1.1.

Basic Integration Formulae

Learning Objectives:
 To evaluate the indefinite integrals by the following seven methods
 Making a simplifying substitution
 Completing the square
 Using a trigonometric identity
 Eliminating a square root
 Reducing an improper fraction
 Separating a fraction
 Multiplying by a form of 1
We evaluate an indefinite integral by finding an anti-derivative of the integrand and
adding an arbitrary constant. Table 1 shows the basic forms of the integrals we have
evaluated so far.
Table 1
1. ∫ = +
2. ∫ = + ( )
3. ∫( + ) = ∫ +∫
4. ∫ = + ( ≠ −1)
5. ∫ = ln| | +
6. ∫ =− +
7. ∫ = +
8. ∫ = +
9. ∫ =− +
10. ∫ . = +
11. ∫ . =− +
− ln| |+
12. ∫ =
ln| |+
ln| |+
13. ∫ =
− ln| |+
14. ∫ = +
15. ∫ = + ( > 0, ≠ 1)
16. ∫ √ = sin +
17. ∫ = tan +
18. ∫ = sec +
√
1. Method of substitution:
In this section we reduce certain integrals to some standard forms by a suitable
substitution.
Example: Evaluate 2x 9
 dx
x2  9x 1
Solution:
2x  9
 dx
x2  9 x  1
2
put u  x  9 x  1  du   2 x  9  dx
2x  9 du
 dx     u 1/2 du
x2  9 x  1 u

u 
1/2 1
 C
 1 / 2   1
where C is an arbitrary const an t
 2u1/ 2  C

 2 x2  9x  1  C
2. Method of completing the square:
In this section we reduce certain integrals to some standard forms by completing the
square.
Example: Evaluate dx

8x  x2
Solution: We complete the square to write the radicand as
  
8 x  x 2   x 2  8 x   x 2  8 x  16  16 
   x 2  8 x  16   16
2
 16   x  4 
dx dx
Then   
8x  x2 16   x  4 
2

put a  4 and u  x  4  du  dx

dx du
 
8x  x 2 a2  u 2
u
 sin 1    C
a
where C is an arbitrary cons tan t
 x4
 sin 1  C
 4 
3. Method of using the trigonometric identities:
In this section we reduce certain integrals to some standard forms by using the
trigonometric identities.
2
Example: Evaluate   sec x  tan x  dx
Solution: We expand the integrand and get
 sec x  tan x 2  sec 2 x  2 sec x tan x  tan 2 x
 sec 2 x  2 sec x tan x  sec 2 x  1
 2 sec 2 x  2 sec x tan x  1
Then

  2 sec 
2 2
 sec x  tan x  dx  x  2 sec x tan x  1 dx

 2  sec 2 x d x  2  sec x tan x d x   dx

 2 tan x  2 sec x  x  C
w here C is a n a rb itrary con s tan t
4. Method of eliminating a square root:
In this section we reduce certain integrals to some standard forms by eliminating a square
root.
Example: Evaluate  /4 1  cos 4x dx
 0
Solution: We have the relation 1  cos 2(2 x )  2 cos 2 2 x
Hence
 /4  /4  2 
0 1  cos 4 x dx  2 0 cos 2 x dx  u  u 
we know that cos 2 x  0 on 0,  / 4  , so cos 2 x  cos 2 x
 /4  /4
 0 1  cos 4 x dx  2 cos 2 x dx
0
 /4
 sin 2 x 
 2
 2  0
1  2

2   0 
2  2
5. Method of reducing an improper fraction:
In this section we reduce certain integrals to some standard forms by reducing an improper
fraction into a proper fraction.

Example: Evaluate 3x 2  7 x
 3 x  2 dx
Solution: The integrand is an improper fraction (degree of numerator greater than or equal
to degree of denominator). To integrate it, we divide first, getting a quotient plus a
remainder that is a proper fraction:
 3x2  7 x 6
 x3
3x  2 3x  2
Therefore
3 x2  7 x  6 
 3 x  2 dx    x  3  3 x  2  dx
dx
  x dx  3  dx  6 
3x  2
x2  ln 3 x  2

  3x  6  C
2  3 
where C is an arbitrary cons tan t
x2
  3 x  2 ln 3 x  2  C
2
6. Method of separating a fraction:
In this section we reduce certain integrals to some standard forms by separating a fraction.
Example: Evaluate 3 x  2 dx

1 x2
Solution: We first separate the integrand to get
3x  2 x dx
 dx  3  dx  2 
1  x2 1  x2 1  x2
In the first integral we substitute
u  1  x 2  du   2 x d x
x 3 du
3 dx  
1  x2 2 u
3 1/2
 u du
2
3 u1/2
   C1  3 1  x 2  C1
2 1/ 2
whereC1 is an arbitrary cons tan t
The second integral is in the standard form
dx
 2  2 sin  1 x  C 2
1  x2
w h e re C 2 is a n a rb itra ry co n s ta n t
Combing these results and renaming C1  C 2 as C gives
3x  2
 d x   3 1  x 2  2 sin  1 x  C
1  x2
w h ere C is an a rbitra ry con s tan t
7. Method of multiplying by a form of 1:
In this section we reduce certain integrals to some standard forms by multiplying by a form
of 1.
Example: Evaluate sec x dx

Solution:
 sec x dx   (sec x ) 1 dx
sec x  tan x
  sec x  dx
sec x  tan x
sec 2 x  sec x tan x
 dx
sec x  tan x

Substitute u  sec x  tan x  du  sec x tan x  sec 2 x dx 
du
 sec x dx  u
 ln u  C  ln sec x  tan x  C
where C is an arbitrary cons tan t

= ln| + |+

With cosecants and cotangents in place of secants and tangents, the method of the above
example leads to a companion formula for the integral of the cosecant.

= − ln| + |+

PROBLEM SET
IP1. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
√
Given ∫ =∫

Now, put = ⟹ √ =
√
∫ = ∫

= sin + = sin +
where C is an arbitrary constant

∴ ∫ = sin +
P1. If ∫ = + ⟹ =?
Solution:
Given ∫
Put = ⟹ 50 = ⟹ =
∫ = ∫
Again, put tan = ⟹ =
= ∫ = +
where C is an arbitrary constant.
( )
= + = +
Hence the value of k is
IP2. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
∫ = ∫ = ∫

= ∫ = ∫

= ∫
√

Put + = ⟹ =

∫ = ∫ = . tan √
+
√ √

where C is an arbitrary constant

∫ = tan + = tan +
√ √ √ √

∴ ∫ = tan +
√ √
P2. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
∫√ =∫ =∫
( )

=∫ =∫ =∫
√

Put − = ⟹ =
 ∫ =∫ = sin √
+ = sin +
√
√

where C is an arbitrary constant

= sin + = sin +
√ √

∴∫ = sin +
√

IP3. Evaluate: ∫
√
Solution:
( )
∫√ =∫
√
∫√ =∫ −
√ √
∫√
= ∫ √1 + −∫
√

=∫ + +2 . −∫
√

=∫ + −∫

= −2 +2 − ∫
√ . .
√ √

=2 − − ∫
√ . .

=2 − − ∫
√

=2 − − ∫ +
√
=2 − + ln + + + +
√
where C is an arbitrary constant
.
∴
( + )
1
=2 − + ln + + + +
2 2 √2 2 4 2 4
.
P3. Evaluate: ∫ ?
( )
Solution:
. .
∫( )
= ∫
.
= ∫
.
= ∫
( )
= ∫
 = ∫( + ) − ∫
= ∫( + ) − ∫
√
√

= (− + )− ∫
√
√ √

= ( − )− ∫
√ . .

= ( − )− ∫
√

= ( − )− ∫ +
√
= ( − ) + ln + + + +
√
where C is an arbitrary constant
.
∴
( + )
1 1
= ( − )+ ln + + + +
2 2√2 4 4
IP4. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
Given ∫
( )
= = ( − 2) − ( )

∴ ∫ = ∫ ( − 2) − ( )
=∫ − 2∫ − 2∫( )

= − 2 − 2 ln| − 2| +
where C is an arbitrary constant
∴ ∫ = − 2 − 2 ln| − 2| +
P4. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
Given ∫
By actual division, we have
= − + ( )

∴ ∫ =∫ − + ( )
= ∫ − ∫ + ∫( )
| |
= − + +
where C is an arbitrary constant
= − + ln|2 + 3| +
 + +1 7
∴ = − + ln|2 + 3| +
2 +3 4 4 8
Exercises
1) Evaluate
(sin )
)
√1 −
) ∫ sec
) ∫ ( )

) ∫
2) Evaluate
1
)
5−2 +4
)∫
) ∫

3) Evaluate
1− 2
)
1+ 2
)∫
) ∫
) ∫
√
) ∫
4) Evaluate
) 1+
2
/
) ∫– / √1 +
) ∫– (1 − )
) ∫ √1 − 2
5) Evaluate
)
+5
)∫
) ∫
) ∫
6) Evaluate
1
)
 )∫
) ∫
) ∫
√
7) Evaluate
+2
)
+1
) ∫√ √
( )

)∫

1.2. Integration by parts

Learning objectives:
 To derive the formula for integration by parts.
 To execute the integration by parts by tabular integration.
And
 To practice related problems.

Introduction:
Integration by parts is a technique for simplifying integrals of the form

 f  x  g  x  dx
in which f ( x ) can be differentiated repeatedly and g ( x ) can be integrated repeatedly
without difficulty.
The integral xe x dx

is such an integral because f  x   x can be differentiated twice to become zero and
g  x   e x can be integrated repeatedly without difficulty.
Integration by parts also applies to integrals like

e x sin x dx
in which each part of the integrand appears again after repeated differentiation or
integration.
The Formula : The formula for integration by parts comes from the product rule,
d dv du
u v   u v
dx dx dx
In its differential form, the rule becomes
d  uv   u d v  v d u
which is then written as u dv  d  uv   vdu and integrated to give the following
formula.
  u dv  uv   v du .................. (1)
Equation(1) is the integration-by-parts formula and it expresses one integral,  u dv , in
terms of a second integral,  v du .
With a proper choice of u and v , the second integral may be easier to evaluate than the
first. (This is the reason for the importance of the formula. When faced with an integral we
cannot handle, we can replace it by one with which we might have more success)
The equivalent formula for definite integrals is
v2 u
 u dv   u2v2  u1v1   2 v du
 ............ (2)
v1 u1
Example-1: Find  x cos x dx
Solution:
Let
u  x and dv  co s x d x
 d u  d x and v   c os x dx  sin x
 u dv  u v   v du
  x co s x d x  x sin x   sin x d x
 x sin x  co s x  C

where C is an arbitrary constant.

Example-2: Find  ln x dx .
Solution:
Since ln x dx can be written as  ln x 1dx , we use the
formula  u dv  uv   v du with
u  ln x a n d d v  d x
1
 du  dx and v   dx x
x
Then  u dv  uv   v du
1
 ln x dx  x ln x   x dx
x 

 x ln x  x  C

where C is an arbitrary constant

Finding the volume
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the y -axis the region in the first
quadrant enclosed by the coordinate axes, the curve y  e x and the line x  ln 2.

Solution:
Using the method of cylindrical shells, we find
b ln 2
V   a
2 xf  x  d x  2  0 x e x d x
To evaluate the integral, we use the formula of integration-by-parts,

 u dv  uv   v du , with
ux dv  e x dx v  ex du  dx
Then
ln 2 x x ln 2 ln 2 x

xe dx  xe   e dx
 0  0 0 
ln 2
  ln 2 e ln 2  0    e x 
   0
 2 ln 2   2  1 
 2 ln 2  1
The solid’s volume is therefore
ln 2 x
V  2  xe dx  2  2ln 2  1
0
Repeated Use
Sometimes we have to use integration by parts more than once to obtain an answer.
2e x dx
Example : Find x
Solution:
We use formula  u dv  uv   v du with

u  x2 and dv  e x dx
 du  2 x dx and v   e x dx e x
This gives  u dv  uv   v du
2 x 2 x x
 x e dx  x e  2 xe dx....(1)
It takes a second integration by parts to find the integral on the right. We find
x
u  x and dv  e dx
 du  dx and v   e x dx e x

 u dv  uv   v du
x x x
 xe dx  xe  e  C  , where ʹ is an arbitrary constant
from (1)
x 2e x dx  x 2e x  2 xe x dx....(1)
 
 x 
2e x dx  x 2e x  2 xe x  e x

x 2e x dx  x 2e x  2 xe x  2e x  C
Hence 
where is an arbitrary constant
Solving for the Unknown Integral
Integrals like the one in the next example occur in electrical engineering. Their evaluation
requires two integrations by parts, followed by solving for the unknown integral.
e x cos x dx
Example: Find 
Solution: We first use the formula with
 u dv  uv   v du
u  e x and dv  cos x dx
 du  e x dx and v   cos x dx  sin x
Then
x cos x dx  e x sin x  x sin x dx
e e
The second integral is like the first, except it has sin x in place of cos x . To evaluate it, we
use integration by parts with
u  e x and dv  sin x dx
 du  e x dx and v   sin x dx   cos x
Then

e
x
 
cos x dx  e x sin x   e x cos x     cos x  e x dx 
 e x sin x  e x cos x   e x cos x dx
The unknown integral now appears on both sides of the equation. Combining the two
expressions gives
2  e x co s x d x  e x sin x  e x c os x  C 
where ʹ is an arbitrary constant
Dividing by 2 and renaming the constant of integration gives
x e x sin x  e x cos x
e cos x dx 
2
C
where is an arbitrary constant
Tabular Integration
We have seen that integrals of the form
 f  x  g  x dx , in which f can be
differentiated repeatedly to become zero and g can be integrated repeatedly without
difficulty, are natural candidates for integration by parts. In some cases, where there are
many repetitions, the calculations can be cumbersome. There is a way to organize the
calculations that saves a great deal of work. It is called tabular integration and is illustrated
in the following examples.
Example : Find x 2 e x d x by tabular integration.

Solution: With f  x   x 2 and g  x   e x , we list

We add the products of the functions connected by the arrows, with the middle sign
changed, to obtain x 2 e x dx  x 2 e x  2 xe x  2 e x  C

where C is an arbitrary constant
Example: Find 3
x sin x dx by tabular integration.

Solution: With f  x   x3 and g  x   sin x , we list

Again we add the products of the functions connected by the arrows, with every other sign
changed, to obtain
3 s in x d x   x 3 c o s x  3 x 2 s in x  6 x c o s x  6 sin x  C
x
where C is an arbitrary constant

PROBLEM SET
IP1. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
( )
∫ =∫
= ∫ + ∫ 2
= + ∫ 2 ………. (1)
Now, to find ∫ 2
Put = and = 2
⟹ = and =
By integration by parts, we have
∫ = −∫
∫ 2 = −∫
= + +
where is an arbitrary constant
From (1), we have
∴∫ = + −∫
= + + +
= + + +
P1. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
( )
∫ =∫ = ∫ − ∫ 2
= − ∫ 2 ………….. (1)
Now, to find ∫ 2
Put = and = 2
⟹ = and = ∫ 2 =
By integration by parts, we have
∫ = −∫
∫ 2 = −∫ = + + ʹ
where ʹ is an arbitrary constant
From (1), we have
∴∫ = − ∫ 2
= − + + ʹ= − − + ʹ
IP2. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
Given ∫ 2
Put = and = 2
⟹ =− and =
∫ 2 = −∫ (− )
= + ∫ 2 …….. (1)
Now, to find ∫ 2
Put = and = 2
⟹ =− and = ∫ 2 =−
By integration by parts, we have
∫ = −∫
∫ 2 =− +∫ (− )
=− − ∫ 2
From (1), we have
∴∫ 2
= + − − ∫ 2
= − − ∫ 2
1+ ∫ 2 = (2 2 − 2 )+ ʹ
∫ 2 = (2 2 − 2 )+
where is an arbitrary constant
P2. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
Given ∫ 2
Put = and = 2
⟹ =− and = ∫ 2 =−
By integration by parts, we have
∫ = −∫
∫ 2 =− −∫ − (− )
=− − ∫ 2 ……….. (1)
Now, to find ∫ 2
Put = and = 2
⟹ =− and = ∫ 2 =
By integration by parts, we have
∫ = −∫
∫ 2 = −∫ (− )
= + ∫ 2
From (1), we have
∴∫ 2 =− − ∫ 2
=− − + ∫ 2
=− − − ∫ 2
∫ 2 + ∫ 2 =− −
1+ ∫ 2 =− (2 2 + 2 )+ ʹ
∫ 2 =− (2 2 + 2 )+
where is an arbitrary constant
IP3. Evaluate: ∫ ( + ) ?
Solution:
Given ∫ log( + 1)
= and = log( + 1)
⟹ = and
= ∫ log( + 1) = ( + 1)[log( + 1) − 1]
By integration by parts, we have
∫ = −∫
∫ log( + 1)
= ( + 1)[log( + 1) − 1] − ∫( + 1)[log( + 1) − 1]
= ( + 1)[log( + 1) − 1] − ∫( + 1) log( + 1) + ∫( + 1)
= ( + )[log( + 1) − 1] − ∫ log( + 1) − ∫ log( + 1) + +
2∫ log( + 1)
=( + )[log( + 1) − 1] − ( + 1)[log( + 1) − 1] + + +
= ( + − − 1)[log( + 1) − 1] + + +
= ( − 1)[log( + 1) − 1] + + +
= ( − 1) log( + 1) − +1+ + +
∫ log( + 1) = ( − 1) log( + 1) − + + 1 +
where is an arbitrary constant
P3. Evaluate: ∫ √ ?
Solution:
Given ∫ √ log
Put = √ and = log
⟹ = and = (log − 1)
√
By integration by parts, we have
∫ = −∫
∫ √ log = √ (log − 1) − ∫ (log − 1)
√
= (log − 1) − ∫ √ (log − 1)
 = (log − 1) − ∫ √ log − √
= (log − 1) − ∫ √ log + ∫√

∫ √ log + ∫ √ log = (log − 1) + ∙

∴ 1+ ∫ √ log = (log − 1) + + ʹ

∫ √ log = (log − 1) + +
where is an arbitrary constant
= (log − 1) + +
IP4. Evaluate ∫( − − + ) by tabular integration
Solution: Given ∫( − 5 − 9 + 12 )
Take ( ) = − 5 − 9 + 12 and ( ) =
Table

By tabular integration,
∫( − 5 − 9 + 12 )
= ( − 5 − 9 + 12 )(− ) − (3 − 10 − 9)
+(6 − 10)(− )−6 +
where is an arbitrary constant
=− ( − 5 − 9 + 12 + 3 − 10 − 9 + 6 − 10 + 6)
=− ( − 2 − 13 − 1) +
P4. Evaluate ∫ by tabular integration
Solution: Take ( ) = and ( ) = 2
Table
 By tabular integration,
∴ 2

= −3 − +6 − −6 +
where C is an arbitrary constant
= + − − +

EXERCISES
1. Evaluate
a. ∫ sin
b. ∫
c. ∫
d. ∫ tan
e. ∫ log(1 + )
f. ∫ log
g. ∫ sin
h. ∫ cos
i. ∫ tan
j. ∫ log + √ +
2. Evaluate
a. ∫ 4
b. ∫ 4
c. ∫ 3
d. ∫ log(1 + )
e. ∫ log
3. Evaluate by tabular integration
a. ∫
b. ∫
c. ∫( + 2 +5 + + 1)
d. ∫ (log )
e. ∫ 2
f. ∫ 2
1.3. Partial Fractions
Learning objectives:
 To express the rational fractions into simpler fractions by the method of partial
fractions.
 To evaluate the integrals by the method of partial fractions in which the integrand
consists of
 Distinct linear factors in the denominator.
 A repeated linear factor in the denominator.
 An irreducible quadratic factor in the denominator.
AND
 To practice the related problems.

A theorem from advanced algebra says that every rational function, no matter how
complicated, can be rewritten as a sum of simpler fractions that we can integrate with
techniques we already know. For instance,
5x  3 2 3 …………. (1)
 
x2  2 x  3 x  1 x  3
So, we can integrate the rational function on the left by integrating the fractions on the
right instead.
The method for rewriting rational functions in this way is called the method of partial
fractions. In this particular case, it consists of finding constants A and B such that
5x  3 5x  3 A B ………….. (2)
  
x2  2 x  3  x  1 x  3  x  1 x  3
We call the fractions A /  x  1 and B /  x  3  as partial fractions because their
denominators are only part of the original denominator x 2  2 x  3 . We call A and B
undetermined coefficients until proper values for them have been found.
To find A and B , we first clear the equation (2) of fractions, obtaining
5 x  3  A  x  3  B  x  1   A  B  x  3 A  B
This will be an identity in x if and only if the coefficients of like powers of x on the two
sides are equal: A  B  5 ,  3 A  B   3
Solving these equations simultaneously gives A  2 and B  3 .
Example 1- Two distinct linear factors in the denominator
Find : 5x  3
dx
 x  1  x  3 
Solution: 5x  3 2 3
 
 x  1  x  3  x  1 x  3
5x  3 2 3
  x  1  x  3 d x   x1
dx   x3
dx

 2 ln x  1  3 ln x  3  C

where C is an arbitrary constant

Example 2- A repeated linear factor in the denominator

Express 6x  7 as a sum of partial fractions and evaluate ∫ ( )

2
x  2
Solution: Since the denominator has a repeated linear factor,  x  2  2 , we must express
the fraction in the form
6x  7 A B ……….. (3)
 
 x  2 2 x  2  x  2 2
6x  7 A( x  2)  B

 x  2 2  x  2 2
Clearing equation (3) of fractions gives
6 x  7  A  x  2   B  Ax   2 A  B 
Matching the coefficients of like terms gives A  6 and
 7  2 A  B  12  B  B  5
Hence 6 x  7 6 5
 
 x  2  2 x  2  x  2 2
6x  7  6 5 
N ow , dx      dx
 2  x 2 2
x  2    x  2  
dx dx
 6  5
x 2  x  2 2
5
 6 lo g x  2  C
x 2
Example 3 An improper fraction
Express: 2 x3  4 x2  x  3 as a sum of partial fractions and evaluate ∫
x2  2 x  3
Solution
First we divide the denominator into the numerator to get a polynomial plus a proper
fraction. Then we write the proper fraction as a sum of partial fractions. Long division gives
2 x3  4 x 2  x  3 5x  3 2 3
 2x   2x  
x2  2 x  3 x2  2x  3 x 1 x  3
2 x3  4 x 2  x  3  2 3 
 x2  2x  3 dx    2 x    dx
x 1 x 3
dx dx
 2  x dx  2   3
x 1 x3
 x 2  2 log x  1  3 log x  3  C
Where C is an arbitrary constant
Example 4- An irreducible quadratic factor in the denominator
Express 2 x  4 as a sum of partial fractions

 x 2  1   x  1 2
Solution
The denominator has an irreducible quadratic factor as well as a repeated linear factor, so
we write
2 x  4 Ax  B C D ……… (4)
  
 x2  1 x 12 2
x 1 x  1  x  12
For quadratic factors, we use first degree numerators, not constant numerators. Clearing
the equation of fractions gives

2 x  4

 2
 
Ax  B  x  1   C x 2  1  x  1  D x 2  1  
 2

x  1  x  1
2

x 2  1  x  1
2

2 x  4  Ax  B  x  1
2
C x    
 1 x 2  1  D x 2  1

  A x  B  x 2  2 x  1   C x  C  x 2  1   D x 2  D

 Ax3  2 Ax2  Ax  Bx2  2Bx  B

 C x3  C x  C x 2  C  D x 2  D
 2 x  4   A  C  x3   2 A  B  C  D  x 2
 A  2B  C x  B C  D 
Equating coefficients of like terms gives
Coefficients of x3 : 0  AC
2
Coefficients of x : 0  2 A  B  C  D
Coefficients of x1: 2  A  2 B  C
0
Coefficients of x : 4  B C  D
We solve these equations simultaneously to find the values of A , B , C , and D .
A2 C  2 B 1 D 1
We substitute these values into equation (4), obtaining
2 x  4 2x 1 2 1
  
 x 2  1 x  12 x 2  1 x  1  x  1 2
Example 5: Evaluate 2x  4
 dx
 x2  1  x  1  2

Solution We expand the integrand by partial fractions, as in example 4, and integrate

the terms of the expansion:
 
2 x  4 2 x  1 2 1
 2 dx      dx
x  1  x  12  2
 x 1
x  1 2
 x  1 
 
2x 1 2 1
     dx
 x 2  1 x 2  1 x  1  x  1 2 
 
1
 
 ln x 2  1  tan 1 x  2 ln x  1 
x 1
C

PROBLEM SET
IP1. Evaluate: ∫ ( )( )
?
Solution:
Let ( )( )( )
=( )
+( )
+( )
⟹ (3 − 2)
= ( + 2)( − 3) + ( − 1)( − 3) + ( − 1)( + 2)
…...………… (1)
Set = 1 in (1), we have
3 − 2 = (1 + 2)(1 − 3) ⟹ = −
Set = −2 in (1) , we have
−6 − 2 = (−2 − 1)(−2 − 3) ⟹ = −
Set = 3 in (1), we have
9 − 2 = (3 − 1)(3 + 2) ⟹ =

( )( )( )
=− ( )
− ( )
+ ( )

∫( )( )( )
= − ∫( )
− ∫( )
+ ∫( )
= − log| − 1| − log| + 2| + log| − 3| +
where is an arbitrary constant
P1. Evaluate: ∫ ( )( )
?
Solution:

( )(
=( )( )(
) )

Let ( )( )( )
=( )
+( )
+( )
 ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( )( )(
=
) ( )( )( )
⟹ +4 −7
= ( + 1)( + 3) + ( − 4)( + 3) + ( − 4)( + 1)
………………….. (1)
Set = 4 in (1), we get
16 + 16 − 7 = (4 + 1)(4 + 3) ⟹ =
Set = −1 in (1), we get
1 − 4 − 7 = (−1 − 4)(−1 + 3) ⟹ = 1
Set = −3 in (1), we get
9 − 12 − 7 = (−3 − 4)(−3 + 1) ⟹ = −

( )( )( )
= ( )
+( )
− ( )

∫( )( )( )
= ∫ +∫ − ∫
( ) ( ) ( )
= log| − 4| + log| + 1| − log| + 3| +
where is an arbitrary constant
IP2. Evaluate: ∫ ?
( )( )
Solution:
Let = + +
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
⟹ = ( + 2) + ( + 1)( + 2) + ( + 1)
…………….. (1)
Put = −1 in (1), we get
(−1) = (−1 + 2) ⟹ = 1
Put = −2 in (1), we get
(−2) = (−2 + 1) ⟹ = −4
Now, comparing the coefficients of on both sides, we get
1= + ⟹ =0
Hence = −
( )( ) ( ) ( )

∫( =∫ −∫
)( ) ( )
= log| + 1| + +
where is an arbitrary constant
P2. Evaluate: ∫ ( )(
?
)
Solution:
Let ( )( )
=( )
+( )
+( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )(
=
) ( )( )
⟹ 3 + 1 = ( − 1) + ( + 3)( − 1) + ( + 3)
………………. (1)
 Set = −3 in (1), we get
−9 + 1 = (−3 − 1) ⟹ = −
Set = 1 in (1), we get
3 + 1 = (1 + 3) ⟹ = 1
Now, comparing the coefficients of on both sides of (1),
we get
+ =0⟹ =

∴ ( )(
=− + +
) ( ) ( ) ( )

