 = 17.5 × 3 kN = 30.31 kN.
The magnitude of the resultant force is given by equation (1.8)
R= H 2 + V 2 = 2.5 2 + 30.312 = 30.41 kN. Ans.
The direction of the resultant force is given by equation (1.9)
V 30.31
tan θ = = = 12.124 = tan 85.28°
H 2.5
∴ θ = 85.28° or 85° 16.8′′. Ans.
Problem 1.12. Four forces of magnitude 10 kN , 15 kN, 20 kN and 40 kN are acting at
a point O as shown in Fig. 1.18. The angles made by 10 kN, 15 kN, 20 kN and 40 kN with
X-axis are 30°, 60°, 90° and 120° respectively. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force.
Sol. Given :
Y
R1 = 10 kN and θ1 = 30°
R2 = 15 kN and θ2 = 60° 20 kN 15 kN
40 kN
R3 = 20 kN and θ3 = 90° R4
R3 R2
R4 = 40 kN and θ4 = 120°
The resultant components along X-axis is given 10 kN
by (1.6) as R1
120°

H = R1 cos θ1 + R2 cos θ2 + R3 cos θ3 + R4 cos θ4 90°

60°
= 10 × cos 30° + 15 cos 60° + 20 cos 90° 30°
+ 40 cos 120° O X
Fig. 1.18
20 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

3 1 1 FG IJ
= 10 ×
2
+ 15 × + 20 × 0 + 40 × −
2 2 H K (Q cos 90° = 0 and cos 120° = – 1
2
)

= 5 × 3 + 7.5 – 20 = 8.66 + 7.5 – 20 = – 3.84 kN.

Negative sign means that H is acting along OX′ as Y
shown in Fig. 1.19.
The resultant component along Y-axis is given by
equation (1.7) as
V = R1 sin θ1 + R2 sin θ2 + R3 sin θ3 + R4 sin θ4 R V = 72.63
= 10 sin 30° + 15 sin 60° + 20 sin 90°
+ 40 sin 120° q

1 3 3 X
= 10 × + 15 × + 20 × 1 + 40 × X¢ H = 3.84 O
2 2 2
Y¢
= 5 + 7.5 × 3 + 20 + 20 × 3
= 25 + 27.5 × 3 = 72.63 kN. Fig. 1.19
Positive sign means that V is acting along OY as shown in Fig. 1.19.
The magnitude of the resultant force is given by equation (1.8) as
R= H 2 + V 2 = (− 3.84) 2 + 72.63 2
= 14.745 + 5275.117 = 72.73 kN. Ans.
The direction of the resultant force is given by equation (1.9) as
V 72.63
tan θ = = = – 18.91.
H − 3.84
From Fig. 1.19 it is clear that θ lies between 90° and 180°.
The angle whose tangent is 18.91° is 86.97.
∴ θ = (180° – 86.97°) = 93.03°. Ans.

1.8. MOMENT OF A FORCE

The product of a force and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force
from a point is known as moment of the force about that point.
Body
P = A force acting on a body as shown in Fig. 1.20. Point
r = Perpendicular distance between the point O and line of O
action of the force P. r

The moment of the force P about O = P × r

Line of action

The tendency of the moment P × r is to rotate the body in the

clockwise direction about O. P
Hence this moment is called clockwise moment. If the tendency
of rotation is anti-clockwise, the moment is called anti-clockwise
moments.
1.8.1. Units of Moment. In M.K.S. system the moment is
expressed as kgf m whereas in S.I. system, moment is expressed as Fig. 1.20
newton metre (Nm).
1.8.2. Effect of Force and Moment on a Body. The force acting on a body causes
linear displacement while moment causes an angular displacement. Hence a body when acted
by a number of coplanar forces will be in equilibrium if :
BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS 21

(i) Resultant component of forces along any direction is zero i.e., resultant component
of forces in the direction of x, in the direction of y and in the direction of z are zero.
(ii) Resultant moments of the forces about any point in the plane of the forces is zero or
clockwise moment is equal to anti-clockwise moments.
Note. If the resultant component of forces acting on a body along any direction is zero but the net
moment of the forces about any point is not zero the body will not be in equilibrium. The body will have
the tendency to rotate about the point.
Problem 1.13. A beam of span 10 m is carrying a point load of 200 N at a distance 4 m
from A. Determine the beam reactions.
200 N
Sol. Given :
A C B
Span AB = 10 m
Load at C, W = 200 N
4m 6m
Distance, AC = 4 m
RA RB
Distance, BC = 10 – 4 = 6 m
Fig. 1.21
Let RA = Reaction at A and
RB = Reaction at B
As the beam is in equilibrium, the clockwise moments of all forces about any point must
be equal to anti-clockwise moments about that point. Also the resultant force in any direction
must be zero.
Taking moments about A,
Clockwise moment = Anti-clockwise moments
200 × 4 = RB × 10
200 × 4
∴ RB = = 80 N. Ans.
10
Also RA + RB = 200 N
∴ RA = 200 – RB = 200 – 80 = 120 N. Ans.
Problem 1.14. Four forces of magnitudes 10 N, 20 N, 20 N
30 N and 40 N are acting respectively along the four sides of 30 N D C
a square ABCD as shown in Fig. 1.22. Determine the
magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force.
Sol. Given :
Force along AB = 10 N
Force along BC = 20 N
Force along CD = 30 N
Force along DA = 40 N
A
(i) Magnitude and direction of the resultant force B 10 N
40 N
The net force in the horizontal direction is given as,
H = 10 – 30 = – 20 N Fig. 1.22

The net force in the vertical direction given as,

V = 20 – 40 = – 20 N
The resultant force is given by equation (1.8) as
R= H 2 + V 2 = (− 20) 2 + (− 20) 2
22 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Y
= 400 + 400 = 2 × 400
= 20 × 2 N. Ans.
The direction of the resultant force is given by
equation (1.9) as H = 20 N
X′ θ X
V − 20
tan θ = = =1
H − 20
R
∴ θ = 45°. V = 20 N

Since H and V are –ve, hence θ lies between 180° and

270°. Hence from Fig. 1.23, it is clear that actual
θ = 180 + 45 = 225°. Ans.
Y′
(ii) Position of the resultant force
Fig. 1.23
The position of the resultant force is obtained by
equating the clockwise moments and anti-clockwise moments about A.
Let L = Perpendicular distance between A and
line of action of the resultant force and
a = Side of the square ABCD.
Taking moments of all forces about A,
40 × 0 + 10 × 0 + 20 × a + 30 × a
D C
= R × perpendicular distance of R from A
45°)
= 20 × 2 × L (Q R = 20 × 2)
(θ =

or 20a + 30a = 20 × 2 ×L
R L
50 a 5a
or L= = . Ans.
20 × 2 2× 2 A B

The position of the resultant force is shown in Fig. 1.23(a)

Fig. 1.23 (a).

1.9. LAWS OF MECHANICS

The following basic laws and principles are considered to be the foundation of mechanics :
(i) Newton’s first and second laws of motion
(ii) Newton’s third law
(iii) The gravitational law of attraction
(iv) The parallelogram law
B
(v) The Principle of Transmissibility of forces.
1.9.1. Newton’s First and Second Laws of F2
Motion. Newton’s first law states, “Every body
–F2
continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line unless it is compelled to change that A
B
state by some external force acting on it.” F1
Newton’s second law states, “The net external A –F1
force acting on a body in a direction is directly
proportional to the rate of change of momentum in
that direction.” Fig. 1.24