∫( )( )
= − ∫( )
+ ∫( )
+∫( )

= − log| + 3| + log| − 1| − ( )
+

= (log| − 1| − log| + 3|) − ( )

+

= log − + , where is an arbitrary constant

( )

IP3. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:

= (4 + 4) + (∵ )

∫ = 4∫ +4∫ +∫

=2 +4 +∫ …… (1)
( )

Now, we have to evaluate ∫

( )

Let = +
( ) ( ) ( )

12 − 4 = (2 − 1) + ………………. (2)

Put = in (2), we get, = 6−4= 2

Comparing the coefficients of on both sides of (2), we get

12 = 2 ⟹ =6

( )
=( )
+( )
 | |
∫( = 6∫( + 2∫( =6 −2
) ) )

∫( = 3 log|2 − 1| −
)

(1 ) ⟹ ∫ =2 + 4 + 3 log|2 − 1| − +

where is an arbitrary constant

P3. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:

= −1+ (∵ )

∫ =∫ −∫ +∫

= − +∫ ………… (1)

Now, ∫ = ∫( )( )

Writing as the sum of partial fractions,

( )
=( )+ ……………. (2)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
= ( )( )
⟹ ( + 1) = ( + 2) + ( − 1)
Put = 1 in (2), we get , 2 = (1 + 2) ⟹ =
Put = −2 in (2), we get, −2 + 1 = (−2 − 1) ⟹ =
(2) ⟹ ( )( )
= ( )
+ ( )
∴ ∫( )(
= ∫ + ∫
) ( ) ( )
= log| − 1| + log| + 2| +
From (1),
∫
= − + log| − 1| + log| + 2| +
where is an arbitrary constant
= − + log ( − 1) + log ( + 2) +
= − + log ( − 1) . ( + 2) +
IP4. Evaluate: ∫ ( ) ( )
?
Solution:
Here ( + 16) is an irreducible quadratic factor
Let ( ) ( )
=( )
+( )
+( )
⟹2 +3 −2
= ( + 16)( − 3) + ( + 16) + ( + )( − 3)
………….. (1)
Set = 3 in (1), we get
2(3) + 3(3) − 2 = (9 + 16) ⟹ = 1
Simplifying (1), we get
2 + 3 − 2 = ( + ) + (−3 + − 6 + )
+ (16 + 9 − 6 ) + (−48 + 16 + 9 )
Equating the coefficients of like terms on both sides, we get
Coefficients: + =0
Coefficients: −3 + − 6 + = 2
Coefficients: 16 + 9 − 6 = 3
Coefficients:−48 + 16 + 9 = −2
Solving the above equations, we get
= , =1, =− , =−

= + −
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

∫( ) ( )

= ∫( )
+ ∫( )
− ∫( )
= log| − 3| − ( )
− ∫( )
− ∫
= log| − 3| − − log| + 16 | − tan +
( )

= log √
−( )
− tan +
where is an arbitrary constant
P4. Evaluate: ∫ ( ) (
?
)
Solution:
Here + 1 is an irreducible quadratic factor,
Let ( ) ( )
=( )+( ) +( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) (
= ( ) (
) )
⟹ 1 = ( + 1)(
+ 1) + ( + )( + 1) + 1) + (
…………… (1)
Set = −1 in (1), we get , 1 = (1 + 1) ⟹ =
Simplifying (1), we get
1= ( + + + 1) + ( + 1) + ( + )( + 2 + 1)
1= + + + + + + +2 + + +2 +
 1=( + ) +( ++2 + )
+( + + 2 ) + ( + + )
Equating the coefficients of like terms, we get
Coefficients: + =0
Coefficients: + +2 + =0
Coefficients: + +2 =0
Coefficients: + + =1
Solving above equations, we get
= , =− , =0
Hence ( ) (
= + ( )
−
) ( ) ( )

∫( ) ( )
= ∫ + ∫( )
− ∫
( ) ( )
= log| + 1| − − . ∫
( ) ( )
= log| + 1| − − log| + 1| +
( )
where is an arbitrary constant
= log − +
√ ( )

EXERCISES
1. Evaluate
a. ∫
b. ∫
c. ∫
d. ∫ ( )( )

e. ∫
f. ∫
2. Evaluate
A. ∫
B. ∫
C. ∫ ( )( )

D. ∫ ( )( )

E. ∫ ( )
F. ∫ ( )( )
3. Evaluate
a. ∫
b. ∫
 c. ∫
d. ∫
e. ∫
4. Evaluate
a. ∫

b. ∫
c. ∫
d. ∫ ( ) ( )

e. ∫
f. ∫ ( )( )

1.4. General Description of the Method of Partial Fractions

Learning objectives:

 To illustrate the method of writing a proper fraction as the sum of partial fractions.
 To illustrate Heaviside cover up method for writing a proper fraction with distinct
linear factors into sum of partial fractions.
 To illustrate the methods of determining the undetermined coefficients by
differentiation and assigning selected numerical values.
AND
 To practice the related problems.

Success in writing a rational function f  x  / g  x  as a sum of partial fractions depends

on two things:
1. The degree of f  x  must be less than the degree of g  x  . If it is not, we divide
and work with the remainder term.
2. We must know the factors of g  x  . In theory, any polynomial with real coefficients
can be written as a product of real linear factors and real quadratic factors. In
practice, the factors may be hard to find.
A theorem from advanced algebra says that when these two conditions are met, we may
write f  x  / g  x  as the sum of partial fractions by taking these steps.
The Method of Partial Fractions ( f  x  / g  x  Proper)
m
Step 1: Let x  r be a linear factor of g  x  . Suppose  x  r  is the highest power of
x  r that divides g  x  . Then assign the sum of m partial fractions to this factor, as
follows:
 A1 A2 Am
  
xr  x  r 2  x  r m
We do this for each distinct linear factor of g  x  .

Step 2: Let x 2  px  q be an irreducible quadratic factor of g  x  . Suppose

n
 x2  px  q  is the highest power of this factor that divides g  x  . Then to this
factor assign the sum of the n partial fractions:
B1 x  C 1 B2 x  C 2 Bn x  C n
  
x 2  px  q 2 n
2

x  px  q   x2  px  q 
We do this for each distinct irreducible quadratic factor
Step 3: Set the original fraction f  x  / g  x  equal to the sum of all these partial
fractions. Clear the resulting equation of fractions and arrange the terms in decreasing
powers of x .
Step 4: Equate the coefficients of corresponding powers of x and solve the resulting
equations for the undetermined coefficients.

The Heaviside “Cover-up” Method for Linear factors

When the degree of the polynomial f  x  is less than the degree of g  x  , and
g x   x  r1  x  r2  x  rn 
n distinct linear factors, each raised to the first power, there is a quick way
is a product of
to expand f  x  / g  x  by partial fractions.
Example1: Find A, B , and C in the partial-fraction expansion
x2  1 A B C …………... (1)
  
 x  1  x  2  x  3  x  1 x  2 x  3
Solution:
If we multiply both sides of equation (1) by  x  1 to get
x2  1 B  x  1 C  x  1
 A  
 x  2  x  3  x  2 x 3
and set x  1, the resulting equation gives the value of A:
12  1
 A  0  0  A  1
1  2 1  3 
Thus, the value of A is the number we would have obtained if we had covered the factor
 x  1  in the denominator of the original fraction
x2  1 ………………. (2)
 x  1  x  2  x  3 
and evaluated the rest at x  1.

A 
1 2  1 
2
1
( − ) 1  2 1  3  (  1) (  2 )

Cover
Similarly, we find the value of B in equation (1) by covering the factor  x  2 in (2) and
evaluating the
rest at x  2 :
22  1 5
B    5
 2  1  2  3  1   1 
Finally, C is found by covering the  x  3 in (2) and evaluating the rest at x  3 :
32  1 10
C   5
 3  1  3  2   2 1 
Heaviside Method:
The following are the steps in the cover-up method:
Step 1: Write the quotient with g  x  factored:
f x 
f x ………….. (3)
g x   x  r1  x  r2   x  rn
Step 2: Cover the factors  x  ri  of g  x  in (3) one at a time, each time replacing
all the uncovered x ’s by the number ri . This gives a number Ai for each root ri :

A1 
f r1 
 r1  r2   r1  rn 

f r2 
A2 
 r2  r1   r2  r3   r2  rn 

f  rn 
An 
 rn  r1  rn  r2   rn  rn 1 
Step 3: Write the partial-fraction expansion of f  x  / g  x  as
f x  A1 A2 An
   
g x   x  r1   x  r2   x  rn 
Example2
Evaluate using Heaviside Cover-up method,
x  4
 x3  3x 2  10 xdx
Solution:
The degree of ( ) = + is less than the degree of ( ) = + − , and with
( ) factored ,
= ( )( )
= + +
The roots of ( ) are = 0, = 2 = −5. We find
=( )( )
= ( )( ) = −

=( )( )
=( )( )
=

=( )( )
=( )( )
=−
Therefore,
( )( )
=− + −
( ) ( )
and
x4 | |+ | − 2| − | + 5| +
 dx = −
3 2
x  3 x  10 x

Other Ways to Determine the Constants

Another way to determine the constants that appear in partial fractions is to differentiate,
as in the next example. Still another is to assign selected numerical values to .
Example 3 Using Differentiation
Find , , in the equation
= +( ) +( )
( )
Solution:
( ) ( )
=
( ) ( )
We first clear of fractions:
− 1 = ( + 1) + ( + 1) +
Substituting = −1 shows = −2.
We then differentiate both sides with respect to , obtaining
1 = 2 ( + 1) +
Substituting = −1 shows = 1.
We differentiate again to get, 0 = 2 , which shows = 0. Hence
( )
= ( ) −( )
In some problems, assigning small values to such as = 0, ±1, ±2, to get equations in
, , and provides a fast alternative to other methods.

Example 4 Assigning numerical values to

Find , , in x2  1 A B C
  
 x  1  x  2  x  3  x  1 x  2 x  3
Solution
x2  1 A  x  2  x  3   B  x  1  x  3   C  x  1 x  2 

 x  1 x  2  x  3   x  1  x  2  x  3 
Clear of fractions to get
+ = ( − )( − ) + ( − )( − )
+ ( − )( − )
Then let = 1, 2,3 successively to find , , and :
= 1: (1) + 1 = (−1)(−2) + (0) + (0)
⟹2=2 ⟹ =1

= 2: (2) + 1 = (0) + (1)(−1) + (0)

⟹ 5 = − ⟹ = −5

= 3: (3) + 1 = (0) + (0) + (2)(1)

⟹ 10 = 2 ⟹ = 5
Thus
x2 1 1 5 5
  
 x  1  x  2  x  3  x  1 x  2 x  3

PROBLEMS SET
IP1. Evaluate: ∫ ( )( )
?
Solution:
The degree of ( ) = 4 − 5 is less than the degree of
( ) = ( − 4 + 3)( − − 2) and by factoring ( ),
we have
( )( )
= ( )( )( )( ) ………. (1)

By Heaviside cover-up method, we have

( )( )( )( )
= ( )+ ( )+( )
+( )
The roots of ( ) are = −1, = 1, = 2, = 3.
=( )( )( )
⟹ =
=( )( )( )
⟹ =−
=( )( )( )
⟹ = −1
=( )( )( )
⟹ =
∴ ( )( )( )( )
= ( )
− ( )
−( )
+ ( )

∫( )( )( )( )
= ∫( )
− ∫( )
− ∫( )
+ ∫( )
= log| + 1| − log| − 1| − log| − 2| + log| − 3| +
 = (3 log| + 1| + 7 log| − 3|)
− log| − 1| + log| − 2| +
where is an arbitrary constant
= log|( + 1) . ( − 3) | − log ( − 1) . ( − 2) +
P1. Evaluate: ∫ ( )( )
?
Solution:
The degree of ( ) = − 5 + 2 is less than the degree of
( ) = ( − 1)( − 4) and by factoring ( ), we have

( )( )
= )( )
( )( )(

)( )
= + + +
( )( )( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
The roots of ( ) are = 1, = −1, = 2, = −2
By Heaviside cover-up method,
= ( )( )
⟹ =
)(
=( )( )( )
⟹ =
= )
=−
( )( )(
=( )( )( )
=−

∴ )( )
= + − −
( )( )( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

∫( )( )
= ∫( )
+ ∫( )
− ∫( )
− ∫( )
= log| − 1| + log| + 1| − log| − 2| − log| + 2| +
where is an arbitrary constant
1 1 4 4
= log| − 1| − log| − 2| + log| + 1| − log| + 2| +
3 3 3 3
= log + log +

IP2. Evaluate: ∫ ( )
=
Solution:
Here ( + 2 + 2) is an irreducible factor

( )
= +( )
( )( )
( )
= ( )
2 +5 +8 +4
=( + )( + 2 + 2) + ( + )
= +2 +2 + +2 +2 + +
= + (2 + ) + (2 + + 2 ) + (2 + )
Equating the coefficients of like terms on both sides, we get
 Coefficients: =2
Coefficients: 2 + = 5
Coefficients: 2 + +2 =8
Coefficients: 2 + =4
Solving the above equations, we get
= 2, = 2, = 1, =2
∴ ( )
= +( )

∫ ( )
=∫ + ∫( )
( )
=∫ + ∫( )
=∫ −∫ + ∫( )
=∫ − ∫( ) ( )
+ ∫( )
=∫ − tan ( + 1) + ∫ ( )
Put + + = ⟹( + ) =
=∫ − tan ( + 1) + ∫
= log| | − tan ( + 1) − +
where is an arbitrary constant
= log| + 2 + 2| − tan ( + 1) − +

P2. Evaluate: ∫ ( )
=
Solution:
Here ( + 1)is an irreducible factor

( )
= ( )
+( )
+( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
= ( )
−4 +2 −3 +1
=( + )( + 1) + ( + )( + 1) + ( + )
=( + )( + 2 + 1) + ( + )( + 1) + ( + )
= +2 + + +2 + + + + + + +

−4 −3 +1 +2
= + + (2 + ) + (2 + )
+( + + ) +( + + )
Equating the coefficients of like terms on both sides, we get
Coefficients: =0
Coefficients: =1
Coefficients: 2 + = −4
Coefficients: 2 + =2
Coefficients: + + = −3
 Coefficients: + + =1
Solving the above equations, we get
= 0, = −4 , = 1, = 1, = 0, =0

( )
=( )
−( )
+( )

∫ ( )
= ∫( )
− 4∫( )
+ ∫( )
= tan − 2∫( )
+ ∫( )
Put + = ⟹ =
= tan − 2∫ + ∫
= tan + + − +
where is an arbitrary constant
= tan +( )
− ( )
+

IP3. Evaluate: ∫ ( )
?
Solution:
( )
= + +( )
2 + 1 = ( + 4) + ( + ) ( + 4) + ( + ) …….. (1)
Set = 0 in (1), we get
0 + 1 = (0 + 4) ⟹ =
Now,
2 +1= ( + ) + + (8 + 4 + ) + (4 + )
Equating the coefficients of like terms on both sides, we get
Coefficients: + = 0
Coefficients: = 0
Coefficients: 8 + 4 + = 0
Coefficients: 4 + = 2
Solving the above equations, we get
= , = − , = 0, = − , = 2

∴ ( )
= − +( )

∫ ( )
= ∫ − ∫ − ∫( )
+ 2∫( )
= ∫ − ∫ − ∫( )
+ 2∫( )
= log| | − log| + 4| + ( )
+ 2∫( )
+
……….……… (2)
Now, we have to evaluate ∫ ( )
Put =2 ⟹ =2 , = tan
∫( )
= ∫( )
=∫ ( )

= ∫ = ∫ = ∫
= ∫ (1 + 2 ) = + +
= + + = tan + +
……………. (3)
Substituting (3) in (2), we have
∫ ( )
= log| | − log| + 4| + ( )

+ tan + +
= log| | − log| + 4| + ( )

+ tan + +
where + = is an arbitrary constant
P3. EVALUATE: ∫ ?
( )
Solution:
Here ( + 1) is an irreducible factor
Let ( )
= + +( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
= ( )
1 = ( + 1) + ( + ) ( + 1) + ( + )
= ( + 2 + 1) + ( + )( + ) + ( + )
= +2 + + + + + + + )
=( + ) + + (2 + + ) + ( + ) +
Equating the coefficients of like terms on both sides, we get
Coefficients: + = 0
Coefficients: = 0
Coefficients: 2 + + = 0
Coefficients: + = 0
Coefficients: = 1
Solving above equations, we get
= 1, = −1, = 0, = −1, =0
∴ ( = − −(
) )

∫ ( )
=∫ −∫ − ∫( )
= log| | − ∫ − ∫( )
= log| | − ∫ − ∫( )
Put + = ⟹ =
= log| | − ∫ − ∫
= log| | − log| | + +
 where is an arbitrary constant
= log| | − log| + 1| + ( )
+

= log| | − log ( + 1) + ( )
+
= log| | − log √ +1 + ( )
+
= log √
+ ( )
+

IP4. Evaluate: ∫ ( )
?
Solution:
Let ( )
= +( )
+( )
( )
2− = ( + 5) + ( + 5) + ………….. (1)
Set = −5 in (1), we have 2 − (−5) = ⟹ = −23
Differentiating (1) w.r.t on both sides, we get
−2 = 2 ( + 5) + ……….. (2)
Set = −5 in (2), we have −2(−5) = ⟹ = 10
Differentiating (2) w.r.t on both sides, we get
−2 = 2 ⟹ = −1
∴ ( )
= −( )
+( )
−( )

∫( )
= −∫( )
+ 10 ∫ ( )
− 23 ∫ ( )
= − log| + 5| − + ( )
+
= log − + ( )
+
( )
where is an arbitrary constant
P4. Evaluate: ∫ ( )
?
Solution:

( )
= +( )
+( )
+( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
= ( )
3 +9 = ( − 1) + ( − 1) + ( − 1) +
+
………….. (1)
Set = 1 in (1), we get
3 + 9 + 1 = ⟹ = 13
Differentiating (1) w.r.t on both sides, we get
9 + 18 + 1 = 3 ( − 1) + 2 ( − 1) + ……….. (2)
Set = 1 in (2), we get
9 + 18 + 1 = ⟹ = 28
Differentiating (2) w.r.t on both sides, we get
18 + 18 = 6 ( − 1) + 2 ………… (3)
Set = 1 in (3), we get
18 + 18 = 2 ⟹ = 18
Differentiating (3) w.r.t on both sides, we get
18 = 6 ⟹ =3
∴ ( )
= +( )
+( )
+( )
( )

∫ ( )
= 3∫( )
+ 18 ∫ ( )
+ 28 ∫ ( )
+ 13 ∫ ( )
Let − 1 = → =
= 3 ∫ + 18 ∫ ( )
+ 28 ∫ ( )
+ 13 ∫ ( )

= 3 log| | + 18 + 28 + 13

= 3 log| − 1| + 18 + 28 + 13 +
= 3 log| − 1| + 18 + 28 + 13 +
= 3 log| − 1| − 18 − 14 − 13 +
= 3 log| − 1| − 18 − 14 ( )
− 13 ( )
+
= 3 log| − 1| − −( )
− ( )
+
where is an arbitrary constant
EXERCISES
1. Evaluate
a. ∫ ( )( )

b. ∫ ( )( )

c. ∫ ( )( )( )

d. ∫ ( )( )( )

e. ∫
f. ∫ ( )( )
2. Evaluate
a. ∫ ( )

b. ∫ ( )

c. ∫ ( )
d. ∫ ( )( )
e. ∫ ( )( )
f. ∫ ( )( )
g. ∫ ( )( )
3. Evaluate
a. ∫ ( )
 b. ∫ ( )

c. ∫ ( )

d. ∫ ( )

e. ∫ ( )

f. ∫ ( )

1.5. Trigonometric substitutions

Learning objectives:

 To evaluate integrals involving

√ + ,√ − , and √ −
by substitutions
= tan , = sin , and = sec
respectively.
AND

 To practice related problems.

Trigonometric substitutions can be effective in transforming integrals involving
√ + , √ − , and √ − into integrals which can be evaluated directly.
Three Basic Substitutions
The most common substitutions are = tan , = sin ,
and = sec ; They come from the following reference right triangles.

With = tan ,
a 2  x 2  a 2  a 2 tan 2   a 2 (1  tan 2  )  a 2 sec 2 
With = sin ,
a 2  x 2  a 2  a 2 sin 2   a 2 (1  sin 2  )  a 2 co s 2 

With = sec ,
x 2  a 2  a 2 sec 2   a 2  a 2 (sec 2   1)  a 2 tan 2 
The following are the graphs of arc tangent, arc sine and
x
arc secant of .
a

To change back to the original variable, we set

 x  
  tan  1     
a 2 2
 x   
  s in  1     
a  2 2
 x  x
  se c  1   0  if 1
a 2 a
 x
    if  1
2 a
With the substitution = sec , we will restrict its use to integrals in which ≥ 1;
this will place in [0, ) and make tan ≥ 0. We will then have

x 2  a 2  a 2 t an 2   a ta n   a ta n  , free of absolute values,

provided > 0.
Example 1 : Evaluate dx

4  x2
Solution:
We set x  2 tan   d x  2 se c 2  d  ,      
2 2
 
N ow , 4  x 2  4  4 tan 2   4 1  tan 2   4 sec 2  .Then
 dx 2 sec 2  d sec 2  d   
     sec 2   sec  
4  x2 2
4 sec  sec   
   
  sec  d   sec   0 for    
 2 2
 ln sec   tan   C 

4  x2 x
 ln   C   ln 4  x2  x  C
2 2

To express ln sec  tan  in terms of , we draw a reference triangle for the original
substitution = 2 tan and read the ratios from the triangle.

Substitution of =
The following example illustrate the substitution =
x 2 dx
Example 2 : Evaluate
 2
9 x
Solution: To replace 9 − by a single squared term, we set
x  3sin   dx  3cos d ,      
2 2
 
N ow , 9  x 2  9 1  sin 2   9 cos 2 

N ow, 9  x2  9 cos2   3 cos

x 2 dx 9 sin 2   3 cos  d  
   cos 2   cos  
9 x 2 3 cos   
   
 9  sin 2  d   cos   0 for   
Then  2 2 
1  cos 2
 9 d
2
9 sin 2 
   C
2 2 
9
   sin  cos    C
2
  
9 x x 9  x2  9 x x
 sin  1    C  sin  1  9  x2  C
2 3 3 3  2 3 2
 

Substitution of =
The following example illustrate the substitution =
Example 3 : Evaluate dx 2
 , x 
25 x 2  4 5
Solution: We first rewrite the radical as
2
2  4   2 
25x  4  25  x 2    5 x 2
  
 25   5 
to put the radicand in the form of √ − . We then substitute
2 2 
x sec   d x  sec  tan  d  , 0  
5 5 2
2 2 2 2 2
 2   2   2   2   2 
x2      sec        sec 2    
 5   5   5   5   5 
2 2
 2   2 
  
 5 
 sec 2   1    
 5 
ta n 2 

2
 2 2 2   
x2     tan   tan   tan   0 for 0  
5 5 5  2

With these substitutions, we have

dx

dx

 2 / 5  sec  tan  d 
   5   2 / 5  tan 
25 x 2  4 5 x 2  (4 / 25)
1 1
  sec  d   ln sec   tan   C
5 5
1 5x 25 x 2  4
 ln  C
5 2 2
A trigonometric substitution can sometimes help us to evaluate an integral containing an
integral power of a quadratic binomial, as in the next example.
Example 4
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the -axis the region bounded by
the curve = 4/( + 4), the
-axis, and the lines = 0 and = 2.
Solution
We sketch the region, figure below, and use the disk method.

2 2 2 dx 4
V     R  x   d x  1 6   , R x 
2
0 0 x2  4
 x2  4 
To evaluate the integral, we set
x
x  2 tan   d x  2 se c 2  d  and   tan  1
2

N ow , x 2  4  4 tan 2   4  4 tan 2   1  4 sec 2  

With these substitutions

2 dx  / 4 2 sec 2  d
V  1 6   1 6 0
0 2 2
 x 2
 4   4 s ec 2  
 / 4 2 sec 2  d
 1 6 0 16 sec 4 
 /4
 0 2 cos2  d
 /4
 0 1  c o s 2   d 
 /4
 s in 2    1
           4 .0 4
 2 0 4 2
The Substitution = :
The substitution
=
reduces the problem of integrating a rational expression in and to a problem of
integrating a rational function
of . This in turn can be integrated by partial fractions.
From the accompanying figure,

We can read the relation =

To see the effect of the substitution, we calculate

=2 −1= −1

= −1 = −1=

∴ =
and
=2 = .

=2 . =

∴ =
Finally, = ⟹ =
Example5:
1
=
1+
Solution: let = ⟹ =
2 1−
∴ = & =
1+ 1+

∫ =∫ =∫
 =∫ = ∫1

= ∫ dz = z + C = tan + C
∫ = tan + C
Example6:
1
=
2+
Solution: let = ⟹ =
2 1−
∴ = & =
1+ 1+
∫ =∫

=∫ =∫

=∫
=∫ =∫

=∫
√

=∫ = tan +

= √
tan √
+ = tan √
+
√

= tan +
√ √

= tan +
√ √
PROBLEM SET
IP1. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
√
To evaluate ∫ ,
Put =3 , − < <
⟹ =3
√
∫
( )
=∫ 3
( )
√ ( )
=∫ 3 =∫
 √ √
=∫ =∫
| |
=∫ ∵√ =| |
=∫ ∵ > 0, – < <
=∫ = ∫( − 1)
√
∫ =− − + ……… (1)
We have = 3
⟹ = ⟹ = sin
√
From the figure, =
√ √
(1 ) ⟹ ∫ =− − sin +

P1. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
To evaluate ∫ ,
√
Put =2 ,− < <
⟹ =2
∴∫
√
= 8∫
( ) ( )
= 16 ∫
√
= 2∫ | |
∵√ =| |
= 2∫ | |
∵ > 0, – < <
∫ = 2∫ = −2 + ……. (1)
√

We have =
√
From the figure, =

8 −2√4 −
(1) ⟹ = −2 + = +
√4 −

IP2. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
To evaluate ∫ √ ,
Put =2 , − < <
⟹ =2
∴∫
√
( )
=∫ 2
√
=∫ 2
√
= 8∫| |
∵√ =| |
= 8∫ ∵ >0 − < <
= 8∫ = 8∫
Put = ⟹ − = ⟹ =
= 8∫ = −8 ∫
= −8 ∫
= −8 ∫ = 8∫
= 8∫ − = 8∫ −
=8 − + + =8 − + +
=8 − + + …….. (1)
We have =2 ⟹ =
√
From figure, =

√
(1 ) ⟹ ∫ =8 − +8 +
√

= −4√ +4+ ( + 4) +
Hence, ∫ √ = ( + 4) − 4√ +4+

P2. Evaluate: ∫ =⋯, >0

( )
Solution:
To evaluate ∫ ( )
, >0,
Put = ,− < <
⟹ = sec
∴ ∫( )
= ∫
( )

= ∫
( )

=∫ ( )
=∫ ( )

= ∫ = ∫
= ∫ cos
 = ∫ = ∫(1 + 2 )
= (∫ + ∫ cos 2 )
= + … … … … … (1)
We have = ,
⟹ = , =
From figure,
= , =
√ √

.
(1 ) ⟹ ∫ = +
( )

= tan +√ √
= tan +

IP3. Evaluate: ∫ , >

Solution: To evaluate ∫ , > 5,

Put = 5 , 0< <
⟹ =5 .

∫
√
=∫ ( )
.5
√
=∫ .5
√
= ∫ .
| |
= ∫ . ∵ √ =| |
= ∫ . ∵ > 0, 0< <
= ∫ .
= ∫
= ∫ = − +
= ( − )+ … … . (1)
We have = 5
⟹ = , =

⇒ = , =
∴ (1 ) ⟹ ∫ = sec − . +

= − +

P3. Evaluate: ∫ , >

Solution:
To evaluate ∫ , > 7,
Put =7 , 0< <
⟹ =7 .
√
∴∫ =∫ 7 .
= ∫ 49( − 1)
= ∫ 7√ − 1.
= 7 ∫| | ∵√ =| |
= 7∫ ∵ >0 0< <
= 7 ∫( − 1) = 7( − ) + …… (1)
We have = 7
⟹ = , = sec

From figure, =

(1) ⟹ ∫ =7 − sec +

IP4. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
To evaluate ∫ ,
Put = ⟹ = 2 tan
∴ = , = , =

3 +4 +6

=∫ =∫ ( )

=∫ ( ) ( )
=∫
=∫ =∫ = ∫
 = ∫ = ∫

= ∫
√

= . tan √
+
√

= tan +
√ √

= tan +
√ √

Hence, ∫ = tan +
√ √

P4. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
To evaluate ∫ ,
Put = ⟹ = 2 tan
∴ = , = , =
Now, ∫

=∫ =∫

=∫ =∫
= (1 + ) + = log 1 + +
EXERCISES
1. Evaluate
a. ∫ √
b. ∫ √25 −
√
c. ∫
( )
d. ∫
( )

e. ∫
( )
( )
f. ∫
( )
g. ∫
2. Evaluate
a. ∫ √
b. ∫
√
c. ∫
( )
d. ∫
√
e. ∫
( )
f. ∫ √
3. Evaluate
a. ∫ √
b. ∫ √
c. ∫ ( )
d. ∫ ( )
⁄
e. ∫ ⁄ √ √
f. ∫
√
4. Evaluate
a. ∫
b. ∫
c. ∫

d. ∫
e. ∫
√
f. ∫ ( )
1.6. Integral Tables
Learning objectives:
In this module, we study
To evaluate a given integral with the help of the integral tables by transforming it
into an integral listed in the integral table.
To explain the use of integral table to evaluate certain integrals
AND
To practice the related problems.
The basic techniques of integration are substitution and integration by parts. We apply
these techniques to transform unfamiliar integrals into integrals whose forms we recognize
or can find in a table. The integrals in the tables come from applying substitutions and
integration by parts.
When an integral matches an integral in the table or can be changed into one of the
tabulated integrals with some appropriate combination of algebra, trigonometry,
substitution, and calculus, we have a ready-made solution for the problem at hand. The
examples in this module show how the formulas in integral tables are used. The emphasis is
on use.
The integration formulas, given in the appendix, are stated in terms of
constants , , , , , and so on. These constants can usually assume any real value and
need not be integers. The formulas also assume that the constants do not take on values
that require dividing by zero or taking even roots of negative numbers.
Example 1
Find ∫ (2 + 5)
Solution
We use formula 8
1 x b
 x  a x  b  d x  a  a 2 ln a x  b  C
With = 2 and = 5, we have
1 x 5
 x 2 x  5  dx   ln 2 x  5  C
2 4
Example 2
Find dx
x 2x  4
Solution: We use formula 13(b):
dx 1 ax  b  b
x ax  b

b
ln
ax  b  b
 C if b0

With = 2 and = 4, we have

dx 1 2x  4  4
 x 2x  4 4 2x  4  4  C
 ln

1 2x  4  2
 ln C
2 2x  4  2
Example 3 :Find dx
x 2x  4
Solution
We use formula 13(a):
dx 2 ax  b
  tan  1 C
x ax  b b b
With = 2 and = 4, we have
dx 2 2x  4
  tan  1 C
x 2x  4 4 4
x2
 tan  1 C
2
Example 4 :Find dx
 x2 2x  4
Solution
We begin with formula 15:
dx ax  b a dx
 x2    C
ax  b bx 2b x ax  b
With = 2 and = −4, we have
dx 2x  4 2 dx
 x2     C
2x  4  4 x 2  4 x 2 x  4
We then use formula 13(a) to evaluate the integral on the right (Example 3) to obtain
dx 2x  4 1 x 2
   ta n  1 C
x2 2x  4 4x 4 2
Example 5
x sin 1 x dx
Find 
Solution
n 1 x n 1dx
We use formula 99: x n sin  1 ax dx  x sin  1 ax 
a
n  1
 n 1 n  1  1  a 2x2
With = 1 and = 1, we have
1 x2 1 x 2dx
 x s in x dx  s in  1 x  
2 2
1  x2
The integral on the right is found in the table as formula 33:
x2 a2 1  x   1 x a 2  x 2  C
 2 2 dx  sin  
a x 2 a 2

With = 1, x2 1 1
 dx  s in  1 x  x 1  x 2  C
1 x2 2 2
The combined result is
1 x2 1 1 1 
 x sin x dx  s i n  1 x   s in  1 x  x 1  x 2   C 
2 2 2 2 
 x2 1  1
    sin  1 x  x 1  x 2  C 
 2 4  4

There are powerful programs, known as Computer Algebraic Systems (CAS), which integrate
many indefinite integrals symbolically. Some of the well-known programs are Maple and
Mathematica. The integration is performed with the integrate command specified by the
particular system (int in Maple, Integrate in Mathematica).
The computer algebraic systems are generally faster than tables and usually they do not
require you to rewrite integrals in special recognizable forms first.
We will learn the computer algebraic systems in a later course.
Appendix
 PROBLEM SET
IP1. Prove that
x a2  x 
a.  a 2  x 2 dx  a2  x2  s in  1   C
2 2  a 
where is an arbitrary constant.
x a2  x 
b.  x 2  a 2 dx  x2  a2  cosh 1   C
2 2  a 
where is an arbitrary constant.
Proof:
A).
To evaluate ∫ √ − ,
Put = , ∈ − ,
⟹ =
∴ ∫√ − =∫ −( ) .
= ∫ √1 − .
= ∫
= ∫
= [∫ +∫ 2 ]
= + +
where is an arbitrary constant.
= [ + . ] + ……… (1)
We have = ⟹ = sin
(1 ) ⟹ ∫ √ −
= + . √1 − +

= sin + 1− +

= sin + √ − +
= √ − + sin +
B).
To evaluate ∫ √ − ,
Put = ℎ , ∈ [0, ∞)
⟹ = ℎ
∴ ∫√ − =∫ ( ℎ ) − . ℎ
= ∫√ ℎ − 1 . ℎ
= ∫ ℎ
= ∫
= [∫ ℎ2 −∫ ]
 = − +
where is an arbitrary constant.
= [ ℎ . ℎ − ] + ……… (1)
We have ℎ = ⟹ = cosh

(1) ⟹ −

= ℎ .√ ℎ −1− +

= − 1 − cosh +

= √ − − cosh +
= √ − − cosh +

P1. Evaluate: ∫ √ + − ?
Solution:
Given ∫ √3 + 8 − 3
3 + 8 − 3 = (−3) − −1

= (−3) − − −1

= (−3) − −

=3 − −

∴ ∫ √3 + 8 − 3 = √3 ∫ − −

Put − = ⟹ =

= √3 ∫ −

= √3 + sin + (∵ )

⎡ ⎤
= √3 ⎢⎢ + sin ⎥+
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
√
= + sin +
√
( )√
= + sin +
√
( )√
Hence, ∫ √3 + 8 − 3 = + sin +
√
IP2.
Prove that x a2  x

2
a  x dx  2 2
a  x 2
 sinh  1    C
2 2 a
where is an arbitrary constant.
Proof:
To evaluate ∫ √ + ,
Put = ℎ , ∈ℝ
⟹ = ℎ
∴ ∫√ + =∫ +( ℎ ) . ℎ
= ∫ √1 + ℎ . ℎ
= ∫ ℎ
= ∫
= [∫ +∫ ℎ2 ]
= + +
where is an arbitrary constant.
= [ + ℎ . ℎ ] + ……… (1)
We have ℎ = ⟹ = sinh

(1) ⟹ +

= + ℎ . √1 + ℎ +

= sinh + 1+ +

= sinh + √ + +
= √ + + sinh +

P2. Evaluate: ∫ √ + + ?
Solution:
Given ∫ √3 + 2 + 1
3 +2 +1 =3 + +

=3 + + −
√
=3 + +

1 √2
∴ 3 +2 +1 = √3 + +
3 3

Put + = ⟹ =
 √
= √3 ∫ +

√
√ √
= √3 + + ln + +

(∵ )

√ √
= √3 + + + ln + + + +

= √3 +2 +1+ ln + + √3 +2 +1
√ √
Hence,
∫ √3 + 2 + 1
= √3 +2 +1+ ln + + √3 +2 +1
√ √

IP3. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
tan 2

= tan 2 − ∫ ( )
= tan 2 − ∫
Put = ⟹ = ⟹ = ⟹ =
∫ tan 2
= tan 2 − . ∫
= tan 2 − ∫
= tan 2 − ∫ − ∫
= tan 2 − − log( + 1) +
= tan 2 − − log(4 + 1) +
= tan 2 − − log(4 + 1) +
Hence, ∫ tan 2 = tan 2 − − log(4 + 1) +

P3. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
tan

= tan − ∫
( )
 = tan − ∫
= tan − ∫
= tan − ∫ − ∫
= tan − ∫( − 1) − tan
( )
= tan − ∫ + ∫ − tan
= tan − + − tan +
= tan − + +
Hence, ∫ tan = tan − + +

IP4. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
ℎ4

= ℎ4 − ∫ ℎ4 ( )
= ℎ4 − ∫ ℎ4
= ℎ4 − ℎ4 − ∫ ℎ4
( )
= ℎ4 − ℎ4 + ∫ ℎ4
= ℎ4 − ℎ4 + ℎ4 − ∫ ℎ4
( )
= ℎ4 − ℎ4 + ℎ4 − . ℎ4 +
( )
= ℎ4 − ℎ4 + ℎ4 − ℎ4 +
= + ℎ4 − + ℎ4 +
Hence,
3 3 3
ℎ4 = + ℎ4 − + ℎ4 +
4 32 16 128
P4. Evaluate: ∫ ?
Solution:
ℎ3

= ℎ3 − ∫ ℎ3 ( )
= ℎ3 − ∫ ℎ3
= ℎ3 − ℎ3 − ∫ ℎ3
 ( )
= ℎ3 − ℎ3 + ∫ ℎ3
= ℎ3 − ℎ3 + ℎ3 − ∫ ℎ3
( )
= ℎ3 − ℎ3 + ℎ3 − . ℎ3 +
( )
= ℎ3 − ℎ3 + ℎ3 − ℎ3 +
= + ℎ3 − + ℎ3 +
Hence,
2 2
ℎ3 = + ℎ3 − + ℎ3 +
3 9 3 27

EXERCISES
Evaluate:
1. ∫ tan

2. ∫ tan

3. ∫ √

4. ∫ √9 − 25

5. ∫

6. ∫ √16 − 25

7. ∫
( )√

8. ∫

9. ∫ ( )
10.∫ sin

11.∫ 3

12.∫ ℎ 2
 13.∫ ℎ 3

14.∫
( )

15.∫ √1 + 3 −

1.7. Reduction Formulas

Learning objectives:
 To derive the reduction formulae for
 ∫
 ∫
 ∫
 ∫(log )
 ∫
AND
 To practice related problems.
The time required for repeated integrations by parts can sometimes be shortened by
applying formulas like
n 1
 tan x dx  tan n 1 x   tan n  2 x dx .................. (1)
n 1
n n n 1
  ln x  dx  x  ln x   n   ln x  dx ....................... (2)
n
 sin x cosm x dx

s in n  1 x c o s m  1 d x n 1 n2
    s in x cos m x d x n  m 
m  n m  n
....................... (3 )
Formulas like these are called reduction formulas because they replace an integral
containing some power of a function with an integral of the same form with the power
reduced. By applying such a formula repeatedly, we can eventually express the original
integral in terms of a power low enough to be evaluated directly.
Example 1
tan 5 x dx
Find 
Solution We apply equation (1) with = to get
5 1
 ta n x d x  ta n 4 x   ta n 3 x d x
4
We then apply equation (1) again, with = 3, to evaluate the remaining integral:
3 1
 tan x dx  tan 2 x   tan x dx
2
1
 tan 2 x  ln cos x  C
2
The combined result is
5 1 1
 tan x dx  tan 4 x  tan 2 x  ln cos x  C 
4 2
In the next example, we derive a reduction formula. Reduction formulas are derived by
integration by parts.
Example 2
Show that for any positive integer ,
n n n 1
  ln x  dx  x  ln x   n   ln x  dx
Solution
We use the integration by parts formula
 u dv  uv   v du
with u   ln x n  d u  n  ln x n  1 1 d x , d v  d x  v  x to obtain
x
n n n 1 1
  ln x  d x  x  ln x    x  n  ln x  
x
dx

n n 1
 x  ln x   n   ln x  dx
Sometimes, two reduction formulas come into play.
Example 3
Find s in 2 x c o s 3 x d x

Solution 1
We apply equation (3) with = 2 and = 3 to get
2 3 sin x co s 4 x 1
 sin x cos x dx     sin 0 x co s 3 x dx
23 23
sin x co s 4 x 1
   co s 3 x dx
5 5
We can evaluate the remaining integral with formula 61(from the integral table).
Another reduction formula:
n cos n 1 ax sin ax n  1 n 2
 cos ax dx    cos ax dx
na n
With = 3 and = 1, we have
3 cos 2 x sin x 2 cos 2 x sin x 2
 cos x dx  3
  cos x dx 
3 3
 sin x  C
3
The combined result is
2 3sin x cos 4 x 1  cos 2 x sin x 2 
 sin x cos x dx   5
 
5 3
 sin x  C 
3 
 
sin x cos 4 x cos 2 x sin x 2
   sin x  C 
5 15 15
Solution 2
Equation (3) corresponds to formula 68 in the table, but there is another formula we might
use – formula 69. With = 1, formula 69 gives
n m sin n  1 x cos m  1 x m 1
 sin x cos x dx   sin n x cos m  2 x dx In our

mn mn
case, = 2 and = 3, so that
2 3 sin 3 x cos 2 x 2
 sin x cos x dx    sin 2 x cos x dx
5 5
sin 3 x cos 2 x 2  sin 3 x 
   C
5 5  3 

sin 3 x cos 2 x 2
  sin 3 x  C
5 15
We see that it is faster to use formula 69, but we often cannot tell beforehand how things
will work out. So, we do not spend a lot of time looking for the “best” formula. We just find
one that will work and move on to find the integral.
Once we learn a Computer Algebraic System (CAS), we need not use this cumbersome
procedure to evaluate an integral. However, we need to wait for a future course.
Non-elementary Integrals
The anti-derivatives of some functions can be expressed as finite combinations of
elementary functions, while there are functions whose anti-derivatives cannot be
expressed in terms of elementary functions.
Integrals of functions that do not have elementary anti-derivatives are called non-
elementary integrals. They require infinite series or numerical methods for their
evaluation. Examples of the non-elementary integrals include the error function
2 x t 2
erf  x   e dt
 0
and integrals such as
2 4
 sin x d x an d  1  x dx
that arise in engineering and physics. These and a number of others, such as
ex  e dx,
x
1 sin x
 x dx,  e  ln x dx,  ln  ln x dx,  x dx
 1  k 2 sin 2 xdx 0  k 1
look easy, but there is no way to express these integrals as finite combinations of
elementary functions. The same applies to integrals that can be changed into these by
substitution. The integrands all have anti-derivatives because they are all continuous, but
none of the anti-derivatives is elementary.
 PROBLEM SET
P1. Obtain reduction formula for = ∫ , n being a positive integer, ≥ and
deduce the value of ∫ .
Solution:
Given = ∫
=∫ .
Let = ⟹ = ( − 1) . and
= ⟹ =−
∴ =− . − ∫( − 1) . (− )
=− . + ( − 1) ∫ . (1 − )
=− . + ( − 1) ∫ − ( − 1) ∫
. ., = − . + ( − 1) − ( − 1)
⟹ (1 + − 1 ) = =− . + ( − 1)
. ( )
= +
Now, Put = 5, we get
. ( )
=∫ = +
.
= +
. . ( )
= + +
. .
= + +
.
= − . + ∫
.
= − . + (− )+
.
=− + . + +
Hence,
.
∫ =− . ++ +
where is an arbitrary constant
P2. Obtain reduction formula for = ∫ , n being a positive integer, ≥ and
deduce the value of ∫ .
Solution:
Given = ∫
=∫ .
Let = ⟹ = ( − 1) . (− ) and
= ⟹ =
∴ = . − ∫( − 1) . (− )
= . + ( − 1) ∫ . (1 − )
= . + ( − 1) ∫ − ( − 1) ∫
. ., = . + ( − 1) − ( − 1)
⟹ (1 + − 1 ) = = . + ( − 1)
. ( )
= +
Now, put = 6, we get
 . ( )
=∫ = +
.
= +
. 5 . (4 − 1)
= + +
6 6 4 4
. 5 . 3
= + +
6 6 4 4
. 5 5
= + . +
6 24 8
. . ( )
= + . + +
. 5 5 . 1
= + . + +
6 24 8 2 2
. 5 5 . 1
= + . + +
6 24 8 2 2
. 5 5
= + . + [ . + ]+
6 24 16
Hence,
.
∫ = + [ + . + ]+ .
where is an arbitrary constant
P3. Obtain the reduction formula for =∫ , n being a positive integer and
deduce the value of ∫ .
Solution:
Given =∫
=∫ .
=∫ ( − 1)
=∫ . −∫
=∫ . −
Put = ⟹ =
=∫ − = −

= −
Put = 7 , we get
= − = −
= − +
= − +
= − + −
= − + −
= − + −∫
= − + − log| |+
Hence,
= = − + − log| |+
6 4 2
where is an arbitrary constant
P4. Obtain the reduction formula for , = ∫ ,
for a positive integer m and an integer ≥ and
deduce the value of ∫ .
Solution:
Given , =∫
=∫ .
Put =
( − 1) (− )
⟹ = and
+
= ⟹ =
∴ , = ( )
−( − 1 ) ∫ [ (− )]
+ ∫( )
= + ( − 1) ∫
+ ∫
= + ( − 1) ∫ (1 − )
+ ,
= + ( − 1) ∫
−( − 1) ∫ + ,
= + ( − 1) , − ( − 1) , + ,
⟹ , = + ( − 1) , − ( + − 1) ,
⟹ ( + − 1 + 1) , = + ( − 1) ,
( )
∴ , = + ,
Now, put = 7, = 3, we get
( )
, = + ,

= + ,

= + ∫
= + + = [4 + 1] +
where is an arbitrary constant
P5. Obtain the reduction formula for , =∫ ,
for a positive integer n and an integer ≥ and deduce the value of ∫ .
Solution:
Given , =∫
=∫ .
Put =
(− )
⟹ = and
+( − 1 )
 = ⟹ =−
∴ , = (− )
− ∫[ (− )] (− )
−( − 1) ∫( )(− )
=− − ∫
+( − 1 ) ∫
=− − ,
+( − 1 ) ∫ (1 − )
=− − , +( − 1) ∫
−( − 1) ∫
=− + ( − 1) , −( − 1) ,
⟹ , =− + ( − 1) , −( + − 1) ,
⟹ ( + − 1 + 1) , = − +( − 1) ,
( )
∴ , =− + ,
Put = 5, = 4, we get
( )
, =∫ =− + ,

=− + ,
( )
=− + − + ,

=− + − + ,

=− − + ∫ .
=− − − +
Hence,
∫ =−
− − +
where is an arbitrary constant
P6. Let n be an integer greater than or equal to 2 then

n 1 n  3 1 
2
n
 n . n  2
....... ... .
2 2
, if n is e ve n
 s in x d x  
n 1.n  3 2
....... ... , i f n i s o d d
0  n n  2 3

2
a n d d e d u c e th e v a l u e o f
 s in 4 x dx
0
Solution:
 
2 2
sin n x dx  n 1 x .sin x d x
Le t In 
  sin
0 0
Put = ⟹ = ( − 1) .
and = ⟹ =−
 
 2
n 1
 I n    s in

x.co s x  2 
0  n  1 sin n  2 x . c o s x  c o s x  d x
0

2
  n  1 sin n  2 x.cos 2 x dx

0

2
 n  1
 
si n n  2 x 1  s in 2 x  dx
0
 
2 2
n2 n
 n  1 x dx  n  1
 sin  s in x dx
0 0
= ( − 1) − ( − 1)
⟹ (1 + − 1) = ( − 1)
( − 1)
⟹ =
( )
We have =
( )
⟹ =
( )
⟹ = …………
∴ = . . ………. or according as is even or odd respectively.
 
2 2

s in 0 x d x 
I0 
  dx 
2
0 0

2 
I1 
 s in x d x   co s x 02 1
0

n 1 n  3 1 
2
 . .......... . , if n is even
 n n2 2 2
sin n x dx  

  n  1 . n  3 .......... 2 , if n is odd
0
 n n  2 3

Now, put = 4 (even)

 
2
4 1 4  3  3 1 
sin 4 x dx  .  . .  3

 .
4 42 2 4 2 2 16
0
P7.
Let , be positive integers. Then
 1
 , if n  1
m 1

 n1 n3 2 1
. ...... . , if 1  n is o d d
π  m  n m  n 2 m  3 m 1
2  n1 n3 1 m 1 1 π
m 
 s in x .co s n x dx   . ...... . ... . , if b o th m , n a r e e v e n
 m  n m  n 2 m  2 m 2 2
0
 n1 n3 1 m 1 2
 . ...... . ... , if n is e v e n , 1  m is o d d
m  n m  n 2 m  2 m 3

 1
, if m  1
 n1
Proof:
π
π
2
It easy to see that 2 and 1
 s in m x .c o s x d x 
1
 s in x.co s n x d x 
m  1 n 1
0 0
Suppose that ≥ 2 and ≥ 2. On using the formula for integration by parts, we have
π π
2 2
 s in m x . c o s n x d x   s i n m x . c o s n 1 x . c o s x d x
0 0
Here u  c o s n 1
x and d v  s i n m x
m 1
n2 sin x
 d u   ( n  1) c o s x . s in x d x , v 
m 1
π π
π
2 2
m n  1 n 1 m 1  2 ( n  1)
 sin x.cos x dx   m  1 cos x .sin x   sin m  2 x .cos n  2 x dx
0 m 1
0 0
π
2
( n  1) m 2
 0  s in x.co s n  2 x d x
m 1
0
π
2
( n  1)

m 1  s in m

x.cosn 2 x 1  cos2 x d x
0

π π
2 2
( n  1) ( n  1)
  sin m x.co s n  2 x d x   sin
m
x.co s n x d x
m 1 m 1
0 0
 π π
2 2
 ( n  1)  m n ( n  1)
 1    s i n x . c o s x d x   s in m x . c o s n  2 x d x
m 1  0 m 1 0
π π
2 2
m n  1
  sin x.cosn x dx   s in m
x . c o s n  2 x d x . . . . . . . . (1 )
m  n
0 0
π
2
Hence, if we write
Im ,n   sin
m
x . c o s n x d x then from (1), we have
0
n 1
Im ,n  I m , n  2 , which is the required reduction formula.
m  n
Now, on using the formula for integration by parts to ; , we get
n 1 n 1
Im,n  . Im ,n4
m  n m  n  2
On proceeding like this we obtain I n 1 n 1
m,n  . ........ I m ,1 or I m , 0
mn mn2

According as is odd or even, where

π
2
m 1 and
I m ,1   s in x. c o s x d x 
m 1
0
 m 1 m  3 1 π
π  m . ... . , if m i s e v e n
m  2 2 2
2 
m  m 1 m  3 2
I m ,0   sin x dx   . ... , if m is o d d
 m m  2 3
0
1, i f m  1 and m  2

π
2
Hence, m n 1 n3 2 1
 sin x . co s n x d x  . ...... . , if 1  n is od d
mn mn2 m  3 m 1
0

Hence, when is even, we have

π  n 1 n3 1 m 1 1 π
2  . ...... . ... . , if m is even
m n m  n m  n  2 m2 m 2 2
 sin x .cos x dx   n  1 n  3 1 m 1 2
0  . ...... . ... , if 1  m is odd
 m  n m  n  2 m2 m 3
P8. Evaluate: ∫( ) =
Solution:
Given ∫(log )
We have ∫(log ) = (log ) −
∴ ∫(log ) = (log ) − 4
= (log ) −4
= (log ) − 4[ (log ) − 3 ]
= (log ) − 4 (log ) + 12
= (log ) − 4 (log ) + 12 [ (log ) −2 ]
= (log ) − 4 (log ) + 12 (log ) − 24
= (log ) − 4 (log ) + 12 (log ) − 24 [ log − ]
= [(log ) − 4(log ) + 12 (log ) − 24 log + 24 ] +
where is an arbitrary constant
EXERSISES
Solve the following integrals:
1. Obtain the reduction formula for =∫ and deduce the value
of ∫ .

2. Obtain the reduction formula for =∫ and deduce the value

of ∫ .

3. Obtain the reduction formula for =∫ and deduce the value

of ∫ .

4. Obtain the reduction formula for

=∫ =− + and deduce the value of ∫ .

5. Let n be an integer greater than or equal to 2 then


n 1 n  3 1 
2  n . n . ... .. .. .. . , if n is e v e n
n  2 2 2
 cos x dx  
 n  1. n  3 2
. ... .. .. .. , i f n i s o d d
0
 n n  2 3

2
8
a n d d e d u c e th e v a lu e o f
 co s x dx
0
6. ∫

7. ∫
8. ∫(log )
 π 2
9.  sin 4 x.cos 2 x dx
0

π 2
10.  sin 4 x.cos5 x dx
0

π 2
11.  sin 5 x.cos 4 x dx
0

π 2
12.  sin 6 x.cos 4 x dx
0
2.1. Circle
Learning Objectives
 To define a circle and derive the standard equation of a circle with given centre and
radius
 To find the center and radius of a given circle
AND
 To practice problems related to the above concepts

The Greeks of Plato’s time generated curves by cutting a double cone with a plane and
called these curves as conic sections.

In this unit, we learn how the conic sections from Greek geometry are described today as
graphs of quadratic equations in the coordinate plane.
Definitions
A circle is the set of points in a plane whose distance from a given fixed point in the plane is
constant. The fixed point is the center of the circle; the constant distance is the radius.
The standard-form of the equation of a circle of radius with center at the origin is given
by + =
This can be obtained as follows.
The circle of radius centered at the origin (0, 0) is the set of all points in the plane whose
distance from the origin is . The radius of the circle is equal to the distance from the
origin to any point ( , ) on the circle which is given by + . Thus, + =
Therefore, the circle with center at the origin and radius has the equation
+ = --------------------------- (1)
The equation of the circle is simplest if the center of the circle is at the origin.
Derivation of the equation of a circle with a given center and radius.
Let (ℎ, ) be the center and be the radius of the circle. Let ( , ) be any point on the
circle.

Then | | = . By the distance formula, we have

( − ℎ) + ( − ) =
Squaring on both sides, we get
( − ℎ) + ( − ) =
Therefore, the standard form of a circle with center at (ℎ, ) and radius is given by
( − ℎ) + ( − ) = ------------------- (2)
We obtain equation (1) from equation (2), by setting (ℎ, ) = (0,0).
We can find the equation of a circle, given its center and radius, or to find its center and
radius, given the equation.
Example 1
Find the equation of the circle with center at (−3,2) having a radius of 5.
Solution
We have (ℎ, ) = (−3,2) and = 5.
Therefore, − (−3) + ( − 2) = 5
⇒ ( + 3) + ( − 2) = 25
Example 2
Find the center and radius of the circle whose equation is
( − 1) + ( + 3) = 4
Solution
We write the equation in the form
( − ℎ) + ( − ) =
So, ( − 1) + − (−3) = 2
Therefore, the center is at (1, −3) and the radius is 2.
Example 3
Find the center and the radius of the circle
 + + 6 − 4 − 12 = 0
Solution
We attempt to write the given equation in the standard form
( − ℎ) + ( − ) = .
We group all the terms containing together, all terms containing together, and bring
the constant term to the right-hand side.
( + 6 ) + ( − 4 ) = 12
We complete the square on and the square on ; for this purpose, we add 9 and 4 on
the left-hand side and 13 on the right-hand side. This gives
( + 6 + 9) + ( − 4 + 4) = 12 + 13
Writing as squares,
( + 3) + ( − 2) = 5
We recognize that the center is at (−3,2) and the radius is 5.
Example 4
Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (2, −2) and (3,4) and
whose center lies on the line + = 2.
Solution
We take the equation of the circle as
( − ℎ) + ( − ) = .
Since the center lies on the line + = 2, we have
ℎ + = 2 ---------------------- (a)
Since the circle passes through (2, −2) and (3, 4), we have
(2 − ℎ) + (−2 − ) = --------------- (b)
(3 − ℎ) + (4 − ) = --------------- (c)
We solve the equations (a), (b), and (c) to get
ℎ = 0.7, = 1.3, and = 12.58
Hence, the equation of the required circle is
( − 0.7) + ( − 1.3) = 12.58

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find the equation of the circle with centre (− , ) and radius 2 units.
Solution: Given, centre of the circle = (h, k) = (−3,4) and its radius, a = 2 units.
The equation of the circle whose centre is at (ℎ, ) and having the radius is
( − ℎ) + ( − ) = ……………….. (1)
Substitute the given values in equation (1), we get
− (−3) + ( − 4) = 2
⇒ ( + 3) + ( − 4) = 4
P1: Find the equation of the circle with centre (− , − ) and radius 2.5 units.
Solution: Given, centre of the circle = (h, k) = (−4, −3)
and the radius = 2.5 units.
The equation of the circle whose centre is at (ℎ, ) and having the radius is
( − ℎ) + ( − ) = ……………….. (1)
Substitute the given values in the equation (1), we get
− (−4) + − (−3) = (2.5)
 ⇒ ( + 4) + ( + 3) = 6.25
IP2: Find the centre and radius of the circle: ( − ) + ( + ) =
Solution: Given, equation of the circle is
( − 5) + ( + 4) = 9 ---------------- (1)
We write the equation (1) in the form
( − ℎ) + ( − ) = -------------- (2)
So, (1) can be written as ( − 5) + − (−4) = 3
Compare the equations (1) and (2), we have
Centre, (ℎ, ) = (5, −4) and the radius, = 3.
P2: Find the centre and radius of the circle; ( + ) + = .
Solution: Given, equation of the circle is
(x + 6) + y = 5.76 ---------------- (1)
We write the equation (1) in the form
( − ℎ) + ( − ) = --------------- (2)
So, (1) can be written as − (−6) + ( − 0) = (2.4)
Compare the equations (1) and (2), we have
Centre, (ℎ, ) = (−6, 0) and the radius, = 2.4 units.
IP3: Find the centre and the radius of the circle
+ − − − =
Solution:
Given, the equation of the circle is
+ − 4 − 8 − 45 = 0
We attempt to write the above equation in the form of
( − ℎ) + ( − ) = --------------------- (1)
Therefore, + − 4 − 8 − 45 = 0
⇒ ( − 4 ) + ( − 8 ) = 45
⇒ ( − 4 + 4) + ( − 8 + 16 ) = 45 + 20
⇒ ( − 2) + ( − 4) = √65 ------------ (2)
Compare (1) and (2), we have
Centre, (ℎ, ) = (2, 4) and the radius = √65 .
P3: Find the centre and the radius of the circle
+ + + − = .
Solution: Given, the equation of the circle is
+ + + − =0
Therefore, + + + − =0
⇒( + )+( + )=
⇒ + 2. . + + + 2. . + = + +

⇒ + + + =1

⇒ − − + − − = (1) ; Centre = − , − and the radius = 1 .

IP4: Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points ( , ) and ( , − )
and whose centre lies on the line + = .
Solution:
Let the equation of the circle as
( − ℎ) + ( − ) = -------------- (1)
Here, centre of the circle is (ℎ, ) and the radius is .
Given, centre lies on the line + = 4, we have
ℎ+ =4
⇒ ℎ = 4 − ------------------ (2)
and (1) passes through the points (2,3) and (4, −2), we have
( 2 − ℎ) + (3 − ) = ----------- (3)
(4 − ℎ) + (−2 − ) = --------- (4)
Solving the equations (3) and (4), we get
( 2 − ℎ) + (3 − ) = (4 − ℎ) + (−2 − )
⇒ 4 + ℎ − 4ℎ + 9 + − 6 = 16 + ℎ − 8ℎ + 4 + +4
⇒ 13 − 4ℎ − 6 = 20 − 8ℎ + 4
⇒ 4ℎ − 10 = 7 ----------------- (5)
From (2) and (5),
⇒ 4(4 − ) − 10 = 7 ⇒ 16 − 4 − 10 = 7
⇒ 14 = 9 ⇒ =
∴ ℎ = 4− ⇒ℎ=4− =
And = ( 2 − ℎ) + (3 − ) = 2− + 3−

= − + = =
Hence, the equation of the required circle is

− + − =
P4: Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points ( , ) and (− , ) and
whose centre lies on the line − = .
Solution: Let the equation of the circle as
( − ℎ) + ( − ) = -------------- (1)
Here, centre of the circle is (ℎ, ) and the radius is .
Given, centre lies on the line − 3 = 11, we have
ℎ − 3 = 11
⇒ ℎ = 11 + 3 ------------------ (2)
and (1) passes through the points (2,3) and (−1,1), we have
( 2 − ℎ) + (3 − ) = ----------- (3)
(−1 − ℎ) + (1 − ) = --------- (4)
From (3) and (4), we get
( 2 − ℎ) + (3 − ) = (−1 − ℎ) + (1 − )
⇒ 4 + ℎ − 4ℎ + 9 + − 6 = 1 + ℎ + 2ℎ + 1 + −2
⇒ 13 − 4ℎ − 6 = 2 + 2ℎ − 2
⇒ 6ℎ + 4 = 11 ----------------- (5)
From (2) and (5),
⇒ 6(11 + 3 ) + 4 = 11 ⇒ 66 + 18 + 4 = 11
⇒ 22 = −55 ⇒ = − = −
∴ ℎ = 11 + 3 = 11 + 3 − = 11 − =

And = ( 2 − ℎ) + (3 − ) = 2− + 3− −

= − + = =
Hence, the equation of the required circle is

− + + =

Exercises:
1. Find the equations of the circle with
a. Centre (0,2) and radius 2
b. Centre (−2,3) and radius 4
c. Centre , and radius
d. Centre (1,1) and radius √2
e. Centre (− , − ) and radius √ −
2. Find the centre and radius of the circles
a. ( + 5) + ( − 3) = 36
b. + − 8 + 10 − 12 = 0
c. + + 8 + 10 − 8 = 0
d. 2 + 2 − = 0
3. Find the equation of the circle passing through the points (4,1) and (6,5) and whose
centre is on the line 4 + = 16 .
4. Find the equation of the circle with radius 5 whose centre lies on − axis and passes
through the point (2,3).
5. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (2, −2), and (3,4) and
whose centre lies on the line + = 2 .

2.2. Parabola
Learning Objectives:
 To define and derive the equation of the parabola
 To define focus, directrix and latus rectum of the given parabola
AND
 To solve the problems based on the above topics

Definitions
A set that consists of all the points in a plane equidistant from a given fixed point and a
given fixed line in the plane is a parabola. The fixed point is the focus of the parabola. The
fixed line is the directrix.
If the focus lies on the directrix , the parabola is the line through perpendicular to .
This is a degenerate case, and we assume that does not lie on .
A parabola has its simplest equation when its focus and directrix straddle one of the
coordinate axes. For example, suppose that the focus lies at the point (0, ) on the
positive -axis and that the directrix is the line = − .

A point ( , ) lies on the parabola if and only if = . From the distance formula,
= ( − 0) + ( − ) = +( − )

= ( − ) + − (− ) = ( + )
When we equate these expressions, square, and simplify, we get:
( + ) −( − ) =
⇒4 =
Thus, we get the standard form
= ⇒ =4 --------------- (1)
These equations reveal the parabola’s symmetry about the -axis. We call the -axis the
axis of the parabola.
The point where a parabola crosses its axis is the vertex. The vertex of the parabola
=4 lies at the origin. The positive number is the parabola’s focal length.
If the parabola opens downward, with its focus at (0, − ) and its directrix the line = ,
then equation (1) become
=− ⇒ = −4
4

We obtain similar equations for parabolas opening to the right or to the left.
Example
Find the focus and directrix of the parabola = 10 .
Solution:
We find the value of in the standard equation =4 :
4 = 10
So, = =
Then we find the focus and directrix for this value of .
Focus: ( , 0) = , 0
Directrix: =− ⇒ =−
The horizontal and vertical shift formulas can be applied to the equations in the table to
give equations for a variety of parabolas in other locations.
Latus rectum of a parabola is a line segment perpendicular to the axis of the parabola
passing through the focus and with its end points lying on the parabola.

The equation of the parabola is

 =4
Substituting = , we obtain
(half the latus rectum) = 4
So, half the latus rectum = 2
The length of the latus rectum is given by 4 .
Example
Find the focus, directrix, and latus rectum of the parabola =8 .
Solution:
The parabola opens to the right and the axis of the parabola is along the -axis. Comparing
it with the equation = 4 , we obtain = 2. Therefore, the parabola has its
focus = (2,0)
and its directrix = −2

Length of the latus rectum is 4 = 4 × 2 = 8.

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find the focus, directrix and latus rectum of the parabola = .
Solution: We have the parabola = 12 -------------------- (1)
Compare the equation (1) with = 4 , we have
4 = 12 ⇒ = 3
Since, the focus of the parabola =4 is ( , 0),
directrix, = − and latus rectum is 4 .
Therefore, the focus of the parabola = 12 is (3,0)
the directrix is = −3 and the latus rectum is 12.
P1: Find the focus, directrix and latus rectum of the parabola =− .
Solution: We have the parabola = −8 -------------------- (1)
Compare the equation (1) with = −4 , we have
4 =8⇒ =2
Since, the focus of the parabola = −4 is (− , 0),
directrix, = and the latus rectum is 4 .
Therefore, the focus of the parabola = −8 is (−2,0)
the directrix is = 2 and the latus rectum is 8.
IP2: Find the focus, directrix and latus rectum of the parabola = .
Solution: We have the parabola = 6 -------------------- (1)
Compare the equation (1) with = 4 , we have
4 =6⇒ =
Since, the focus of the parabola =4 is (0, ),
directrix, = − and latus rectum is 4 .
Therefore, the focus of the parabola = 6 is 0,
the directrix is = − and the latus rectum is 6.
P2: Find the focus, directrix and latus rectum of the parabola =− .
Solution: We have the parabola = −9 -------------------- (1)
Compare the equation (1) with = −4 , we have
4 =9⇒ =
Since, the focus of the parabola = −4 is (0, − ),
directrix, = and the latus rectum is 4 .
Therefore, the focus of the parabola = −9 is 0, −
the directrix is = and the latus rectum is 9.
IP3: Find the equation of the parabola with focus ( , ) and directrix = − .
Solution: Since, the focus (2,0) lies on the − axis,
the − axis itself is the axis of the parabola.
Hence the equation of the parabola is of the form either = 4 or = −4 .
Since the directrix is = −2 and the focus is (2,0).
Then the parabola is to be of the form =4 with = 2.
Hence the required equation is = 4 (2 ) = 8 .
P3: Find the equation of the parabola with focus ( , − ) and directrix = .
Solution: Since, the focus (0, −3) lies on the − axis,
the − axis itself is the axis of the parabola.
Hence the equation of the parabola is of the form either = 4 or = −4 .
Since the directrix is = 3 and the focus is (0, −3).
Then the parabola is to be of the form = −4 with = 3.
Hence the required equation is = −4(3) = −12 .
IP4: Find the equation of the parabola which is symmetric about the − axis, vertex at
origin and passes through the point ( , − ) .
Solution: Since, the parabola is symmetric about − axis and has vertex at the origin, then
the equation is of the form =4 or = −4 , where the sign depends on whether
the parabola opens upwards or downwards.
But the parabola passes through (2, −3) which lies in the fourth quadrant, it must open
downwards. Thus the equation is of the form = −4 .
Since, the parabola passes through (2, −3), we have
2 = −4 (−3) ⇒ =
Therefore, the equation of the parabola is
= −4 ⇒ =− .
P4: Find the equation of the parabola which is symmetric about the − axis, vertex at
origin and passes through the point ( , ) .
Solution: Since, the parabola is symmetric about − axis and has vertex at the origin, then
the equation is of the form =4 or = −4 , where the sign depends on whether
the parabola opens right or left.
But the parabola passes through (2, 3) which lies in the first quadrant, it must open right
side. Thus the equation is of the form =4 .
Since, the parabola passes through (2, 3), we have
3 = 4 (2) ⇒ =
Therefore, the equation of the parabola is
=4 ⇒ = .
Exercises:
1. Find the focus, directrix and length of the latus rectum of the parabolas given below.
a. = 100
b. = −16
c. = 100
d. = −16
2. Find the equation of the parabola that satisfies the given conditions:
a. Focus (0, 2); directrix = −2
b. Focus (6, 0); directrix = −6
c. Focus (−4, 0); directrix = 4
d. Focus (0, −5); directrix = 5
3. Find the equation of the parabola which is symmetric about the − axis, vertex at
origin and passes through the point (−2, −5) .
4. Find the equation of the parabola which is symmetric about the − axis, vertex at
origin and passes through the point (5, −2) .

2.3. Ellipse
Learning Objectives:
 To define an ellipse and to derive its equation.
 To find foci, vertices, major and minor axes and the length of latus rectum of a given
ellipse.
Definitions
An ellipse is the set of points in a plane whose distances from two fixed points in the plane
have a constant sum. These two fixed points are called the foci of the ellipse.
Put a loop of string around two tacks and , pull the string taut with a pencil point ,
and move the pencil around to trace a closed curve.
The curve is an ellipse because the sum + , being the length of the loop minus the
distance between the tacks, remains constant. The ellipse’s foci lie at and .
Note:
foci : plural of focus.
tack : a small unit with a sharp point and flat head used for fixing firmly.
taut : stretched tight.
Definitions
The line through the foci of an ellipse is the ellipse’s focal axis. The point on the axis
halfway between the foci is the center. The points where the focal axis and ellipse cross are
the ellipse’s vertices.

If the foci are (− , 0) and ( , 0), and + is denoted by 2 , then the

coordinates of a point on the ellipse satisfy the equation
( + ) + + ( − ) + = 2 ----------- (1)
We move the second radical to the right-hand side, square, isolate the remaining radical,
and square again:
( + ) + =4 +( − ) + −4 ( − ) +
⇒ ( − ) + = −
⇒ ( − ) + = + −2
⇒ − + = − ⇒ + = −
We then obtain
+ = 1 -------------------- (2)
Since + is greater than the length , the number 2 is greater than 2 .
Accordingly, > and the number − in equation (2) is positive.
If =√ − ---------------------------------------- (3)
then − = and equation (2) takes the form
 + = 1 ------------------------ (4)
Equation (4) reveals that this ellipse is symmetric with respect to the origin and both
coordinate axes. It lies inside the rectangle bounded by the lines = ± and = ± . It
crosses the axes at the points (± , 0)and (0, ± ). The tangents at these points are
perpendicular to the axes because
=− (obtained by implicit differentiation from eq’n (4)) is zero if = 0 and infinite if
= 0.
The Major and Minor Axes of an Ellipse
The major axis of the ellipse in equation (4) is the line segment of length 2 joining the
points (± , 0). The minor axis is the line segment of length 2 joining the points (0, ± ).
The number itself is the semimajor axis, the number the semiminor axis. The
number , found from equation (3) as
=√ −
is the center-to-focus distance of the ellipse.
Example 1
The ellipse
+ = 1 --------------------------- (5)
is shown in the figure below.

Semimajor axis: = √16 = 4

Semiminor axis: = √9 = 3
Center-to-focus distance: = √16 − 9 = √7
Foci: (± , 0) = ±√7, 0
Vertices: (± , 0) = (±4,0)
Center: (0,0)
Example 2
The ellipse
+ = 1 --------------------------- (6)
obtained by interchanging and in equation (5), has its major axis vertical instead of
horizontal.
With still equal to 16 and equal to 9, we have
Semimajor axis: = √16 = 4
Semiminor axis: = √9 = 3
Center-to-focus distance: = √16 − 9 = √7
Foci: (0, ± ) = 0, ±√7
Vertices: (0, ± ) = (0, ±4)
Center: (0,0)
In analyzing equations like (5) and (6), we simply find the intercepts on the coordinate axes;
then we know which way the major axis runs because it is the longer of the two axes. The
center always lies at the origin and the foci lie on the major axis.
Latus rectum of an ellipse is a line segment perpendicular to the major axis through any of
the foci and with end points on the ellipse.

If we denote the length of the latus rectum by , then , is a point on the ellipse.
Therefore, + =1
( )
⇒ =4 =4 =
The length of the latus rectum is given by
=
Example
Find the foci, the vertices, the lengths of major and minor axes, and the latus rectum of the
ellipse
+ =1
Solution:
The major axis is along the -axis. Comparing the given equation with + = 1, we get
= 5 and =3
Also = √ − = √25 − 9 = √16 = 4
Therefore the foci are (−4,0) and (4,0)
The vertices are (−5,0) and (5,0)
The lengths of the major and minor axes are
2 = 2 × 5 = 10 and 2 = 2×3 = 6
The length of the latus rectum is
×
= = =
PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find equation of the ellipse that satisfies the given conditions:
Vertices: (± , ), Foci: (± , ).
Solution:
We have, Vertices: (±5,0), Foci: (±4,0).
Vertices and foci are on − axis. So the required equation of ellipse is of the form
+ = 1 where is semi-major axis.
Since, the vertices for + = 1 are (± , 0) and foci are
(± , 0) where = √ − .
Given, (± , 0) = (±5,0) and (± , 0) = (±4,0)
So, = 5
And = 4
⇒√ − =4⇒ − = 16
⇒ = − 16 = 25 − 16 = 9 (∵ = 5)
⇒ = ±3
Therefore, the required equation of the ellipse is

+ =1⇒ + =1
25 9
P1: Find the equation of the ellipse that satisfies the given conditions:
Vertices: ( , ± ), Foci: ( , ± ).
Solution:
We have, Vertices: (0, ±13), Foci: (0, ±5).
Vertices and foci are on − axis. So the required equation of ellipse is of the form
+ = 1 where is semi-major axis.
Since, the vertices for + = 1 are (0, ± ) and foci are
(0, ± ) where =√ − .
Given, (0, ± ) = (0, ±13 ) and (0, ± ) = (0, ±5)
So, = 13
And = 5
⇒√ − =5⇒ − = 25
⇒ = − 25 = 169 − 25 = 144 (∵ = 13)
⇒ = ±12
Therefore, the required equation of the ellipse is

+ =1⇒ + =1
144 169
IP2: Find the equation for ellipse whose length of major axis is 16 and foci are ( , ± ).
Solution:
We have, foci: (0, ±6)
The foci are on − axis, then the major axis is along the − axis. So the required
equation of the ellipse is of the form + = 1 here is the semi-major axis of ellipse.
Since, the foci of the ellipse + = 1 are (0, ± ) where = √ − and the length of
the major axis is 2 .
Given, 2 = 16 ⇒ = 8
and foci, (0, ± ) =(0, ±6)
⇒ =6⇒√ − =6
⇒ − = 36 ⇒ = − 36
⇒ = 64 − 36 = 28
Therefore, the required equation of ellipse is
+ =1⇒ + =1
P2: Find the equation for ellipse whose length of minor axis is 20 and foci are (± , ).
Solution:
We have, foci: (±5,0)
The foci are on − axis, then the major axis is along the − axis. So the required
equation of the ellipse is of the form + = 1 here is the semi-major axis of ellipse.
Since, the foci of the ellipse + = 1 are (± , 0) where = √ − and the length of
the minor axis is 2 .
Given, 2 = 20 ⇒ = 10
and foci, (± , 0) = (±5,0)
⇒ =5⇒√ − =5
⇒ − = 25 ⇒ = + 25
⇒ = 100 + 25 = 125
Therefore, the required equation of ellipse is
+ =1⇒ + =1
IP3: Find the equation of the ellipse whose major axis on the − axis and passes
through the points ( , ) and ( , ).
Solution:
We have major axis of the ellipse on the − axis.
So the required equation is of the form
+ = 1 ---------------- (1)
Given, (1) passes through (4,3) and (6,2)
+ = 1 ----------------- (2)
+ = 1 ----------------- (3)
(2) × 4 ⇒ + = 4 --------------- (4)
(3) × 9 ⇒ + = 9 ---------------- (5)
(5 ) − (4 ) ⇒ =5⟹ = = 52
Substitute = 52 in (4), we get
+ =4⇒ =4− ⇒ =4 1−
⇒ = ⇒ = 13
Therefore, the required equation of the ellipse is
+ = 1 ⇒ + = 1.
P3: Find the equation of the ellipse whose major axis on the − axis and passes
through the points ( , ) and ( , ).
Solution:
We have major axis of the ellipse on the − axis.
So the required equation is of the form
+ = 1 ---------------- (1)
Given, (1) passes through (3,2) and (1,6)
+ = 1 ----------------- (2)
+ = 1 ----------------- (3)
(2) × 1 ⇒ + = 1 --------------- (4)
(3 ) × 9 ⇒ + = 9 ---------------- (5)
(5) − (4) ⇒ =8⟹ = 40
Substitute = 40 in (4), we get
+ = 1 ⇒ = 1− ⇒ = ⇒ = 10
Therefore, the required equation is + = 1 ⇒ + = 1.
IP4: Find the foci, the vertices, the length of major and minor axes and the latus rectum of
+ = .
Solution:
We have, 4 +9 = 36 ⇒ + = 1 ----------- (1)
If we observe the equation (1), the denominator of is larger than the denominator
of , then the major axis is along the − axis.
Compare (1) with + = 1, we have
 = 9 and = 4.
⇒ = 3 and = 2
Also = √ − = √9 − 4 = √5
We know that the foci of the equation + = 1 are (± , 0).
Therefore, the foci of (1) are −√5, 0 and √5, 0 .
The vertices of the equation + = 1 are (± , 0).
Therefore, the vertices of (1) are (−3,0) and (3,0).
The length of the major axis of the equation + = 1 is 2 .
Thus the length of the major axis of (1) is 2(3) = 6.
The length of the minor axis of the equation + = 1 is 2 .
Thus the length of the minor axis of (1) is 2(2) = 4.
And the length of latus rectum of + = 1 is .
2(4) 8
Thus the length of the latus rectum of (1) is 3 = 3 .
P4: Find the foci, the vertices, the length of major and minor axes and latus rectum of
+ = .
Solution:
We have, 36 +4 = 144 ⇒ + = 1 ----------- (1)
If we observe the equation (1), the denominator of is smaller than the denominator
of , then the major axis is along the − axis.
Compare (1) with + = 1, we have
= 36 and = 4.
⇒ = 6 and = 2
Also = √ − = √36 − 4 = √32 = 4√2
We know that the foci of the equation + = 1 are (0, ± ).
Therefore, the foci of (1) are 0, −4√2 and 0,4√2 .
The vertices of the equation + = 1 are (0, ± ).
Therefore, the vertices of (1) are (0, −6) and (0, 6).
The length of the major axis of the equation + = 1 is 2 .
Thus the length of the major axis of (1) is 2(6) = 12.
The length of the minor axis of the equation + = 1 is 2 .
Thus the length of the minor axis of (1) is 2(2) = 4.
And the length of the latus rectum of + = 1 is .
( )
Thus the length of latus rectum of (1) is = .
 Exercises:
1. Find the coordinates of the foci, the vertices, the length of major and the minor axes
and the length of latus rectum of ellipse.
a. + =1
b. + =1
c. + =1
d. + =1
e. + =1
f. + =1
g. 16 + = 16
2. Find the equation of ellipse using the given conditions from each question given below.
a. Length of major axis 26, foci (±5,0)
b. Length of minor axis 16, foci (0, ±6)
c. Length of major axis 20, foci (0, ±5)
d. Vertices (±6,0), foci (±4,0)
e. Vertices (±13,0), foci (±5,0)
f. Vertices (0, ±6), foci (0, ±4)
3. Find the equation of the ellipse, with major axis along the − axis and passing through
the points (4,3) and (−1,4).

2.4. Hyperbola
Learning Objectives:
 To define a hyperbola and to derive its equation.
 To find the foci, the vertices, the asymptotes and the latus rectum of a given
hyperbola.
Definitions
A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane whose distances from two fixed points in the
plane have a constant difference. The two fixed points are the foci of the hyperbola.

If the foci are (− , 0) and ( , 0) and the constant difference is 2 , then a point
( , ) lies on the hyperbola if and only if
( + ) + − ( − ) + = ±2 ------------- (1)
We move the second radical to the right-hand side, square, isolate the remaining radical,
and square again, as we did in the case of ellipse.
( + ) + = 4 +( − ) + +4 ( − ) +
⇒ ( − ) + =− +
⇒ ( − ) + = + −2
⇒ − + = −
⇒ + = −
We then obtain, + = 1 -------------------- (2)
This looks just like the equation for an ellipse. But now − is negative because 2 ,
being the difference of two sides of triangle , is less than 2 , the third side.
If we let denote the positive square root of − ,
= √ − --------------------- (3)
then − = − and equation (2) takes the form
− = 1 ------------------ (4)
The differences between equation (4) and the equation for an ellipse are the minus sign
and the new relation
= +
Like the ellipse, the hyperbola is also symmetric with respect to the origin and coordinate
axes. It crosses the -axis at the points (± , 0). The tangents at these points are vertical
because = (obtained from equation (4) by implicit differentiation) is infinite
when = 0. The hyperbola has no -intercepts; in fact, no part of the curve lies between
the lines = − and = .
Definitions
The line through the foci of a hyperbola is the focal axis. The point on the axis halfway
between the foci is the hyperbola’s center. The points where the focal axis and hyperbola
cross are the vertices.

The hyperbola , − = 1 --------------------------- (5)

has two asymptotes, the lines, =±
The asymptotes help us to sketch the hyperbola.
A way to find the equations of the asymptotes is to replace the 1 in equation (5) by 0 and
solve the new equation for .
Example 1: The equation , − = 1 ----------------------- (6)
is the equation of hyperbola with = 4 and = 5.

We have
Center-to-focus distance: =√ + = √4 + 5 = 3
Foci: (± , 0) = (±3,0)
Vertices: (± , 0) = (±2,0)
Center: (0,0)
√
Asymptotes: − =0⇒ =±
Example 2: The hyperbola, − =1
obtained by interchanging and in equation (6), has its vertices on the -axis instead of
the -axis.

With still equal to 4 and equal to 5, we have

Center-to-focus distance: =√ + = √4 + 5 = 3
Foci: (0, ± ) = (0, ±3)
Vertices: (0, ± ) = (0, ±2)
Center: (0,0)
Asymptotes: − =0⇒ =±
√
Latus rectum
Latus rectum of a hyperbola is a line segment perpendicular to the focal axis through any of
the foci and with its end points on the hyperbola. If denotes the latus rectum, then ( , ) is
a point on the hyperbola. Therefore,
− =1
( )
⇒ =4 =4 =
The length of the latus rectum is given by
=
Example: Find the foci, vertices, and the length of the latus rectum of the
hyperbola − =
Solution: Comparing the given equation with the standard equation of hyperbola
− =1
we have = 3, = 4 and = √ + = √9 + 16 = 5
Therefore the coordinates of the foci are (−5,0) and (5,0) and the coordinates of vertices
are (−3,0) and (3,0).
×
The length of the latus rectum is, = = =
Example: Find the foci, vertices, and the length of the latus rectum of the hyperbola
− 16 = 16
Solution: Dividing both sides of the given equation by 16, we have
− =1
With, = 4, = 1 and = √ + = √16 + 1 = √17
Therefore the coordinates of the foci are (0 ± √17) and the coordinates of vertices are
(0, ±4).
×
The length of the latus rectum is, = = = .

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find the equation of the hyperbola with foci (± , ), and vertices (± , ).
Solution: We have, foci: (±8,0) and vertices: (±7,0).
The foci and vertices of required hyperbola are on − axis.
∴ The required hyperbola is of the form
− = 1 --------------------- (1)
Since the foci and vertices of (1) are (± , 0) and (± , 0),
(± , 0) = (±8,0) ⇒ = 8
and (± , 0) = (±7,0) ⇒ = 7
∴ = 49
We have = + ⇒8 =7 + ⇒ = 15
Therefore, the required hyperbola is
− =1⇒ − =1
P1: Find the equation of the hyperbola with foci ( , ± ), and vertices ( , ± ).
Solution: We have, foci: (0, ±8) and vertices: (0, ±5).
The foci and vertices of required hyperbola are on − axis.
∴ The required hyperbola is of the form
− = 1 --------------------- (1)
Since the foci and vertices of (1) are (0, ± ) and (0, ± ),
(0, ± ) = (0, ±8) ⇒ = 8
and (0, ± ) = (0, ±5) ⇒ = 5
∴ = 25
We have = + ⇒8 =5 + ⇒ = 39
Therefore, the required hyperbola is
− =1⇒ − =1
IP2: Find the equation of the hyperbola whose foci are ( , ± ) and the length of the
latus rectum is 36.
Solution: Given foci:(0, ±12) and length of latus rectum: 36 .
Since foci are on − axis, the required equation is of the form
− = 1 ---------------------- (1)
Since, the foci and the latus rectum of (1) are (0, ± ) and ,
(0, ± ) = (0, ±12 ) ⇒ = 12 ---------------- (2)
and = 36 ⇒ = 18 -------------------- (3)
From (2), = 12 ⇒ √ + = 12 (∵ = √ + )
⇒ + = 144 ---------------------------- (4)
From (3) and (4), we get
+ 18 = 144 ⇒ + 18 − 144 = 0
⇒ ( − 6)( + 24 ) = 0 ⇒ = 6 = −24
But cannot be negative,
∴ =6⇒ = 36 ------------------------ (5)
From (4) and (5), we get = 108
Therefore, the required hyperbola is
− =1⇒ − =1
P2: Find the equation of the hyperbola whose foci are (± , ) and the length of the latus
rectum is 12.
Solution: Given foci:(±4,0) and length of latus rectum:12 .
Since foci are on the − axis, the required equation is of the form
− = 1 ---------------------- (1)
Since the foci and the latus rectum of (1) are (± , 0) and ,
(± , 0) = (±4,0) ⇒ = 4 ---------------- (2)
and = 12 ⇒ = 6 ------------------ (3)
From (2), =4⇒√ + =4 (∵ = √ + )
⇒ + = 16 --------------- (4)
From (3) and (4), we get
+ 6 = 16 ⇒ + 6 − 16 = 0
⇒ ( − 2)( + 8) = 0 ⇒ = 2 = −8
But cannot be negative,
∴ =2⇒ = 4 --------------------- (5)
From (4) and (5), we get = 12
Therefore, the required hyperbola is
− =1⇒ − =1
IP3: Find the equation of the hyperbola with foci ( , ± ) and asymptotes = ± .
Solution: We have, the foci and the asymptotes of the required hyperbola are (0, ±2)
and = ± respectively.
Since the foci of the hyperbola are on − axis, the equation is of the form
− = 1 ------------------ (1)
Since, the foci and asymptotes of (1) are (0, ± ) and = ± ,
(0, ± ) = (0, ±2) ⇒ = 2 ------------------------ (2)
and ± =± ⇒ = ⇒ = 2 -------------- (3)
From (2), =2⇒√ + =2 (∵ = √ + )
⇒ + = 4 ---------------------------- (4)
⇒ +4 = 4 ( (3))
⇒ = ----------------------------------- (5)
From (4) and (5), we get = .
Therefore, the required hyperbola is
− =1⇒ − =1
P3: Find the equation of the hyperbola with foci ±√ , and asymptotes = ± .
Solution: We have, the foci and the asymptotes of the required hyperbola are ±√2 ,0
and = ±2 respectively.
Since the foci of the hyperbola are on − axis,
the equation is of the form − = 1 ----------------- (1)
Since the foci and asymptotes of (1) are (± , 0) and =± ,
(± , 0) = ±√2, 0 ⇒ = √2 -------------------- (2)
and ±2 = ± ⇒ = 2 ⇒ = 2 -------------- (3)
From (2), = √2 ⇒ √ + = √2 (∵ = √ + )
⇒ + = 2 ----------------------------- (4)
⇒ +4 = 2 ( (3))
⇒ = ----------------------------------- (5)
From (4) and (5), we get = .
Therefore, the required hyperbola is, − =1⇒ − =1
IP4: Find the foci, the vertices, the length of latus rectum and the asymptotes of the
hyperbola − = .
Solution: We have, −4 =4⇒ − = 1 ------------ (1)
Compare (1) with the hyperbola − = 1,
we get = 4 and = 1 ⇒ = 2 and = 1
and =√ + = √4 + 1 = √5
Therefore, the foci of (1) are (± , 0) i.e., ±√5, 0 .
The vertices of (1) are (± , 0) i.e., (±2, 0).
( )
The length of the latus rectum of (1) is = = 1.
The asymptotes of (1) are = ± =± .
P4: Find the foci, the vertices, the length of latus rectum and the asymptotes of the
hyperbola − = .
Solution: We have, 3 − = 27 ⇒ − = 1 ------------ (1)
Compare (1) with the hyperbola − = 1,
we get = 9 and = 27 ⇒ = 3 and = 3√3
and =√ + = √9 + 27 = 6
Therefore, the foci of (1) are (0, ± ), i.e., (0, ±6).
The vertices of (1) are (0, ± ) i.e., (0, ±3).
( )
The length of the latus rectum of (1) is = = 18.
The asymptotes of (1) are 3 − =0⇒ =± .
√
Exercises:
1. Find the foci, the vertices, the length of latus rectum and the asymptotes of
hyperbola.
a. − =1
b. 16 − 9 = 576
c. 9 − 4 = 36
d. 5 − 9 = 36
e. 49 − 16 = 784
2. Find the equations of the hyperbola satisfying the given conditions.
a. Vertices: (0, ±3), foci: (0, ±5).
√
b. Vertices: 0, ± , foci: (0, ±3).
c. Vertices: (±6, 0), foci: (±10, 0).
d. Foci: ±3√5 , 0 , the latus rectum is of length 8.
e. Foci: 0, ±√65 , the latus rectum is of length .
f. Foci: 0, ±√2 , the asymptotes =± .

g. Foci: ± , 0 , the asymptotes =± .

√
2.5. Classifying conic sections
Learning Objectives:
 To define eccentricity of a parabola, ellipse and hyperbola
 To define the directrices of ellipse and hyperbola
 To formulate the Focus-Directrix equation to unify parabola, ellipse and hyperbola

In this module, we associate with each conic section a number called the conic section’s
eccentricity. The eccentricity reveals the conic section’s type and in the case of ellipses and
hyperbolas, it describes the conic section’s general proportions.
Eccentricity
Although the center-to-focus distance does not appear in the equation

+ =1 ( > )
for an ellipse, we can determine from the equation = √ − . If we fix and vary
over the interval 0 ≤ ≤ , the resulting ellipses will vary in shape.

They are circles if = 0 (so that = ) and flatten as increases. If = , the foci and
vertices overlap and the ellipse degenerates into a line segment.
We use the ratio of to to describe the various shapes the ellipse can take. We call this
ratio the ellipse’s eccentricity.
Definition
√
The eccentricity of the ellipse, + = 1 ( > ) is = = .
The planets in the solar system revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at
one focus. Most of the orbits are nearly circular, as can be seen from the eccentricities in
table below.

Pluto has a fairly eccentric orbit, with = 0.25, as does Mercury, with = 0.21. Other
members of the solar system have orbits that are even more eccentric. Icarus, an asteroid
about one and half kilometer wide that revolves round the sun every 409 Earth days, has an
orbital eccentricity of 0.83.

Example 1
The orbit of Halley ’s Comet is an ellipse 36.18 astronomical units long by 9.12 astronomical
units wide. (One astronomical unit (AU) is 149,597,870km, the semimajor axis of Earth’s
orbit) Its eccentricity is
. .
√ ( . ) ( . )
= = = = .
≈ 0.97
( . )
Whereas a parabola has one focus and one directrix, each ellipse has two foci and two
directrices. These are the lines perpendicular to the major axis at distances + from the
center. The parabola has the property that
=1∙ -------------------------------------- (1)
For any point on it, where is the focus and is the point nearest on the directrix. For
an ellipse, it can be shown that the equations that replace (1) are
= . and = . ----------------- (2)
Here, is the eccentricity, is any point on the ellipse, and are the foci, and
and are the points on the directrices nearest .

In each equation in (2) the directrix and focus must correspond; that is, if we use the
distance from to , we must also use the distance from to the directrix at the same
end of the ellipse. The directrix = − corresponds to (− , 0), and the directrix =
corresponds to ( , 0).
The eccentricity of a hyperbola is also = , only in this case equals √ + instead of
√ − . In contrast to the eccentricity of an ellipse, the eccentricity of a hyperbola is
always greater than 1.
Definition
√
The eccentricity of the hyperbola − = 1 ( > ) is = =
In both ellipse and hyperbola, the eccentricity is the ratio of the distance between the foci
to the distance between the vertices.
distance between foci
Eccentricity =
distance between ver ces
In an ellipse, the foci are closer together than the vertices and the ratio is less than 1. In a
hyperbola, the foci are farther apart than the vertices and the ratio is greater than 1.
Example 2
Locate the vertices of an ellipse of eccentricity 0.8 whose foci lie at the points (0, ±7).
Solution
Since = , the vertices are the points (0, ± ) where
= = = 8.75
.
or (0, ±8.75).
Example 3: Find the eccentricity of the hyperbola 9 − 16 = 144.
Solution
We divide both sides of the hyperbola’s equation by 144 to put it in standard form,
obtaining
− =1⇒ − =1
with = 16 and = 9, we find that
=√ + = √16 + 9 = 5 , so = = .
As with the ellipse, it can be shown that the lines = ± act as directrices for the
hyperbola and that
= . and = . ----------------- (3)
Here, is any point on the hyperbola, and are the foci, and and are the points
nearest on the directrices.

We define the eccentricity of a parabola to be = 1. Equations (1) – (3) then have a

common form = ∙ .
Definition
The eccentricity of a parabola is = 1.
The “focus-directrix” equation = ∙ unites the parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola in
the following way.
Suppose that the distance of a point from a fixed point (the focus) is a
constant multiple of its distance from a fixed line (the directrix). That is, suppose
= ∙ --------------------------- (4)
where is the constant of proportionality. Then the path traced by is
a) a parabola if = 1,
b) an ellipse of eccentricity if < 1, and
c) a hyperbola of eccentricity if > 1.
There are no coordinates in equation (4), and when we try to translate it into coordinate
form it translates in different ways, depending on the size of . This is what happens in
Cartesian coordinates. However, in polar coordinates, as we will see in the next unit, the
equation = ∙ translates into a single equation regardless of the value of .
Given the focus and corresponding directrix of a hyperbola centered at the origin and with
foci on the -axis, we can use the dimensions shown in the figure below to find .

Knowing , we can derive a Cartesian equation for the hyperbola from the equation
= ∙ , as in the next example.
Example 4
Find a Cartesian equation for the hyperbola centered at the origin that has a focus at (3,0)
and the line = 1 as the corresponding directrix.
Solution
The focus is, ( , 0) = (3,0) so =3
The directrix is the line, = = 1 so =
When combined with the eccentricity equation = / ,
= = ⇒ = 3 ⇒ = √3
Knowing , we can derive the equation we are asked for from the equation = ∙ .
From the figure below,
we have
= ∙
⇒ ( − 3) + ( − 0) = √3| − 1|
⇒ −6 +9+ = 3( − 2 + 1)
⇒ 2 − =6
⇒ − =1
We can find equations for ellipses centered at the origin and with foci on the -axis in a
similar way, using the dimensions shown in the figure below.

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find the eccentricity of ellipse + = .
Solution: We have, 36 + 49 = 1764 ⇒ + = 1 --------- (1)
The denominator of is larger than the denominator of , so the major axis is along the
− axis.
Compare (1) with + = 1, we have
= 49 and = 36
⇒ = 7 and = 6
and = √ − = √49 − 36 = √13
We have, eccentricity( ) = =
√
Therefore, the eccentricity of (1) is = = .
P1: Find the eccentricity of ellipse + = .
Solution: We have, 4 + = 100 ⇒ + = 1 --------- (1)
The denominator of is smaller than the denominator of , so the major axis is along
the − axis.
Compare (1) with + = 1, we have
= 100 and = 25
⇒ = 10 and = 5
and = √ − = √100 − 25 = 5√3
We have, eccentricity( ) = =
 √ √
Therefore, the eccentricity of (1) is = = = .
IP2: Find the equation for hyperbola whose vertices are (± , ) and eccentricity is .
Solution: We have, vertices: (±7,0)
Since the vertices are on − axis, the major axis is along the − axis. So the required
equation of the hyperbola is of the form − = 1, where is the semi-major axis of
hyperbola.
We have, the vertices of the hyperbola − = 1 are (± , 0) and the eccentricity
is = here =√ + . Therefore, = 7 and the eccentricity,
4 4 4 28
= ⇒ = ⇒ = ⇒ =
3 3 7 3 3
⇒√ + =
⇒ + = ⇒ = −
⇒ = − 49 ⇒ =
Therefore, the required equation of hyperbola is
− =1⇒ − =1
P2: Find the equation for hyperbola whose vertices are ( , ± ) and eccentricity is .
Solution: We have, vertices: (0, ±3)
Since the vertices are on − axis, the major axis is along the − axis. So the required
equation of the hyperbola is of the form − = 1 where is the semi-major axis of
hyperbola.
We have, the vertices of the hyperbola − = 1 are (0, ± ) and the eccentricity
is = , =√ + . Therefore, = 3 and
eccentricity, =2⇒ =2⇒ =2⇒ =6
⇒√ + =6
⇒ + = 36 ⇒ = 36 −
⇒ = 36 − 9 ⇒ = 27
Therefore, the required equation of hyperbola is
− =1⇒ − =1
IP3: Find an equation for the ellipse of eccentricity 2/3 that has the line = as a
directirx and the point ( , ) as the corresponding focus.
Solution: We have focus, eccentricity and directrix of the required ellipse (4,0), and
= 9 respectively.
Let the focus be (4,0), eccentricity be and (9, ) be the point on the directrix of
ellipse nearest P.
Let ( , ) be a point on the ellipse and we have, PF = ∙ PD
⇒ ( − 4) + ( − 0) = ( − 9)

⇒ ( − 4) + ( − 0) = ( − 9)
 ⇒ − 8 + 16 + = ( − 18 + 81)
⇒5 +9 = 180 ⇒ + =1
Therefore, the required equation of the ellipse is + = 1.
√
P3: Find an equation for the ellipse of eccentricity that has the line = as a
√
directrix and the point , √ as the corresponding focus.
√
Solution: We have focus, eccentricity and directrix of the required ellipse (0,4√2), and
= respectively.
√
√
Let the focus be 0,4√2 , eccentricity be and , be the point on the directrix
√
of ellipse nearest P.
Let ( , ) be a point on the ellipse and we have,
PF = ∙ PD
√
⇒ ( − 0) + − 4√2 = −
√
√
⇒ ( − 0) + − 4√2 = −
√
⇒ + − 8√2 + 32 = − 9√2 +
⇒9 + = 36 ⇒ + =1
Therefore, the required equation of the ellipse is + =1
IP4: Find equation of the hyperbola that has focus at ( , ) and the line = as the
corresponding directrix.
Solution: We have, focus: = (0, ). Given (0, ) = (0,6) ⇒ = 6
We have, the corresponding directrix, = ⇒ = ⇒ =
×
Now, eccentricity, = = ⇒ =4⇒ =2.
Let ( , ) be any point on the hyperbola and = , be the point on the directrix
nearest to . We have, = .

⇒ ( − 0) + ( − 6) = 2 −
⇒ + − 12 + 36 = 4 −3 +
⇒ + − 12 + 36 − 4 + 12 − 9 = 0
⇒ 3 − = 27
⇒ − =1
Therefore, required hyperbola is − = 1.
P4: Find equation of the hyperbola that has focus at ( , ) and the line = as the
corresponding directrix.
Solution: We have, focus: ( , 0). Given ( , 0) = (5,0) ⇒ = 5
We have, the corresponding directrix, = ⇒ = ⇒ =
 ×
Now, eccentricity, = = ⇒ = ⇒ = .
Let ( , ) be any point on the hyperbola and , be the point on the directrix
nearest to . We have, = .

⇒ ( − 5) + ( − 0) = −
⇒ + 25 − 10 + = + −
⇒ 16 + 400 − 160 + 16 − 25 − 256 + 160 = 0
⇒ 9 − 16 = 144 ⇒ − =1
Therefore, the required hyperbola is − = 1.
Exercises:
1. Find the eccentricity and the directrix of the ellipses given below.
a. + =1
b. + =1
c. + =1
d. + =1
e. 4 + 9 = 36
f. 16 + = 16
2. Find the eccentricity and the directrix of the hyperbolas given below.
a. − =1
b. − =1
c. − =1
d. − =1
e. 16 − 9 = 576
f. 49 − 16 = 784

3. Find the equations of ellipse by using conditions given below.

√
a. Focus: 0,5√3 , eccentricity: and directrix: = 10
√
b. Focus: √5, 0 , eccentricity: and directrix: = 3
4. Find the equations of hyperbolas by using conditions given below.
a. Vertices: (±2,0) and eccentricity:
b. Vertices: (0, ±5) and eccentricity:
c. Focus: (10,0) and directrix: =
d. Focus: 0, √65 and directrix: =
√
2.6. Quadratic Equations
Learning objectives:

 To find an angle of rotation of the coordinate axes to transform a quadratic equation

with cross product term into an equation that has no cross product term.

 To identify the transformed quadratic curve.

AND

 To practice the related problems.

The Cartesian graph of any equation ax 2  bxy  cy 2  dx  ey  f  0 (1)
in which , , and are not all zero, is nearly always a conic section. The exceptions are the
cases in which there is no graph at all or the graph consists of two parallel lines. We call all
graphs of equation (1), curved or not, quadratic curves.
The Cross Product Term
The term did not appear in the equations for the conic sections in previous modules.
This happened because the axes of the conic sections ran parallel to the coordinate axes.
We write an equation for a hyperbola with = 3 and foci at (−3, −3) (3,3). This
is an example when the parallelism is absent.

The equation P F1  P F 2  2 a becomes

P F1  P F 2  2  3  6 and

 x  3  2   y  3 2   x  3 2   y  3 2  6

 x  3  2   y  3 2  6  x  3 2   y  3 2
Squaring on both sides, we get
2 2
 2 2   2 2 
 x  3   y  3   6 x  3   y  3 
   
  x  3 2 2 2
  y  3  36  x  3   y  3
2

 12  x  3 2   y  3 2
Simplifying, we get
x y  3  x  3 2   y  3 2 .......... A 
2 2
 x 2  y 2  2 xy  9   x  3   y  3   6  x  3 2   y  3 2
 2 xy  27  6 x  6 y  6  x  y  3   fro m A 
 2 xy  9 .............  2 
a case of equation (1) in which the cross-product term is present. The asymptotes of the
hyperbola in equation (2) are the - and -axes, and the focal axis makes an angle of /4
radians with the positive -axis. As in this example, the cross product term is present in
equation (1) only when the axes of the conic are tilted.
Rotation of coordinate Axes
We rotate the coordinate axes to eliminate the “tilt” in the axes of the conic. This will
eliminate the -term from the equation of a conic. The equations for the rotation are
derived in the following way.
The following figure shows a counter clockwise rotation about the origin through an
angle .

x  OM  OP cos  θ  α   OP cos θ cos α  OP sin θ sin α

 OM  cos α  M P sin α  OP cos θ  OM ', OP sin θ  M ' P 
 x  cos α  y  sin α
y  MP  OP sin  θ  α   OP sin θ cos α  OP cos θ sin α
 M P cos α  OM  sin α
 x sin α  y  cos α
Thus, the equations for rotating the coordinate axes are given by
x  x  cos α  y  sin α
(3)
y  x sin α  y cos α
Example 1
The - and -axes are rotated through an angle of /4 radians about the origin. Find an
equation for the hyperbola 2 = 9 in the new coordinates.
Solution
Using the values of cos /4 = sin /4 = 1⁄√2, we have
= − and = + where =
x  y  x  y 
x y
2 2
Substituting these relations into the equation 2 = 9, we obtain
 x  y    x  y   2 2 x2 y 2
2    9  x  y   9  9  9  1
 2  2 

If we apply equations (3) to the quadratic equation (1), we obtain a new quadratic equation
a x  2  b x y   c y  2  d x   e y   f   0 (4)
The new and old coefficients are related by the equations
a   a cos 2 α  b cos α sin α  c sin 2 α
b   b cos 2 α   c  a  sin 2 α
(5)
c   a sin 2 α  b sin α cos α  c cos 2 α
d   d cos α  e sin α
e    d sin α  e cos α
f f
These equations show that if we start with an equation for a curve in which the cross
product term is present ( ≠ 0), we can find a rotation angle that produces an equation
in which no cross product term appears ( = 0). To find , we set = 0 in the second
equation in (5) and solve the resulting equation,
bcos 2α   c  a  sin 2α  0
for . This means determining from one of the two equations
ac b (6)
cot 2 α  tan 2 α 
b ac
Example 2
The coordinate axes are to be rotated through an angle to produce an equation for the
curve,
2
2 x  3 xy  y  10  02
that has no cross product term. Find and the new equation. Identify the curve.
Solution
Here, we have = 2, = √3, and = 1. We substitute these values into equation (6) to
find :
a  c 2 1 1
cot 2α   
b 3 3

From the right triangle above, 2 = /3, so = /6.

Substituting = /6, = 2, = √3, and = 1,
= = 0, = −10 into equations (5) gives
= , = 0, = , = = 0, = −10
Equation (4) then gives
′ + ′ − 10 = 0 or + =1
The curve is an ellipse with foci on the new ′-axis.
 PROBLEM SET
IP1. The - and -axes are rotated through an angle of / radians about the origin. Find
an equation for the hyperbola = in the new coordinates.
Solution: Given hyperbola = 2 ……… (1)
Let be the angle to be rotated by the coordinate axes about the origin.
By the hypothesis, we have = /4 radians
Now, the equations for the rotating the coordinate axes are
= −
= +
∴ = − ⟹ =
√
= + ⟹ =
√
(1 ) ⟹ =2
⟹ =2
√ √
⟹ − =4
⟹ − = 1 , is the equation of hyperbola in new coordinates.
P1. The - and -axes are rotated through an angle of / radians about the origin. Find
an equation for the hyperbola = in the new coordinates.
Solution: Given hyperbola = 1 ……… (1)
Let be the angle to be rotated by the coordinate axes about the origin.
By the hypothesis, we have = /4 radians
Now, the equations for the rotating the coordinate axes are
= −
= +
∴ = − ⟹ =
√
= + ⟹ =
√
(1) ⟹ =1
⟹ =1
√ √
⟹ − =2
⟹ − = 1 , is the equation of hyperbola in new coordinates.
Note:
The eccentricity of the (Rectangular) Hyperbola = 1 is √2
Proof:
The transformed equation by rotating the coordinate axes by an angle radians is

− = 1. Now, =√ + =2
and = = = √2
√

IP2. Rotate the coordinate axes to change the equation

− √ + =
into an equation that has no cross product ( ) term. Then identify the equation.
Solution: Given 3 − 2√3 + = 1 ………….. (1)
Comparing (1) with the equation
+ + + + + = 0, we get
= 3, = −2√3, = 1, = = 0, = −1
The new and old coefficients are related by the equations
 2 2
a  a c o s α  b c o s α s in α  c sin α
b   b c o s 2 α   c  a  s in 2 α

c   a s in 2 α  b s in α c o s α  c c o s 2 α
d   d c o s α  e s in α
e    d si n α  e c o s α a n d f   f
where is the angle rotated by the coordinate axes about the origin.
To find , we have
2 = =− =− ⟹2 = ⟹ =
√ √
∴ = 3. − 2√3 . + (1 ) =0
= −2√3 cos + (1 − 3) =0
=3 + 2√3 . + =4
= =0
= −1
The new quadratic equation with new coordinates is
 2
a x   
b xy cy  2     
 d x ey  f  0
⟹4 =1
⟹ = ± , which represents parallel horizontal lines
P2. Rotate the coordinate axes to change the equation
+ √ − =
into an equation that has no cross product ( ) term. Then identify the equation.
Solution: Given 3 + 4√3 − = 7 ……….. (1)
Comparing (1) with the equation
+ + + + + = 0, we get
= 3, = 4√3, = −1, = = 0, = −7
Now, the equations for rotating the coordinate axes are
= −
= +
where is the angle rotated by the coordinate axes about the origin.
To find , we have
( )
2 = = = ⟹2 = ⟹ =
√ √
√
∴ = − ⟹ = − ′
√
= + ⟹ = −
(1 ) ⟹ 3 + 4√3 − =7
√ √ √ √
⟹3 − + 4√3 − − − − =7
⟹3 3 + − 2√3
+4√3 √3 + 3 − − √3 − +3 + 2√3 ′ ′ = 28
⟹ 20 − 12 = 28
⟹ − = 1, which represents Hyperbola.
IP3. Rotate the coordinate axes to change the equation
− √ + =
into an equation that has no cross product ( ) term. Then identify the equation.
Solution: Given 3 − 2√3 + = 1 ………….. (1)
Comparing (1) with the equation
+ + + + + = 0, we get
= 3, = −2√3, = 1, = = 0, = −1
Now, the equations for rotating the coordinate axes are
= −
= +
where is the angle rotated by the coordinate axes about the origin.
To find , we have
2 = =− =− ⟹2 = ⟹ =
√ √
√
∴ = − ⟹ =
√
= + ⟹ =
(1) ⟹ 3 − 2√3 + =1
√ √ √ √
⟹3 − 2√3 − =1
⟹ (3 − 6 − 3) + −6√3 + 4√3 + 2√3 + (9 + 6 + 1) =4
⟹ 16 =4
⟹ = ± , which represents parallel horizontal lines
P3. Rotate the coordinate axes to change the equation
+ + − =
into an equation that has no cross product ( ) term. Then identify the equation.
Solution: Given + + − 1 = 0 ……….. (1)
Comparing (1) with the equation
+ + + + + = 0, we get
= 1, = 1, = 1, = = 0, = −1
Now, the equations for rotating the coordinate axes are
= −
= +
where is the angle rotated by the coordinate axes about the origin.
To find , we have
2 = = =0⟹2 = ⟹ =
∴ = − ⟹ =
√
= + ⟹ =
√
(1) ⟹ + + −1 =0
⟹ + + −1 =0
√ √ √ √
⟹2 + + − −2= 0
⟹3 + =2
⟹ + = 1, which represents an Ellipse
IP4. Rotate the coordinate axes to change the equation
+ + =
into an equation that has no cross product ( ) term. Then identify the equation.
Solution: Given 3 + 2 + 3 = 19 ……….. (1)
Comparing (1) with the equation
+ + + + + = 0, we get
= 3, = 2, = 3, = = 0, = −19
Now, the equations for rotating the coordinate axes are
= −
= +
where is the angle rotated by the coordinate axes about the origin.
To find , we have
2 = = 0⟹2 = ⟹ =
∴ = − ⟹ =
√
= + ⟹ =
√
(1) ⟹ 3 +2 +3 = 19
⟹3 +2 +3 = 19
√ √ √ √
⟹6 + +2 − = 38
⟹4 +2 = 19
⟹ + = 1, is the equation of Ellipse in new coordinates.
P4. Rotate the coordinate axes to change the equation
√ + √ +√ − + =
Into an equation that has no cross product ( ) term. Then identify the equation.
Solution:
Given √2 + 2√2 + √2 − 8 + 8 = 0 ……….. (1)
Comparing (1) with the equation
+ + + + + = 0, we get
= √2, = 2√2, = √2, = −8, = 8, = 0
The new and old coefficients are related by the equations
 a   a c o s 2 α  b c o s α s in α  c sin 2 α
b   b c o s 2 α   c  a  s in 2 α

c   a s in 2 α  b s in α c o s α  c c o s 2 α
d   d cos α  e sin α
e    d sin α  e cos α
f f
where is the angle rotated by the coordinate axes about the origin.
To find , we have
√ √
2 = = =0⟹2 = ⟹ =
√
∴ = √2 + 2√2 . + √2 = 2√2
= 2√2 + √2 − √2 =0
= √2 − 2√2. + √2 =0
= −8 +8 =0
=8 +8 = 8√2
=0
The new quadratic equation with new coordinates is
a x  2  b  x y   c y  2  d x   e  y   f   0
⟹ 2√2 + 8√2 = 0
⟹ +4 =0
⟹ =− , is the equation of parabola in new coordinates.
EXERCISES
I. Rotate the coordinate axes to change the given equation into an equation that has no
cross product ( ) term. Then identify the equation.
a. + + = 1
b. 3 + 2√3 + − 8 + 8√3 = 0
c. − √3 + 2 = 1
d. − 2 + = 2
e. − + 3 + − − 3 = 0
f. 2 + − 3 + 3 − 7 = 0
g. − 4 + 4 − 5 = 0
h. 2 + − 3 + 3 − 7 = 0
i. 3 + 5 + 2 − 8 − 1 = 0
j. 2 + 7 + 9 + 20 − 86 = 0
3.1. Plane Curves
Learning Objectives:
 To define parametric equations of a plane curve.
 To discuss the Parametrization of certain plane curves.
AND
 To practice related problems.
When the path of a particle moving in the plane looks like the curve in the figure below, it
may not be possible to describe it with a Cartesian formula that expresses directly in
terms of or directly in terms of .

Instead, we express each of the particle’s coordinates as a function of time and describe
the path with a pair of equations, = ( ) and = ( ). For studying motion, equations
like these are preferable to a Cartesian formula because they tell us the particle’s position
at any time .
Definitions
If and are given as continuous functions , = ( ) and = ( )
over an interval of values, then the set of points ( , ) = ( ), ( ) defined by these
equations is a curve in the coordinate plane. The equations are parametric equations for
the curve.
The variable is a parameter for the curve and its domain is the parameter interval. If is
a closed interval, ≤ ≤ , the point ( ( ), ( )) is the initial point of the curve and
( ( ), ( )) is the terminal point of the curve. When we give parametric equations and a
parameter interval for a curve in the plane, we say that we have parametrized the curve.
The equations and interval constitute a parametrization of the curve.
In many applications denotes time, but it might instead denote an angle or the distance a
particle has traveled along its path from its starting point.
Example 1 : The equations and parameter interval
= cos , = sin 0≤ ≤2
describe the position ( , ) of a particle that moves counterclockwise around the circle
+ = 1 as increases.
We know that the point lies on this circle for every value of because
+ = cos + sin = 1
We track the motion as runs from 0 to 2 . The parameter is in the radian measure of
the angle that radius makes with positive -axis. The particle starts at (1,0), moves up
and to the left as approaches /2, and continues around the circle to stop again at (1,0)
when = 2 . The particle traces the circle exactly once.
Example 2
The equations and parameter interval
= cos , = −sin 0≤ ≤
describe the position ( , ) of a particle that moves clockwise around the circle
+ = 1 as increases from 0 to .
We know that the point lies on this circle for all because its coordinates satisfy the
circle’s equation. We track the motion as runs from 0 to . The particle starts at (1,0). But
now as increases, becomes negative, decreasing to −1 when = /2 and then
increasing back to 0 as approaches . The motion stops at = with only the lower half
of the circle covered.

Example 3
The position ( , ) of a particle moving in the -plane is given by the equations and
parameter interval, =√ , = ≥0
Identify the path traced by the particle and describe the motion.
Solution: We eliminate t between the equations x = √t and y = t. This gives
= = √ =
This means that the particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation = , so the
particle moves along the parabola = .
The particle’s -coordinate is never negative. The particle starts at (0,0) when = 0 and
rises into the first quadrant as increases.
Example 4
The position ( , ) of a particle moving in the -plane is given by the equations and
parameter interval, = , = −∞ < < ∞
Identify the particle’s path and describe the motion.
Solution
We eliminate between the equations = and = to obtain
= =
The particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation = , so the particle moves along
this curve.
In contrast to the previous example, the particle now traverses the entire parabola. As
increases from −∞ to ∞, the particle comes down the left-hand side, passes through the
origin, and moves up the right-hand side.

As example 4 illustrates, any curve = ( ) has the parametrization = , = ( ). In

general, such a parametrization may not be useful all the time.
Parametrizing a Line Segment:
Example5
Find a parametrization for the line segment with endpoints (-2,1) and (3, 5).
Solution: Using (-2,1) we create the parametric equations
= −2 + , =1+ .
These represent a line, as we can see by solving each equation for and equating to obtain
= .
This line goes through the point (-2,1) when = 0. We determine and so that the line
goes through (3, 5) when = 1.
3 = −2 + ⇒ = 5 [ =3 ℎ = 1]
5=1+ ⇒ =4 [ =5 ℎ = 1]
Therefore, = −2 + 5 , = 1 + 4 , 0 ≤ ≤ 1
is a parametrization of the line segment with initial point (-2,1) and terminal point (3, 5).
PROBLEM SET
IP1: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for
the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. =2 −5 , =4 −7 −∞ < < ∞
Solution: We have, =2 −5 , =4 −7 −∞ < < ∞
⇒ = 4 − 7 = 2(2 − 5) + 3
⇒ = 2 +3
The particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation = 2 + 3, so the particle moves
along this straight line.
The particle traverses the entire straight line as increases from −∞ to ∞ .

P1: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for

the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. =3−3 , =2 0≤ ≤1
Solution: We have, =3−3 , =2 0≤ ≤1
⇒ =2 =2 =2−
⇒ = 2− ;0 ≤ ≤3
The particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation = 2 − , so the particle moves
along this line segment.
We track the motion as runs from 0 to 1. The particle starts at (3,0) when = 0. As
approaches 1, the particle stops at (0,2).

IP2: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for

the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. = cos 2 , = sin 2 0≤ ≤
Solution: We have, = cos 2 , = sin 2 0≤ ≤
⇒ + = cos 2 + sin 2 = 1
⇒ + =1
The position ( , ) of a particle moves counterclockwise around the circle + =
1 as increases from 0 to .
We know that the point lies on this circle for all because its coordinates satisfy the
circle’s equation. The particle starts at (1,0), moves up and to the left as approaches /2,
and continues around the circle to stop again at (1,0) when = . The particle traces the
circle exactly once.
P2: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for
the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. = cos( − ), = sin( − ) 0≤ ≤
Solution: We have, = cos( − ), = sin( − ) 0≤ ≤
⇒ + = cos ( − ) + sin ( − ) = 1
⇒ + =1; ≥0
The position ( , ) of a particle moves clockwise around the circle + = 1 as
increases from 0 to .
We know that the point lies on this circle for all because its coordinates satisfy the
circle’s equation. We track the motion as runs from 0 to . The particle starts at (−1,0).
But now as increases, becomes positive, increasing to 1 when = /2 and then
decreasing back to 0 as approaches . The motion stops at = with only the upper half
of the circle covered.

IP3: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for

the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. =3 , =9 , −∞ < < ∞
Solution: We have, =3 , =9 , −∞ < < ∞
⇒ = 9 = (3 ) =
The particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation = , so the particle moves along
this curve.
The particle traverses the entire parabola. As increases from −∞ to ∞, the particle comes
down the left-hand side, passes through the origin, and moves up the right-hand side.
P3: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for
the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. = −√ , = ≥0
Solution: We have, = −√ , = ≥0
⇒ = −√ = −
⇒ = ; ≤0
The particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation = , so the particle moves along
this curve.
The particle’s -coordinate is never positive. The particle starts at (0,0) when = 0 and
rises into the second quadrant as increases.

IP4: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for

the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it.
= √1 − , = , −1 ≤ ≤ 0
Solution: We have, = √1 − , = , −1 ≤ ≤ 0
⇒ = √1 − ⇒ = 1 − ; ≤0
The particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation = 1 − , so the particle moves
along this curve.
The particle’s -coordinate is never positive. The particle starts at (0, −1) when = −1 and
rises up as increases. The particle stops at (1,0) when = 0.
P4: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for
the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. = , = √1 − , −1 ≤ ≤ 0
Solution: We have, = , = √1 − , −1 ≤ ≤ 0
⇒ = 1− ⇒ = 1− ; ≤0
The particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation = √1 − , so the particle moves
along this curve.
The particle’s -coordinate is never positive. The particle starts at (−1,0) when = −1 and
rises up as increases. The particle stops at (0,1) when = 0.

Exercises:
1. Find parametric equations and a parameter interval for the motion of a particle that
starts at ( , 0) and traces the circle + =
a. Once clockwise.
b. Once counterclockwise.
c. Twice clockwise.
d. Twice counterclockwise.

2. Find parametric equations and a parameter interval for the motion of a particle that
starts at ( , 0) and traces the ellipse + =1
a. Once clockwise.
b. Once counterclockwise.
c. Twice clockwise.
d. Twice counterclockwise.

3. Find a parametrization for the curve.

a. The line segment with endpoints (−1, −3) and (4,1)
b. The line segment with endpoints (−1,3) and (3, −2)
c. The lower half of the parabola − 1 =
d. The left half of the parabola = +2
e. The ray (half line) with initial point (2,3) that passes through the point
3.2. Parametrization of Plane Curves
Learning Objectives:
 To present parametric equations of an ellipse, circle and hyperbola.
 To derive parametric equations of a cycloid.
AND
 To practice related problems.
In this module we give additional examples of parametrizing conic sections and cycloids.
Example 1
Describe the motion of a particle whose position ( , ) at time is given by
= cos , = sin , 0≤ ≤2
Solution
We eliminate from the given equations. We write
cos = , sin =
Therefore,
+ = cos + sin =1
The particle’s coordinates ( , ) satisfy the equation + = 1, so the particle moves
along the ellipse.
When = 0, the particle’s coordinates are ( cos 0 , sin 0) = ( , 0)and so the motion
starts at ( , 0). As increases, the particle rises and moves toward the left, moving
counterclockwise. It traverses the ellipse once, returning to its starting position( , 0) at
time = 2 .

Example 2
The equations and parameter interval
= cos , = sin , 0≤ ≤2 ,
obtained by taking = in example 1, describe the circle
+ =
Example 3
Describe the motion of the particle whose position ( , ) at time is given by
= sec , = tan , − ≤ ≤
Solution
We find a Cartesian equation for the coordinates of by eliminating between the
equations
 sec = , tan =
− = sec − tan = 1
Since the particle’s coordinates ( , ) satisfy the equation − = 1, the motion takes
place somewhere on this hyperbola. As runs between – and , = sec remains
positive and = tan runs between −∞ and ∞, so traverses the hyperbola’s right-hand
branch. It comes in along the branch’s lower half as ⟶ 0 , reaches (1,0) at = 0, and
moves out into the first quadrant as increases toward /2.

Example 4
A wheel of radius rolls along a horizontal straight line. Find parametric equations for the
path traced by a point on the wheel’s circumference. The path is called a cycloid.
Solution
We take the line to be the -axis, mark a point on the wheel, start the wheel with at
the origin, and roll the wheel to the right. As parameter, we use the angle through which
the wheel turns, measured in radians. Figure below shows the wheel a short while later,
when its base lies units from the origin.

The wheel’s center lies at ( , ) and the coordinates of are

= + cos = + sin
We observe that + = 3 /2, so that = −
This makes
cos = cos − = − sin
sin = sin − = − cos
The parametric equations are
= − sin = − cos
With the factored out, they are
= ( − sin ) = (1 − cos )
Figure below shows the first arch of the cycloid and part of the next.

The parametric equations of one arch of the cycloid are

= ( − ) , = ( − ) , ≤ ≤

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for
the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. = 4 sin , = 5 cos , 0≤ ≤2
Solution: We have, = 4 sin , = 5 cos , 0≤ ≤2
∴ + = sin + cos =1
⇒ + =1
The position ( , ) of a particle moves clockwise around the ellipse + = 1 as
increases from 0 to 2 .
We know that the point lies on this ellipse for all because its coordinates satisfy the
ellipse’s equation. The particle starts at (0,5), moves down and to the right as approaches
/2 when the particle is at (4,0), and continues down as approaches when the particle
is at (0, −5) and continues around the ellipse to stop again at (0,5) when = 2 . The
particle traces the ellipse exactly once.
P1: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for
the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. = 4 cos , = 2 sin , 0≤ ≤2
Solution: We have, = 4 cos , = 2 sin , 0≤ ≤2
∴ + = cos + sin =1
⇒ + =1
The position ( , ) of a particle moves counterclockwise around the ellipse
+ = 1 as increases from 0 to 2 .
We know that the point lies on this ellipse for all because its coordinates satisfy the
ellipse’s equation. The particle starts at (4,0), moves up and to the left as approaches /2
when the particle is at (0,2), and continues down as approaches when the particle is at
(−4,0) and continues around the ellipse to stop again at (4,0) when = 2 . The particle
traces the ellipse exactly once.

IP2: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for

the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. = , = √1 + , ≤0
Solution: We have, = , = √1 + , ≤0
⇒ = √1 + ⇒ = √1 + ; ≤0
The particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation = √1 + , so the particle
moves along this curve and this is a hyperbola.
The particle’s -coordinate is never positive. The particle starts at (0,1) when = 0 and
rises into the second quadrant as decreases.
P2: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for
the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it.
=√ +1 , =√ , ≥0
Solution: We have, = √ + 1 , =√ , ≥0
∴ = , so = +1; ≥0
The particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation = + 1, so the particle
moves along this curve and this is a hyperbola.
The particle’s -coordinate is never negative. The particle starts at (1,0) when = 0 and
rises into the first quadrant as increases.

IP3: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for

the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. = − sec , = tan , − < <
Solution: We have, = − sec , = tan , − < <
∵ sec − tan = 1 ⇒ − = 1; < 0
The particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation − = 1, so the particle moves
along this curve and the curve is a rectangular hyperbola.
The particle’s -coordinate is never positive. The particle traverses the left branch of
hyperbola as increases between − to . When the is in between − to 0 , then the
particle traverses up in the quadrant-III and when is in between 0 to , the particle
traverses up in the quadrant-II.

P3: Given parametric equations and parameter interval for

the motion of a particle in the xy-plane. Identify the particle’s path by finding a Cartesian
equation for it. = tan , = − sec , − < <
Solution: We have, = tan , = − sec , − < <
∵ sec − tan = 1 ⇒ − = 1; < 0
The particle’s position coordinates satisfy the equation − = 1, so the particle moves
along this curve and this curve is a rectangular hyperbola.
The particle’s -coordinate is never positive. The particle traverses the down branch of
hyperbola as increases between − to . When is in between − to 0 , then the
particle traverses up in the quadrant-III and when is in between 0 to the particle
traverses down in the quadrant-IV.

IP4: Graph the part of the cycloid using the parametric equations
= − sin , = 1 − cos in the interval 0 ≤ ≤ 4 .
Solution:
Graph:

P4: Graph the part of the cycloid using the parametric equations
= − sin , = 1 − cos and in the interval ≤ ≤ 3 .
Solution:
Graph:
3.3. Differentiation with Parametrized Curves
Learning Objectives:
 To find slopes associated with parametrized curves.
 To find second derivative of parametrized curves.

In this module, we learn how to find slopes associated with parametrized curves.
Slopes of Parametrized Curves
Definitions
A parametrized curve = ( ), = ( ) is differentiable at = if and are
differentiable at = . The curve is differentiable if it is differentiable at every parameter
value. The curve is smooth if ʹ and ʹ are continuous and not simultaneously zero.
At a point on a differentiable parametrized curve where is also a differentiable function of
, the derivatives , , and are related by the Chain Rule equation
= ∙
If ≠ 0, we may divide both sides of this equation by to solve for .

= -- -- -- -- (1)
Example1: Find the tangent to the right-hand branch of the hyperbola
= sec , = tan , − < <
at the point (√2, 1), where = /4.

Solution
The slope of the curve at is
= = =
Setting equal to /4 gives
( ⁄ ) √
= ( ⁄ )
= = √2

The point-slope equation of the tangent is − = ( − )

⇒ − 1 = √2 − √2 ⇒ = √2 − 2 + 1 ⇒ = √2 − 1
The Parametric Formula for ⁄
If the parametric equations for a curve define as a twice-differentiable function of , we
may calculate as a function of in the following way:
 ʹ

= ʹ =
ʹ
Thus the formula for finding from = and ≠ 0 is
ʹ

= --- --- --- (2)

Example 2
Find if = − and = − .
Solution
Step 1: Express ʹ in terms of :
ʹ = = =
Step 2: Differentiate ʹ with respect to :
ʹ
= = ( )
ʹ
Step 3: Divide by .
ʹ

We have, = = ( )
∙ = ( )
.

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find an equation of the tangent to the curve = , = at the point
defined by the value of = and also find the value of at = .
Solution: Finding tangent to the curve = 2 cos , = 2 sin :
The point from where the tangent of the curve is passing through at = is
( , ) = 2 cos , 2 sin = √2, √2 .
Now, = 2 cos ⇒ = −2 sin ,
= 2 sin ⇒ = 2 cos .
The slope of the tangent at = is

= = = − cot = − cot = −1 .

The equation of the tangent which has slope −1 and is passing through the point √2, √2
is − √2 = −1 − √2 ⇒ + = 2√2
Finding :
ʹ

We have, = , where ʹ = .
ʹ
ʹ
We have, = = − cot ⇒ = csc
ʹ
√
Therefore, = = =− . ⇒ =− =− = −√2 .
P1: Find an equation of the tangent to the curve = , =√ at the point
defined by the value of = and also find the value of at = .
Solution: Finding tangent to the curve = , =√ :
The point from where the tangent of the curve is passing through at = is
√
( , ) = cos , √3 cos = − ,− .
Now, = cos ⇒ = − sin ,
= √3 cos ⇒ = −√3 sin .
The slope of the tangent at = is
√
= = = √3 .

The equation of the tangent which has slope √3 and is passing through the point
√ √
− ,− is, + = √3 + ⇒ = √3
Finding :
ʹ

We have, = , where ʹ = .
ʹ
ʹ
We have, = = √3 ⇒ = 0.
ʹ

Therefore, = = = 0.

IP2: Find an equation of the tangent to the curve = , = √ at the point defined by
the value of = and also find the value of at = .
Solution: Finding tangent to the curve = , = √ :
The point from where the tangent of the curve is passing through at = is

( , )= , = , .

Now, = ⇒ = 1,
=√ ⇒ = .
√
The slope of the tangent at = is
√
= = = = 1.

The equation of the tangent which has slope 1 and is passing through the point , is
− =1 − ⇒ − + =0
Finding :
ʹ

We have, = , where ʹ = .
 ʹ
ʹ
We have, = = = ⇒ =−
√
ʹ

Therefore, = = =− .

⇒ =− =− = −2.

P2: Find an equation of the tangent to the curve = −√ + , =√ at the point

defined by the value of = and also find the value of at = .
Solution: Finding tangent to the curve = −√ + , = √ :
The point from where the tangent of the curve is passing through at = 3 is
( , ) = −√4, √9 = (−2,3).
Now, = −√ + 1 ⇒ =− ,
√
√
= √3 ⇒ = .
√
The slope of the tangent at = 3 is
√
√
= = =− 3 1+ = − 3 1+ = −2.
√
The equation of the tangent which has slope −2 and is passing through the point (−2,3) is
− 3 = −2( + 2) ⇒ 2 + + 1 = 0
Finding :
ʹ
ʹ
We have, = , where = .
ʹ √
We have, ʹ = = − 3 1+ ⇒ =− 1+

ʹ
√ √ √ √
⇒ =− − = ∙ ∙ = ∙
√ √

ʹ √
∙
√
Therefore, = = = −√3 .
√

⇒ = −3 ∙3 = −3 =− .
IP3:
Find an equation of the tangent to the curve = + , = at the point defined
by the value of = − and also find the value of at =− .
Solution: Finding tangent to the curve = + , = :
The point from where the tangent of the curve is passing through at = −1 is ( , ) =
(2(−1) + 3, (−1) ) = (5,1).
Now, = 2 + 3 ⇒ = 4 ,
= ⇒ =4 .
The slope of the tangent at = −1 is
 = = = = (−1) = 1.
The equation of the tangent which has slope 1 and is passing through the point (5,1) is
− 1 = 1( − 5) ⇒ − = 4
Finding :

We have, = , where = .

We have, = = ⇒ =2

Therefore, = = = .
P3: Find an equation of the tangent to the curve = , = − + at the point
defined by the value of = and also find the value of at = .
Solution: Finding tangent to the curve = , = − + :
The point from where the tangent of the curve is passing through at = 1 is
( , ) = (2(1) , (1) − 1 + 1) = (2,1).
Now, = 2 ⇒ = 6 ,
= − +1⇒ = 2 −1.
The slope of the tangent at = 1 is

= = = .

The equation of the tangent which has slope and is passing through the point (2,1) is
− 1 = ( − 2) ⇒ −6 +4= 0
Finding :

We have, = , where = .
( ) ( ) ( )
We have, = = ⇒ = [ ]
× ( )( )
⇒ = = =

Therefore, = = ⇒ = 0.
IP4: Find an equation of the tangent to the curve = − , = − at the
point defined by the value of = and also find the value of at = .
Solution: Finding tangent to the curve = − , = − :
The point from where the tangent of the curve is passing through at = is
√
( , )= − sin , 1 − cos = − , .
Now, = − sin ⇒ = 1 − cos ,
 = 1 − cos ⇒ = sin .
The slope of the tangent at = is
√
= = = = = √3 .

The equation of the tangent which has slope √3 and is passing through the point
√ √
− , is − = √3 − + ⇒ √3 − = −2
√
Finding :

We have, = , where = .

We have, = =
( )( ) ( )
⇒ = [ ]
( ) ( )
⇒ = [ ]
=

Therefore, = = = −( )
.

⇒ =− =− = −4 .

P4: Find an equation of the tangent to the curve = − , = at the point

defined by the value of =− and also find the value of at =− .
Solution: Finding tangent to the curve = − , = :
The point from where the tangent of the curve is passing through at =− is
( , ) = sec − − 1, tan − = (1, −1).
Now, = sec −1⇒ = 2 sec tan ,
= tan ⇒ = sec .
The slope of the tangent at =− is

= = = cot = cot − =− .

The equation of the tangent which has slope − and is passing through the point (1, −1) is
+ 1 = − ( − 1) ⇒ +2 +1= 0
Finding :

We have, = , where = .

We have, = = cot ⇒ = (− csc ) = − csc

Therefore, = = = − cot .
 ⇒ = − cot − = cot = .

Exercises:
1. Find the equation for the tangents to the curves at the point defined by the given value
of t. Also, find the value of at this point.
a. = cos , = 1 + sin , =
b. = cos 2 , = sin 2 , =
c. = 4 cos , = 2 sin , =
d. = −√ , = , =2
e. = , = √1 − , = −1
f. =√ +1 , =√ , =0
g. = sec − 1 , = tan , =
h. = − sec , = tan , =

3.4. Integration with Parametrized Curves

Learning Objectives:
 To find lengths and areas of surface revolution of parametrized curves.
AND
 To practice related problems.

In this module, we learn how to find lengths and surface areas associated with
parametrized curves.
Lengths of Parametrized Curves
We find an integral for the length of a smooth curve = ( ), = ( ), ≤ ≤ , by
rewriting the integral = ∫ in the following way:
( ) ( )
=∫ =∫ + =∫ ( )
+( )

=∫ +
The only requirement besides the continuity of the integrand is that the point
( , ) = ( ( ), ( )) not trace any portion of the curve more than once as moves
from to .
Length
If a smooth curve = ( ), = ( ), ≤ ≤ , is traversed exactly once as increases
from to , the curve’s length is

=∫ + --- --- -- (1)

Example 1
Find the length of the asteroid
= cos , = sin , 0≤ ≤2
Solution
Because of symmetry, the length is four times the length of the first-quadrant portion.
We have
= [3 cos (− sin )] = 9 cos sin

= [3 sin (cos )] = 9 sin cos

+ = 9 cos sin (cos + sin )

= √9 cos sin
= 3|cos sin | = 3 cos sin
[ ∵ cos sin ≥ 0 0≤ ≤ ]
Therefore,
⁄
Length of the first-quadrant portion = ∫ 3 cos sin
⁄ ⁄
= ∫ sin 2 = − cos 2 =
The length of the asteroid is four times this: 4 = 6.
Centroid
Example 2
Find the centroid of the first-quadrant arc of the asteroid in Example 1.
Solution
We take the curve’s density to be = 1 and calculate the curve’s mass and moments about
the coordinate axes.
The distribution of mass is symmetric about the line = , so ̅ = .
A typical segment of the curve

has mass
 = 1. = + = 3 cos sin
The curve’s mass is
⁄ ⁄
=∫ = ∫ 3 cos sin =
The curve’s moment about the -axis is
⁄
=∫ =∫ sin ∙ 3 cos sin
⁄
⁄
= 3∫ sin cos =3∙ =
/
Hence = = =
/

The centroid is the point , .

Area of a Surface of Revolution
For smooth parametrized curves, the length formula in equation (1) leads to the following
formulas for surfaces of revolution. The derivations are similar to the derivations of the
Cartesian formulas.
Surface Area
If a smooth curve = ( ), = ( ), ≤ ≤ , is traversed exactly once as increases
from to , then the areas of the surfaces generated by revolving the curve about the
coordinate axes are as follows.
1. Revolution about the -axis ( ≥ 0):

=∫ 2 +

2. Revolution about the -axis ( ≥ 0):

=∫ 2 +
As with length, we can calculate surface area from any convenient parametrization that
meets the stated criteria.
Example 3
The standard parametrization of the circle of radius 1 centered at the point (0,1) in the -
plane is = cos , = 1 + sin , 0≤ ≤2
Use this parametrization to find the area of the surface swept out by revolving the circle
about the -axis.
We evaluate the formula

=∫ 2 +
=∫ 2 (1 + sin ) (− sin ) + (cos )
= 2 ∫ (1 + sin ) = 2 [ − cos ] =4

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find the length of the curve
= , = , ≤ ≤√ .
Solution: We have, = , = , 0 ≤ ≤ √3
⇒ =3 , =3

= + = (3 ) + (3 ) =3 √ +1
√
Therefore, the length of the curve, =∫
√ √
⇒ = 3 +1 . = + 13 .

Let = +1⇒ =2 . ⇒ =3 .
When = 0 ⇒ = 1 and = √3 ⇒ = 4.
3
∴ = √ . = = 8−1= 7
2
P1: Find the length of the curve
( ) ⁄
= , = , ≤ ≤ .
( ) ⁄
Solution: We have, = , = , 0≤ ≤4
⁄ ⁄
⇒ = , = ∙ ∙ (2 + 1 ) ∙ 2 = (2 + 1 )

= + = + ((2 + 1) ⁄ )
= √ +2 +1 = ( + 1) = ( + 1)
Therefore, the length of the curve, = ∫

⇒ = ( + 1) . = + = 12 − 0 = 12
2
IP2: Find the length of the curve
= , = + , ≤ ≤ .
Solution: We have, = cos , = + sin , 0≤ ≤
⇒ = − sin , = 1 + cos

= + = (− sin ) + (1 + cos )
= √sin + 1 + cos + 2 cos = 2(1 + cos )
Therefore, the length of the curve, =∫ 2(1 + cos ) .
( )( )
⇒ = √2 ∫ (1 + cos ) . = √2 ∫ .
( )

= √2 ∫ ( )
. = √2 ∫ ( )
.

= √2 ∫ .
√
Let, 1 − cos = ⇒ sin . =
When = 0 ⇒ = 0 and = ⇒ =2
∴ = √2 ∫ = √2 ∫ . = 2√2 = 2√2 √2 = 4
√
P2: Find the length of the curve
= + , = − , ≤ ≤ .
Solution: We have,
= 8 cos + 8 sin , = 8 sin − 8 cos , 0 ≤ ≤
⇒ = −8 sin + 8(sin + cos ) = 8 cos
and = 8 cos − 8(cos − sin ) = 8 sin

= + = (8 cos ) + (8 sin )
= 8 √cos + sin =8
Therefore, the length of the curve, =∫ =∫ 8 .

⇒ = 8∫ . =8 =4 =
IP3: Find the centroid of the arc of the curve in the given interval.
= cos , = sin , 0≤ ≤
2
Solution: We have, = cos , = sin , 0≤ ≤
⇒ = − sin , = cos
We take the curve’s density to be = 1 and calculate the curve’s mass and moments about
the coordinate axes.
The distribution of mass is symmetric about the line = , so ̅ = .
A typical segment of the curve has mass

= 1. = +
= (− sin ) + (cos ) =
The curve’s mass is
⁄ ⁄
=∫ =∫ =[ ] ⁄ =
The curve’s moment about the -axis is
⁄
=∫ = ∫ sin
⁄
= [− cos ] = − cos + cos 0 = 1
Hence, = = =

Therefore, the centroid is , .

P3: Find the centroid of the arc of the curve in the given interval.
= , = 1− , −1≤ ≤0
Solution: We have, x = t , y = √1 − t , −1 ≤t ≤0
⇒ =1 , =−
√
We take the curve’s density to be = 1 and calculate the curve’s mass and
moments about the coordinate axes.
The distribution of mass is symmetric about the line = − , so = − ̅ .
A typical segment of the curve has mass

= 1. = +

= 1+ =√
The curve’s mass is
=∫ =∫ √
= [sin ]
= sin 0 − sin (−1) = 0 − − =
The curve’s moment about the -axis is
=∫ = ∫ √1 − √ =∫
=[ ] =1
Hence, = = =

∴ ̅ =− =−
Therefore, the centroid − , .
IP4: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve
= , =2 , 0 ≤ ≤ 1 about the x-axis.
Solution: We have, = , =2 , 0≤ ≤1
⇒ =2 , =2
The area of the surface generated by revolving the curve about the x-axis is

=∫ 2 +
= ∫ 2 (2 ) (2 ) + (2 )
=4 ∫ 2 √ +1
Let + 1 = ⇒ 2 . =
When = 0 ⇒ = 1 and = 1 ⇒ =2
⇒ =4 ∫ √ =4 ∙ ∙
= 2√2 − 1
P4: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve
⁄
= , = 2√ , 0 ≤ ≤ √3 about the y-axis.
⁄
Solution: We have, = , = 2√ , 0 ≤ ≤ √3
⇒ = ⁄ , =
The area of the surface generated by revolving about the y-axis is

=∫ 2 +
√ ⁄ ⁄
=∫ 2 ( ) +
√ ⁄ √ √
= ∫ = ∫ √ +1
√
Let +1= ⇒2 . = ⇒ . =
When = 0 ⇒ = 1 and = √3 ⇒ =4
⇒ = ∫ √ = ∫ √
⁄
= = [8 − 1 ] =
Exercises:
1. Find the lengths of parametrized curves.
a. = 1 − , = 2+3 , − ≤ ≤1
( )
b. = , = + , 0≤ ≤3
2. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve
= + √2 , = + √2 , −√2 ≤ ≤ √2 about the y-axis.
3. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving one arch of the cycloid
= ( − sin ) , = (1 − cos ) , 0 ≤ ≤ 2 about the x-axis.

3.5. Polar Coordinates

Learning Objectives:
 To define polar coordinates of a point
 To find all polar coordinates of a given point
 To write Cartesian equivalent of a polar equation and vice versa
AND
 To practice related problems

In this unit, we study polar coordinates and their relation to Cartesian coordinates. While a
point in the plane has just one pair of Cartesian coordinates, it has infinitely many pairs of
polar coordinates.
Definition
To define polar coordinates, we first fix an origin , called the pole and an initial ray
from .
Then each point can be located by assigning to it a polar coordinate pair ( , ) in which
gives the directed distance from to and gives the directed angle from the initial ray to
ray .
As in trigonometry, is positive when measured counterclockwise and negative when
measured clockwise. The angle associated with a given point is not unique. For instance,
the point 2 units from the origin along the ray = has polar coordinates = 2, = .
It also has coordinates = 2, =− .

Negative Values of
There are occasions when we wish to allow to be negative. That is why we use directed
distance in ( , ). The point (2, ) can be reached by turning rad counterclockwise
from the initial ray and going forward 2 units.

It can also be reached by turning rad counterclockwise from the initial ray and going
backward 2 units. So, the point also has polar coordinates = −2, = .
Example 1
Find all the polar coordinates of the point (2, ).
Solution
We sketch the initial ray of the coordinate system, draw the ray from the origin that makes
an angle of rad with the initial ray and mark the point (2, ).

We then find the angles for the other coordinate pairs of in which = 2 and = −2.
For = 2, the complete list of angles is
, ± 2 , ± 4 , ± 6 ,⋯
For = −2, the angles are
− ,− ± 2 ,− ± 4 ,− ± 6 ,⋯
The corresponding coordinate pairs of are
2, + 2 , = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
and −2, − +2 , = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
When = 0, the formulas give 2, and −2, − . When = 1, they give
2, and −2, , and so on.
Elementary Coordinate Equations and Inequalities
If we hold fixed at a constant value of = ≠ 0, the point ( , ) will lie | | units from
the origin . As varies over an interval of length 2 , then traces a circle of radius | |
centered at .

If we hold fixed at a constant value of = , and let vary between −∞ and ∞, the
point ( , ) traces the line through that makes an angle of measure with the initial
ray.
Equation Graph
= Circle of radius | |centered at
= Line through making an angle with the initial ray.
Example 2
a) = 1 and = −1 are equations for the circle of radius 1 centered at .
b) = , = , and = − are equations for the line in example 1.
Equations of the form = and = can be combined to define regions, segments, and
rays.
Example 3
Graph the set of points whose polar coordinates satisfy the following conditions.
a) 1 ≤ ≤ 2 and 0 ≤ ≤
b) −3 ≤ ≤ 2 and =
c) ≤ 0 and =
d) ≤ ≤ (no restric on on )
Solution : The graphs are shown in the figure below.
Cartesian Versus Polar Coordinates
When we use both polar and Cartesian coordinates in a plane, we place the two origins
together and take the initial ray as the positive -axis. The ray = /2, > 0, becomes
the positive -axis.

The two coordinate systems are then related by the following equations.
= cos , = sin --- --- --- --- (1)
= + , tan = --- --- --- -- (2)
We use equations (1) and (2) to write polar equations in Cartesian form and vice versa.
Example 4
Polar equation Cartesian equivalent
cos = 2 =2
cos sin = 4 =4
cos − sin =1 − =1
= 1 + 2 cos −3 −4 −1= 0
= 1 − cos + +2 +2 +2 − =0
From this example, we see that we are better off with polar coordinates for some curves.
Example 5
Find a polar equation for the circle + ( − 3) = 9

Solution
+ −6 +9= 9
⇒ + −6 = 0
⇒ − 6 sin = 0
⇒ =0 − 6 sin = 0
Both possibilities are included in = 6 sin
Example 6
Replace the following polar equations by equivalent Cartesian equations, and identify their
graphs.
a) cos = −4
b) = 4 cos
c) =
Solution
We use the substitution cos = , sin = , = + .
a) cos = −4
The Cartesian equation: = −4
The graph : Vertical line through = −4 on the
-axis
b) = 4 cos
The Cartesian equation:
= 4 cos
⇒ + =4
⇒ −4 + =0
⇒ −4 +4+ =4
⇒ ( − 2) + =4
The Graph: Circle, radius 2, center (ℎ, ) = (2,0)
c) =
The Cartesian equation:
(2 cos − sin ) = 4
⇒ 2 cos − sin = 4
⇒ 2 − =4
⇒ =2 −4
The graph: Line, slope = 2, -intercept = −4

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find all polar coordinates of the point 3, − .
Solution: We find the angles for the other coordinate pairs of 3, − in which
= 3 and = −3.
For = 3, the complete list of angles are , − , − ± 2 , − ± 4 , − ± 6 , ⋯
For = −3, the angles are, , ±2 , ±4 , ± 6 ,⋯
The corresponding coordinate pairs of 3, − are
3, − + 2 , = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
and −3, + 2 , = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
The above are same as
3, − + 2 , = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
and −3, − + (2 + 1) , = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
P1: Find all polar coordinates of the point 3, .
Solution: We find the angles for the other coordinate pairs of 3, in which
= 3 and = −3.
For = 3, the complete list of angles is , ± 2 , ± 4 , ± 6 , ⋯
For = −3, the angles are − ,− ± 2 ,− ± 4 ,− ± 6 ,⋯
The corresponding coordinate pairs of 3, are
3, + 2 , = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
and −3, − + 2 , = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
The above are same as
3, + 2 , = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
and −3, + (2 + 1) , = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯
IP2: Graph the set of points whose polar coordinates satisfy the inequalities:
≤ ≤ ; ≤ ≤
Solution:

P2: Graph the set of points whose polar coordinates satisfy the inequalities:
− ≤ ≤ ; ≤ ≤
Solution:
 IP3: Replace the polar equation + = by equivalent Cartesian
equation. Then describe or identify the graph.
Solution: We have, + 2 cos sin = 1
⇒ + + 2( cos )( sin ) = 1
⇒ + +2 = 1
⇒( + ) =1
⇒ + = ±1
These are two parallel lines with slope −1 and y-intercepts ±1.
P3: Replace the polar equation = by equivalent Cartesian equation. Then
describe or identify the graph.
Solution: We have, = 4 tan sec
⇒ =4
⇒ cos = 4 sin
⇒ cos = 4 sin
⇒ =4
It is a parabola with vertex (0,0) which opens upward.
IP4: Replace the Cartesian equation + + =
by equivalent polar equation.
Solution: We have, + + =1
⇒ + + =1
⇒ + ( cos )( sin ) = 1
⇒ + cos sin = 1
⇒ (1 + cos sin ) = 1
P4: Replace the Cartesian equation ( − ) + ( + ) =
by equivalent polar equation.
Solution: We have, ( − 3) + ( + 1) = 4
⇒ −6 +9+ +2 +1=4
⇒ + −6 +2 +6= 0
⇒ − 6 cos + 2 sin + 6 = 0
Exercises:
I. Which polar coordinate pairs label the same point?
a. (−3,0)
b. 2,
c. 2, −
d. (− , )
e. ( , + )
f.
II. Find the all polar coordinates of each point given below.
a. (2,0)
b. 2,
c. −2,
d. −3,
 e. −3, −
III. Find the Cartesian coordinates of the points given below.
a. √2,
b. (1,0)
c. 0,
d. −3,
e. 5, tan
IV. Graph the sets of points whose polar coordinates satisfy the equations and inequalities
given below
a. = 2
b. = , −1 ≤ ≤ 3
c. = , ≥0
d. 0 ≤ ≤ , ≥ 0
e. 0 ≤ ≤ , = 1
V. Replace the polar equations by equivalent Cartesian
equations. Then describe or identify the graph.
a. cos = 2
b. sin = −1
c. sin = 0
d. cos = 0
e. = 4 csc
f. = −3 sec
g. cos + sin = 1
h. sin = cos
i. =1
j. = 4 sin
k. =
l. sin 2 = 2
m. = cot csc
n. = csc
o. sin = ln + ln cos
p. cos = sin
q. = −4 cos
r. = −6 sin
s. = 8 sin
t. = 3 cos
u. = 2 cos + 2 sin
v. = 2 cos − sin
w. sin + = 2
x. sin − =5
VI. Replace the Cartesian equations by equivalent polar equations.
 a. − = 3
b. + =4
c. − =1
d. + =1
e. =2
f. =4
g. ( − 5) + = 25
h. ( + 2) + ( − 5) = 16

3.6. Graphing in Polar Coordinates

Learning Objectives:
 To learn techniques for graphing equations in polar coordinates.
 To find slope of the polar curve.
 To sketch the graphs of some polar curves.
AND
 To practice related problems.

In this module, we learn techniques for graphing equations in polar coordinates.

Symmetry
Figure below illustrates the standard polar coordinate tests for symmetry.

Symmetry Tests for Polar Graphs

1. Symmetry about the x-axis: If the point ( , ) lies on the graph, the point ( , − ) or
(− , − ) lies on the graph (figure a).
2. Symmetry about the y-axis: If the point ( , ) lies on the graph, the point ( , − ) or
(− , − ) lies on the graph (figure b).
3. Symmetry about the origin: If the point ( , ) lies on the graph, the point (− , ) or
( , + ) lies on the graph (figure c)
Slope
The slope of a polar curve = ( ) is given by , not by = . We think of the graph
of as the graph of the parame
tric equations
= cos = ( ) cos , = sin = ( ) sin
If is a differentiable function of , then so are and and, when ≠ 0, we can calculate
from the parametric formula
 ( ( ) ) ( )
= = =
( ( ) ) ( )
Slope of the Curve = ( )
( ) ( )
= ( ) ( )
--- ----- -- (1)
( , )
provided ≠ 0 at ( , ).
If the curve = ( ) passes through the origin at = , then ( ) = 0, and equation
(1) gives
( )
= ( )
= tan
( , )
If the graph of = ( ) passes through the origin at the value = , the slope of the
curve there is tan . A polar curve may pass through the origin more than once, with
different slopes at different -values.
Example 1: Graph the curve = 1 − cos . ---- ----- ---- (2)
Solution
The curve is symmetric about the -axis because
( , ) lies on the curve (2) ⇒ = 1 − cos ⇒ = 1 − cos(− )
⇒ ( , − ) lies on the curve (2)
As increases from 0 to , cos decreases from 1 to − 1, and = 1 − cos increases
from a minimum value of 0 to a maximum value of 2. As continues on from to 2 , cos
increases from −1 back to 1 and decreases from 2 back to 0. The curve starts to repeat
when = 2 because the cosine has period 2 .
The curve leaves the origin with slope tan(0) = 0 and returns to the origin with
slope tan(2 ) = 0.
We make a table of values from = 0 to = , plot the points, draw a smooth curve
through them with a horizontal tangent at the origin, and reflect the curve across the -axis
to complete the graph.

The curve is called a cardioid because of its heart shape.

Example 2 : Graph the curve = 4 cos . ---- ----- ---- (3)
Solution : The equation r = 4 cos θ requires cos θ ≥ 0, so we get the entire graph by
π π
running θ from – to . The curve is symmetric about the x-axis because
( , ) on the curve (3) ⇒ = 4 cos ⇒ = 4 cos(− )
⇒ ( , − ) on the curve (3)
The curve is also symmetric about the origin because ( , ) on the graph ⇒ = 4 cos
⇒ (− ) = 4 cos( )
⇒ (− , ) on the graph
Together, these two imply symmetry about the -axis.
The curve passes through the origin when = − and = .
It has a vertical tangent both times because tan is infinite.
For each value of in the interval between – and ,
the formula = 4 cos gives two values of :
= ±2√cos
We make a table of values, plot the corresponding points, and use information about
symmetry and tangents to guide us in connecting the points with a smooth curve.

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Sketch the graphs of
= 1 + cos , = 1 − cos , = 1 − sin , = 1 + sin
Solution:
P1: Identify the symmetry of the curve = 1 − sin and sketch the graph.
Solution: We have, = 1 − sin ---- ---- ----- (1)
( , ) lies on the curve (1) ⇒ = 1 − sin
⇒ = 1 − sin( − )
⇒ ( , − ) lies on the curve (1)
Therefore, the curve = 1 − sin is symmetric about the y-axis.
As increases from – to , sin increases from -1 to 1 and = 1 − sin decreases from
a maximum value of 2 to a minimum value 0.
The curve reaches the origin with the slope tan = ∞. We prepare a table of values from
= − to = , plot the points, draw a smooth curve through them with a vertical
tangent at the origin and reflect the curve across the y-axis to complete the curve.
= −

− −1 2
2
√3
− − 1.86
3 2
1
− − 1.70
4 √2
1
− − 1.5
6 2
0 0 1
1
0.5
6 2
1
0.29
4 √2
√3
0.13
3 2

2 1 0
IP2: Sketch the curve = (four-leaved rose)
Solution: We have, = cos 2 -------------------- (1)
The curve (1) is symmetric about the -axis because
( , ) lies on the curve (1) ⇒ = cos 2
⇒ = cos 2(− )
⇒ ( , − ) lies on the curve (1)
The curve (1) is symmetric about the -axis because
( , ) lies on the curve (1) ⇒ = cos 2
⇒ = cos 2( − )
⇒ ( , − ) lies on the curve (1)
And the curve (1) is symmetric about the origin because
( , ) lies on the curve (1) ⇒ = cos 2
⇒ = cos 2( + )
⇒ ( , + ) lies on the curve (1)
As increases from 0 to , = cos 2 decreases from a maximum value of 1 to a
minimum value 0.
As increases from to , = cos 2 increases from a maximum value of 0 to a minimum
value −1.
As increases from to , = cos 2 increases from a minimum value of −1 to a
maximum value 0.
As increases from to , = cos 2 increases from a minimum value of 0 to a
maximum value 1.
The curve reaches the origin with the slope tan = 1, tan = −1, tan = 0. We prepare
a table of values from = 0 to = , plot the points, draw a smooth curve and reflect
the curve across the x-axis and y-axis to complete the curve.
=
0 0 1
0.70
8 4
0
4 2
 3 3
−0.70
8 4
−1
2
5 5
−0.70
8 4
3 3
0
4 2
7 7
0.70
8 4
2 1

P2: Sketch the curve = (four-leaved rose)

Solution: We have, = sin 2 -------------------- (1)
The curve (1) is symmetric about the -axis because
( , ) lies on the curve (1) ⇒ = sin 2
⇒ − = sin 2( − )
⇒ (− , − ) lies on the curve (1)
The curve (1) is symmetric about the -axis because
( , ) lies on the curve (1) ⇒ = sin 2
⇒ − = sin 2(− )
⇒ (− , − ) lies on the curve (1)
And the curve (1) is symmetric about the origin because
( , ) lies on the curve (1) ⇒ = sin 2
⇒ = sin 2( + )
⇒ ( , + ) lies on the curve (1)
As increases from 0 to , = sin 2 increases from a minimum value of 0 to a maximum
value 1.
As increases from to , = sin 2 decreases from a maximum value of 1 to a minimum
value 0.
As increases from to , = sin 2 decreases from a maximum value of 0 to a
minimum value −1.
As increases from to , = sin 2 increases from a minimum value of −1 to a
maximum value 0.
The curve reaches the origin with the slope tan 0 = 0, tan = ∞, tan = 0. We prepare a
table of values from = 0 to = , plot the points, draw a smooth curve and reflect the
curve across the x-axis to complete the curve.
=
0 0 0
0.70
8 4
1
4 2
3 3
0.70
8 4
0
2
5 5
−0.70
8 4
3 3
−1
4 2
7 7
−0.70
8 4
2 0

IP3: Find the slope of the curve =− + at the point = .

Solution: We have, = −1 + cos ; =
At = , = −1 + cos = −1 + 0 = −1
The point is ( , ) = −1, .
We have = −1 + cos ⇒ = − sin
 ( )
The slope of the curve = =( )

=( )
( ) ( ).
At −1, , slope = =( ). ( ).
= −1
( )
P3: Find the slope of the curve = − + at the point = .
Solution: We have, = −1 + sin ; =0
At = , = −1 + sin = −1 + 0 = −1
The point is ( , ) = (−1, ).
We have = −1 + sin ⇒ = cos
( )
The slope of the curve = =( )

=
( ) .( ) ( ).( )
At (−1, ) , slope = ( )
= ( ).
=1
IP4: Find the slope of the curve = at the point =− .
Solution: We have, = sin 2 ; =−
At = − , = sin 2 − = sin − = −1
The point is ( , ) = −1, − .
We have = sin 2 ⇒ = 2 cos 2
( )
The slope of the curve = =( )

=
( )
At −1, − , slope =
( )

= =1
–
P4: Find the slope of the curve = at the point = .
Solution: We have, = cos 2 ; =0
At = 0 , = cos 2(0) = cos 0 = 1
The point is ( , ) = (1,0).
We have = cos 2 ⇒ = −2 sin 2
( )
The slope of the curve = =( )

=
.
At (1,0) , slope = .
=
Therefore slope is not defined at = 0.
 Exercises:
1. Identify the symmetries of the curves given below. Then sketch the curves.
a. = 1 + cos
b. = 1 + sin
c. = cos
d. = sin
e. = − cos
f. = − sin
2. Find the slopes of the curves given below at the given points.
a. = −1 + cos ; =−
b. = −1 + sin ; =0
c. = sin 2 ; = ,±
d. = cos 2 ; =± ,

3.7. Polar equations for Lines and Circles

Learning Objectives:
 To derive polar equations for lines and circles
AND
 To practice related problems

Lines
Suppose the perpendicular from the origin to line meets at the point ( , ),
with ≥ 0.

Then, if ( , ) is any other point on , the points , , and are the vertices of a right
triangle, from which we can read the relation
= cos( − ) ⇒ cos( − ) =
The Standard Polar Equation for Lines
If the point ( , ) is the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to the line ,
and ≥ 0, then an equation for is
cos( − ) =
Example 1
Find a Cartesian equation for the line in figure below.
Solution
The perpendicular from the origin (pole) to the line meets the line at 2, .
Therefore the polar equation of the line is
cos − = 2 ------- (1)
⇒ cos cos + sin sin =2
√
⇒ cos + sin =2
√
⇒ + =2
∴ + √3 = 4 is the Cartesian equation of (1)
Circles
To find a polar equation for the circle of radius centered at ( , ), we let ( , ) be a
point on the circle and apply the Law of Cosines to triangle .

This gives
= + − 2 cos( − ) --- --- -- (2)
If the circle passes through the origin, then = and equation (2) simplifies to
= + − 2 cos( − )
⇒ = 2 cos( − )
⇒ = 2 cos( − ) --- --- --- --- --- (3)
If the circle’s center lies on the positive -axis, = 0 and equation (3) becomes
= 2 cos --- --- --- --- --- (4)
If the circle’s center lies on the positive -axis, = /2, cos( − ) = sin , and equation
(3) becomes, = 2 sin --- --- --- --- --- (5)
Equations for circles through the origin centered on the negative - and -axes can be
obtained from equations (4) and (5) by replacing with – .

Example 2 Circles through the origin

Radius Center Equation
(polar coordinates)
3 (3,0) = 6 cos
2 (2, ) = 4 sin
2
1/2 1 = − cos
(− , 0)
2
1 (−1, ) = −2 sin
2

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find polar and Cartesian equations for the line

Solution:
Let the point ( , ) be the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to the line ,
and ≥ 0, then the polar equation for is
cos( − ) =
From the figure, = 5, .
Therefore, the polar equation for is
√
cos − =5⇒ cos cos + sin sin =5⇒ cos + sin =5⇒
√3 cos + sin = 10
The polar equation for is √3 cos + sin = 10
The Cartesian equation for is √3 + = 10
P1: Find polar and Cartesian equations for the line

Solution: Let the point ( , ) be the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to the
line , and ≥ 0, then the polar equation for is
cos( − ) =
From the figure, = 3, .
Therefore, the polar equation for is
cos − = 3 ⇒ cos cos + sin sin =3
√
⇒ cos − + sin − =3

The polar equation for is − cos − √3 sin = 6.

The Cartesian equation of is + √3 + 6 = 0.
IP2: Find a polar equation in the form ( − )= for the line √ +√ = .
Solution: We have √2 + √2 = 6
⇒ √2 + √2 =
√ √ √ √

⇒ + =3 ⇒ cos + sin = 3
√ √
⇒ cos − = 3 (∵ = cos , = sin )
P2: Find a polar equation in the form ( − )= for the line =− .
Solution: We have = −5 ⇒ sin = −5 ⇒ − sin = 5
⇒ sin(− ) = 5 ⇒ cos − (− ) = 5
⇒ cos + = 5
Aliter:
= −5 is a line parallel to x-axis at a distance 5 units from it. The foot of the perpendicular
from the origin is 5, − in polar coordinates.
∴ The polar equation of the line = −5 is
cos − − =5 i.e., cos + =5
IP3: Find polar and Cartesian equations for the circle

Solution:
The polar equation of a circle of radius through the origin with center on the positive x-
axis is = 2 cos
Given, radius of the circle, = 4 and
Therefore, the polar equation for the circle as shown in the figure is = 2(4) cos
⇒ = 8 cos
The Cartesian equation for the circle is
= 8 cos ⇒ = 8 cos ⇒ + −8 =0
i.e., ( − 4) + = 16
P3: Find polar and Cartesian equation for the circle

Solution:
The polar equation of a circle of radius through the origin with center on the positive y-
axis is = 2 sin
Given, radius of the circle, = √2
Therefore, the polar equation for the circle as shown in the figure is = 2 √2 sin
⇒ = 2√2 sin
The Cartesian equation for the circle is
= 2√2 sin ⇒ = 2√2 sin ⇒ + − 2√2 = 0
i.e., + − √2 = 2
IP4: Find polar equation for the circle + + = .
Solution: We have, + 2 + =0
⇒ ( + 1) + = 1 ----- ----- ---- (1)
Center = (−1,0) and radius = 1
Notice that the circle (1) passes through the origin with center on the negative x-axis and
radius = 1 . Therefore the polar equation of (1) is = −2 cos = −2 cos .
P4: Find polar equation for the circle + + = .
Solution: We have, + + =0
⇒ + + = -------- ------- (1)
Center = 0, − and radius =
Notice that the circle (1) passes through the origin with center on the negative y-axis and
radius = . Therefore the polar equation of (1) is = −2 sin = − sin .
Exercises:
1. Find polar and Cartesian equations for the lines given below.

2. Sketch and find Cartesian equations for the lines given below.
a. cos − = √2
b. cos + =1
c. cos − =3
d. cos + =2
3. Find a polar equation in the form cos( − ) = for the lines
a. √3 − = 1
b. = −4
4. Find the polar and Cartesian equations for the circles
a.

5. Sketch the circles and give polar coordinates for their centers and radii.
a. = 4 cos
b. = 6 sin
c. = −2 cos
d. = −8 sin
 6. Find polar equations for the circles given below.
a. ( − 6) + = 36
b. ( + 2) + =4
c. + ( − 5) = 25
d. + ( + 7) = 49
e. + − 16 = 0
f. + − =0
Theory Questions:
7. Derive the polar equation of a line.
8. State the standard polar equation of a line.
9. Derive the polar equation of a circle with radius and center at ( , ). Deduce the
polar equation of a circle with radius ; center at ( , ) and passing through the
origin.
10.Deduce the polar equation of a circle of radius through the origin with center on
a. the positive x-axis
b. the positive y-axis
c. the negative x-axis
d. the negative y-axis

3.8. Polar Equations for Conic Sections

Learning objectives:
 To derive Polar equations for parabola, ellipse and hyperbola
AND
 To practice related problems

Polar coordinates are important in astronomy and astronautical engineering because the
ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas along which satellites, moons, planets, and comets
approximately move can all be described with a single relatively simple coordinate
equation. We learn that equation here.
Polar Equation for a Conic:
To find polar equations for ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas, we place one focus at the
origin and the corresponding directrix to the right of the origin along the vertical line
= .
This makes , =
and = − = − cos
The conic’s focus-directrix equation = . then becomes
= ( − cos )
which can be solved for to obtain
= --- ---- --- --- (1)
The equation (1) represents an ellipse if 0 < < 1, a parabola if = 1, and a hyperbola if
> 1. Now, we have ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas all with the same basic equation
in terms of eccentricity and location of the directrix.
Example 1 : Polar Equations of some conics:
= ∶ =
= ∶ =
= ∶ =
Variations of equation (1) will occur from time to time, depending on the location of the
directrix.
If the directrix is the line = − to the left of the origin (the origin is still a focus), we
replace equation (1) by , =
The denominator now has a (−) instead of a (+). If the directrix is either of the lines =
or = − , the equations we get have sines in them instead of cosines, as shown in the
table below.

Example 2 :
Find an equation for the hyperbola with eccentricity 3/2 and directrix = 2.
Solution
We use equation (A) in the table with = 2 and = 3/2 to get
 = =
Example 3
Find the directrix of the parabola
=
Solution
We divide the numerator and denominator by 10 to put the equation in standard form:
=
This is the equation
=
with = 5/2 and = 1. The equation of the directrix is = 5/2.

Polar equation for the ellipse with eccentricity and semi-major axis :
From the ellipse diagram in figure below, we see that is related to the eccentricity and
the semimajor axis by the equation
= − ---- ---- ---- ---- (2)

From this, we find that = (1 − ). Replacing in equation (1) by (1 − ) gives

the standard polar equation for an ellipse.
( )
= --- ---- --- --- (3)
When = 0, equation (3) becomes = , which represents a circle.
Equation (3) is the starting point for calculating planetary orbits.
Example 4
Find a polar equation for an ellipse with semimajor axis 39.44 AU (astronomical units) and
eccentricity 0.25. This is the approximate size of Pluto’s orbit around the sun.
Solution
We use equation (3) with = 39.44 and = 0.25 to find
. ( . ) .
= =
.
At its point of closest approach (perihelion)( . . , = 0), Pluto is
.
= = 29.58
from the sun. At its most distant point (aphelion)( . . , = ), Pluto is
 .
= = 49.3
from the sun.

Example 5
Find the distance from one focus of the ellipse in example 4 to the associated directrix.
Solution
We use equation (2) with = 39.44 and = 0.25 to find
= −
= 39.44 − 0.25 = 147.9
.

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find an equation for the conic section with eccentricity 1 and directrix = .
Solution: We have, eccentricity = 1
and directrix, = 2 ( = ) ⇒ = 2.
So the conic section is a parabola whose axis is x-axis.
Therefore, the polar equation of the given conic section is:
×
= ⇒ = .
⇒ =
P1: Find an equation for the conic section with eccentricity 1 and directrix = .
Solution: We have, eccentricity = 1
and directrix, = 2 ( = ) ⇒ = 2.
So, the conic section is a parabola whose axis is y-axis.
Therefore, its polar equation of the given conic section is:
×
= ⇒ =
.
⇒ =
IP2: Find an equation for the conic section with eccentricity 5 and directrix =− .
Solution: We have, eccentricity = 5
and directrix, = −6 ( = − ) ⇒ = 6.
So the conic section is a hyperbola whose axis is the y-axis.
Therefore, the polar equation of the given conic section is:
×
= ⇒ =
.
⇒ =
P2: Find an equation for the conic section with eccentricity and directrix =− .
Solution: We have, eccentricity =
and directrix, = −2 ( = − ) ⇒ = 2.
So the conic section is an ellipse whose axis is the x-axis.
Therefore, the polar equation of the given conic section is:
×
= ⇒ =
.

⇒ =
IP3: Sketch the parabola. Include the directrix that corresponds to the focus at the origin.
Label the vertex with appropriate polar coordinates.
=
+
Solution: We have, = --------------------------- (1)
We have the basic equation for conic sections
= ------------ (2)
By comparing (1) and (2), we have
eccentricity = 1 and =1⇒ =1
We have the eccentricity 1 and the denominator of (1) is 1 + cos (having positive sign
with cosine function), so the graph of the given equation is a parabola which opens left. So
the directrix is = ⇒ = 1.
The vertex of the parabola is on positive x-axis, so = 0.
Now, = = = . Therefore, the polar coordinates of vertex = , 0 .

P3: Sketch the parabola. Include the directrix that corresponds to the focus at the origin.
Label the vertex with appropriate polar coordinates.
4
=
2 − 2 cos
Solution: We have, = ⇒ = --------------------------- (1)
We have the basic equation for conic sections, = ------------ (2)
By comparing (1) and (2), we have eccentricity = 1 and =2⇒ =2
We have the eccentricity 1 and the denominator of (1) is 1 − cos (having negative sign
with cosine function), so the graph of the given equation is a parabola which opens right. So
the directrix is = − ⇒ = −2.
The vertex of the parabola is on negative x-axis, so = .
Now, = = = 1. Therefore, the polar coordinates of vertex = (1, ).

IP4: Sketch the ellipse. Include the directrix that corresponds to the focus at the origin.
Label the vertex with appropriate polar coordinates. Find the center of the ellipse.
6
=
2 + cos
Solution: We have, = ⇒ = ---------------- (1)

We have the basic equation for conic sections, = ------------ (2)

By comparing (1) and (2), we have eccentricity = and =3⇒ =6
We have the eccentricity and the denominator of (1) is 1 + cos (having positive sign
with cosine function), so the graph of the given equation is an ellipse whose center lies on
the negative x-axis ( = ). So the directrix is = ⇒ = 6.
We have, = (1 − ) ⇒ = 4
The vertices of the ellipse in polar coordinates are ( , 0) and ( , ) i.e., .(2,0) and (6, ).
The center of the ellipse in polar coordinates is ( , ) = (2, )
P4: Sketch the ellipse. Include the directrix that corresponds to the focus at the origin. Label
the vertex with appropriate polar coordinates. Find the center of the ellipse.
25
=
10 − 5 cos
Solution: We have, = ⇒ = ---------------- (1)

We have the basic equation for conic sections, = ------------ (2)

By comparing (1) and (2), we have eccentricity = and = ⇒ = 5.
We have the eccentricity and the denominator of (1) is 1 − cos (having negative sign
with cosine function), so the graph of the given equation is an ellipse whose center lies on
the positive x-axis ( = 0). So the directrix is
= − ⇒ = −5.
We have, = (1 − ) ⇒ =
The vertices of the ellipse in polar coordinates are ( , 0) and ( , ) i.e., .(5,0) and , .
The center of the ellipse in polar coordinates is ( , 0) = ,0

Exercises:
1. Given the eccentricities of conic sections with one focus at the origin, along with the
directrix corresponding to that focus. Find a polar equation for each conic section.
i) = 2, = 4
ii) = , = 1
iii) = , = −10
iv) = , = 6
2. Sketch the parabolas and ellipses given below. Include the directrix that corresponds to
the focus at the origin. Label the vertices with appropriate polar coordinates. Label the
centers of the ellipses as well.
i) =
ii) =
iii) =
iv) =
3.9. Area in Polar Coordinates
Learning Objectives:
 To derive a formula for the area of a plane region in polar coordinates
 To compute the areas of plane regions of some polar curves
 To compute the area between polar curves
And
 To practice related problems

In this module, we learn how to calculate areas of plane regions in polar coordinates.
Area in the plane:

The region is bounded by the rays = and = and the curve = ( ). We

approximate the region with nonoverlapping fan-shaped circular sectors based on a
partition of angle . The typical sector has radius = ( ) and central angle of
radian measure ∆ . Its area is
= ∆ = ( ) ∆
The area of region is approximately, ∑ =∑ ( ) ∆
If is continuous, we expect the approximations to improve as ‖ ‖ → 0, and we are led to
the following formula for the region’s area:
= lim‖ ‖→ ∑ ( ) ∆ =∫ ( )
Area of the Fan-shaped Region between the Origin and the Curve = ( ), ≤ ≤
=∫
This is the integral of the area differential =
Example 1
Find the area of the region in the plane enclosed by the cardioid = 2(1 + cos ).
Solution
We graph the cardioid and determine that the radius sweeps out the region exactly
once as runs from 0 to 2 .

The area is therefore

1 1
= ∙ 4(1 + cos )
2 2

= 2(1 + 2 cos + cos )

1 + cos 2
= 2 + 4 cos + 2 ∙
2

= (3 + 4 cos + cos 2 )

= 3 + 4 sin +
= 6 −0= 6
Example 2
Find the area inside the smaller loop of the limacon = 2 cos + 1.
Solution

The polar curve passes through the pole when

= 0 ⇒ 2 cos + 1 = 0
⇒ cos = −
⇒ = ,
We see that the smaller loop is traced out by the point ( , ) as increases from = 2 /3
to = 4 /3. Since the curve is symmetric about the -axis, we may calculate the area of
the shaded half of the inner loop by integrating from = 2 /3 to = . The area we seek
will be twice the resulting integral:
=2∫ ⁄ =∫ ⁄
Since = (2 cos + 1) = 4 cos + 4 cos + 1
= 4∙ + 4 cos + 1
= 2 + 2 cos 2 + 4 cos + 1
= 3 + 2 cos 2 + 4 cos
we have = ∫ ⁄ (3 + 2 cos 2 + 4 cos )
= [3 + sin 2 + 4 sin ] ⁄
√ √ √
= (3 ) − 2 − + 4 ∙ = −
To find the area of a region like the one in the figure below, which lies between two polar
curves = ( ) and = ( ) from = to = , we subtract the integral of ( )
from the integral of ( ) .

This leads to the following formula:

Area of the Region ≤ ( ) ≤ ≤ ( ), ≤ ≤

= − = ( − )
Example 3
Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle = 1 and outside the cardioid
= 1 − cos .
Solution
We sketch the region to determine its boundaries and find the limits of integration.
To find the points of the intersection of the curves,
1 − cos = 1 ⇒ cos = 0 ⇒ = ±
The points of intersection of the curves are 1, , 1, − .
The outer curve is = 1, the inner curve is = 1 − cos , and runs from – /2 to /2.
The area is
=∫ ( − ) = 2∫ ( − )

= ∫ 1 − (1 − 2 cos + cos )
= ∫ (2 cos − cos )
=∫ 2 cos −

= 2 sin − − =2−

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find the area of the region inside the oval limacon = + .
Solution:
Limacon:

The area of the limacon = 4 + 2 cos is

=∫ =∫ ∙ (4 + 2 cos ) =∫ 2(4 + 4 cos + cos )
=∫ 8 + 8 cos + 2 ∙

= ∫ (9 + 8 cos + cos 2 ) = 9 + 8 sin +

= 18 − 0 = 18
P1: Find the area of the region inside the cardioid = ( + ) , > .
Solution:
Cardioid:

The area of the cardioid = (1 + cos ) is

1
= = (1 + cos )
2 2
 = ∫ (1 + 2 cos + cos )
= ∫ 1 + 2 cos +
= ∫ (3 + 4 cos + cos 2 )
= 3 + 4 sin +

= [6 − 0 ] =
IP2: Determine the area of the region inside one leaf of the four-leaved rose = .

Solution:
The given polar curve is a four leaved rose. This curve passes through the pole when
cos 2 = 0 ⇒ 2 = (2 + 1) ⇒ = (2 + 1)
⇒ = , , , =−
The area of one leaf of the four-leaved rose = cos 2 is
=∫ = ∫ cos 2

= ∫ = + = + =

P2: Determine the area of the inner loop of = +

Solution:
The given polar curve is a limacon with an inner loop. The limacon passes through the pole
when
 2 + 4 cos = 0 ⇒ cos = − ⇒ = ,
The area of the inner loop of = 2 + 4 cos is
=∫ = ∫ (2 + 4 cos )

= 2 ∫ (1 + 4 cos + 4 cos )

=2∫ 1 + 4 cos + 4.

= 2[3 + 4 sin + sin 2 ]

√ √
= 2 4 − 2√3 + − 2 + 2√3 − = 4 − 6√3
IP3: Find the area of the region shared by the circles = and = .
Solution: The area of the region shared by the circles = 1 and = 2 sin is shaded in
the figure given below.

We have = 1 and = 2 sin

The points of intersection of the curves is given by
1 5
1 = 2 sin ⇒ sin = ⇒ =
2 6 6
Therefore, the points of intersection are 1, and 1, .

The area of the region shaded in orange is given by

1
[(2 sin ) − (1) ]
2
The area of the shared region colored in blue is
= (1 ) − ∫ [(2 sin ) − (1) ]

= − ∫ (4 sin − 1)
 = − ∫ (2(1 − cos 2 ) − 1)

= − ∫ (1 − 2 cos 2 )

= − [ − sin 2 ]
√ √
= − + − −
√
= − + √3 =
P3: Find the area of the region shared by the circles = 2 cos and = 2 sin .
Solution:
The area of the region shared by the circles = 2 cos and = 2 sin is shaded in the
figure given below.

We have = 2 cos and = 2 sin

⇒ 2 cos = 2 sin ⇒ cos = sin ⇒ =
4
The point of intersection is √2 , . The point of intersection (0,0) is found by graphing.
Therefore, the area of the shaded region is
=∫ (2 sin ) +∫ (2 cos )

= ∫ 2 sin + ∫ 2 cos

= ∫ (1 − cos 2 ) + ∫ (1 + cos 2 )

= − + +

= − + − + = −1
IP4:
Determine the area of the region outside = 3 + 2 sin and inside = 2 .
Solution:
The area of the region shared by = 3 + 2 sin and = 2 is shaded in the figure given
below.
We have = 3 + 2 sin and =2
1 7 11
⇒ 3 + 2 sin = 2 ⇒ sin =− ⇒ = −
2 6 6 6
Therefore, the area of the shaded region is
=∫ [(2) − (3 + 2 sin ) ]

=∫ (−5 − 12 sin − 4 sin )

=∫ −5 − 12 sin − 2(1 − cos 2 )

= ∫ (−7 − 12 sin + 2 cos 2 )

= [−7 + 12 cos + sin 2 ]

√ √
= − + 6√3 − − − − 6√3 +
√
= −
P4: Determine the area of the region that lies inside = 3 + 2 sin and
outside = 2 .
Solution:
The area of the region shared by = 3 + 2 sin and = 2 is shaded in the figure given
below.

We have = 3 + 2 sin and =2

 1 7 11
⇒ 3 + 2 sin = 2 ⇒ sin =− ⇒ = −
2 6 6 6
Therefore, the area of the shaded region is
=∫ [(3 + 2 sin ) − (2) ]

=∫ (5 + 12 sin + 4 sin )

= ∫ 5 + 12 sin + 2(1 − cos 2 )

= ∫ (7 + 12 sin − 2 cos 2 )

= [7 − 12 cos − sin 2 ]
√ √
= + 6√3 − − − − 6√3 +
√
= +
Exercises:
1. Find the areas of the regions.
a. Shared by the circle = 2 and the cardioids = 2(1 − cos ).
b. Shared by the cardioids = 2(1 + cos ) and = 2(1 − cos ).
c. Inside the circle = 3 cos and outside the cardioids = (1 + cos ) , > 0.
d. Inside the circle = −2 cos and outside the circle = 1.
e. Inside the circle = 6 above the line = 3 csc .

3.10. Length and Surface Area in Polar Coordinates

Learning Objectives:
 To compute the length of a polar plane curve
 To compute the area of surface of revolution of polar plane curve
AND
 To practice the related problems

In this module, we learn how to calculate lengths of plane curves and areas of surfaces of
revolution of plane curves in polar coordinates.
The Length of a Curve
We can obtain a polar coordinate formula for the length of a curve = ( ), ≤ ≤ ,
= cos = ( ) cos
by parametrizing the curve as ≤ ≤ ----- ----- (1)
= sin = ( ) sin
The parametric length formula then gives the length as

=∫ + --- --- (2)

When equations (1) are substituted for and in equation (2), it becomes =

∫ +
Length
If = ( ) has a continuous first derivative for ≤ ≤ and if the point ( , ) traces
the curve = ( ) exactly once as runs from to , then the length of the curve is

=∫ + ---- ---- ---- (3)

Example 1
Find the length of the cardioid = 1 − cos .
Solution
We sketch the cardioid to determine the limits of integration.

The point ( , ) traces the curve once, counterclockwise as runs from 0 to 2 , so these
are the values we take for and .
With = 1 − cos , = sin

we have + = (1 − cos ) + (sin )

= 1 − 2 cos + cos + sin = 2 − 2 cos
and

=∫ + =∫ √2 − 2 cos

=∫ 4 sin =∫ 2 sin

=∫ 2 sin sin > 0 0≤ ≤2

= −4 cos =4+4 =8
The Area of a Surface of Revolution
To derive polar coordinate formula for the area of a surface of revolution, we parametrize
the curve = ( ), ≤ ≤ , with equations (1) and apply the surface area equations.
If = ( ) has a continuous first derivative for ≤ ≤ and if the point ( , ) traces
the curve = ( ) exactly once as runs from to , then the areas of the surfaces
generated by revolving the curve about the - and -axes are given by the following
formulas:
1. Revolution about
the -axis ( ≥ 0) = 2 sin +
 2. Revolution about
the -axis ( ≥ 0) = 2 cos +

Example 2
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the right-hand loop of the lemniscate
= cos 2 about the -axis.
Solution
We sketch the loop to determine the limits of integration.

The point ( , ) traces the curve once, counterclockwise as runs from – /4 to /4, so
these are the values we take for and .

First we calculate, 2 cos + = 2 cos +

Since = cos 2 ,
⇒2 = −2 sin 2
⇒ = − sin 2
⇒ = sin 2
We write = ( ) = cos 2 . The square root simplifies to

+ = √cos 2 + sin 2 = 1
All together, we have

=∫ 2 cos +

= ∫ 2 cos . (1)
√ √
= 2 [sin ] =2 + = 2 √2
 PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find the length of the spiral = , ≤ ≤√ .
Solution: We have, = , 0 ≤ ≤ √5
⇒ =2
Therefore, the length of the spiral,
√
=∫ +
√ √
=∫ √ +4 = ∫ | |√ +4
√
=∫ √ +4 [∵ ≥ 0]
Let +4= ⇒2 = ⇒ =
When =0⇒ = 4 and = √5 ⇒ = 9
1 1 2 1 19
∴ = √ = × = [27 − 8] =
2 2 3 3 3
P1: Find the length of the spiral = , ≤ ≤ .
√
Solution: We have, = , 0≤ ≤
√

⇒ =
√
Therefore, the length of the spiral,

= + = = = −1
√2 √2
IP2: Find the length of the curve = √ + , ≤ ≤ √ .
Solution: We have, = √1 + sin 2 , 0 ≤ ≤ √2
⇒ = × cos 2 × 2 =
√ √
Therefore, the length of the curve,
√
=∫ √1 + sin 2 +
√
√
=∫ (1 + sin 2 ) + ( )

√
=∫
√
= √2 ∫
√
= √2 ∫ = √2[ ] √ = 2
P2: Find the length of the curve = √ + , ≤ ≤ √ .
Solution:
We have, = √1 + cos 2 , 0 ≤ ≤ √2
⇒ = × (− sin 2 ) × 2 = −
√ √
Therefore, the length of the curve,
 √
=∫ √1 + cos 2 + −
√
√
=∫ (1 + cos 2 ) +
( )

√
=∫
√
= √2 ∫
√ √
= √2 ∫ = √2[ ] =2
IP3:
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve =√ , ≤ ≤
about the y-axis.
Solution:
We have, = √cos 2 , 0 ≤ ≤
⇒ =−
√
Therefore, the surface area generated by revolving the curve = √cos 2 about the y-axis
is

=∫ 2 cos +

=∫ 2 √cos 2 cos cos 2 +

= 2 ∫ √cos 2 cos
√

= 2 ∫ cos = 2 [sin ] = 2 = √2
√
P3:
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve =√ , ≤ ≤
about the x-axis.
Solution:
We have, = √cos 2 , 0 ≤ ≤
⇒ =−
√
Therefore, the surface area generated by revolving the curve = √cos 2 about the x-axis
is

=∫ 2 sin +

=∫ 2 √cos 2 sin cos 2 +

= 2 ∫ √cos 2 sin
√

= 2 ∫ sin

= 2 [− cos ] = 2 − +1 = 2 − √2
√
IP4: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve = , > ,
≤ ≤ about the y-axis.
Solution:
We have, = 2 cos , > 0 , 0 ≤ ≤
⇒ = −2 sin
Therefore, the surface area generated by revolving the curve = 2 cos
about the y-axis is

=∫ 2 cos +
= ∫ 2 (2 cos ) cos √4 cos 2 + 4 sin 2
= 4 ∫ cos (2 ) [∵ > 0 ]
=8 ∫ =4 +
=2 [2 + sin 2 ] = 2 [2 ] = 4
P4: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve =√ , ≤ ≤
about the x-axis.
Solution: We have, = √2 , 0≤ ≤
√
⇒ = =
√

Therefore, the surface area generated by revolving the curve = √2 about the x-axis is

=∫ 2 sin +

=∫ 2 √2 sin 2 +

= 2√5 ∫ sin
= 2√5 ∫ sin

= 2√5 (sin − cos ) [∵ Integrated by parts]

= √5 +1
Exercises:
1. Find the lengths of the curves.
a. The cardioid, = 1 + cos
b. The curve, = sin , 0≤ ≤ , >0
c. The parabolic segment, = ,0 ≤ ≤
d. The parabolic segment, = , ≤ ≤
e. The curve, = cos , 0≤ ≤
2. Find the area of the surface generated by the revolving the curve = cos 2 about
the x-axis.
4.1. Fundamentals of Matrices
Learning objectives
 To define the matrix, order of a matrix, equality of matrices, negative of a matrix.
 To define the submatrix, transpose, trace of a given matrix
 To study the different types of matrices
AND
 To solve the related problems

Matrices arise naturally in almost all branches of engineering and physical sciences. The
rules defining the operations on matrices are usually called matrix algebra. We shall discuss
matrix algebra and its use in solving linear system of algebraic equations.
Matrix
An × matrix is an arrangement of elements (not necessarily distinct) in rows
and columns in the form
 a11 a12  a1 n 
a a  a 
A  21 22 2 n  ...(1)
  
 
 am1 am 2  amn 
We confine to matrices whose elements are real or complex numbers; or real or complex
valued functions.
If all the elements of a matrix are real numbers (complex numbers), then it is called a real
matrix (complex matrix).
Notice that every element in the matrix is specified by its position in terms of the row and
column in which the element is present. For example is the element in the third row
and second column. In general is the element in row and th column of the matrix.
th

The matrix (1) is denoted, in compact form, as = , where = 1,2, … , and

×
= 1,2, … , .
The matrices are usually denoted by upper case letters , , , … , .
Order of a matrix
A matrix is said be of order × (read as by ) if the matrix has rows and
columns.
 A matrix = is said to be a rectangular matrix if ≠ , i.e., the number of
×
rows in is not equal to the number of columns in .
 A matrix = is said to be a square matrix if = , i.e., the number of rows in
×
is equal to the number of columns in .
A matrix of order × is called a square matrix of order .
Examples
3 −2 0
i) = 0 −6 is a real rectangular matrix of order 2 × 3.
 1
ii) = 1 is a complex square matrix of order 3 (where is a cube root of
1
unity).
cos sin
iii) = is a real square matrix of order 2.
− sin cos
Equality of matrices
Two matrices and are said to be equal (written as = ) if
(i) and are of the same order
(ii) The corresponding elements are equal.
1 6
Example: If = and = 2 5 are equal, i.e., = iff
3 4
= 1, = 6, = 2, = 5, = 3 and = 4.
Null matrix or a zero matrix, Row matrix and column matrix
If each element of a matrix is zero, then it is said to be a Null matrix or zero matrix. The
zero matrix of order × is denoted by × or simply by .
0 0 0 0 0
Examples: × = , = × =
0 0 0 0 0
A matrix is said to be a row matrix (row vector) if it contains only one row.
A matrix is said to be a column matrix (column vector) if it contains only one column.
Examples: [1 0 −2] is a row matrix (It is a matrix of order 1 × 3)

1 is a column matrix (It is a matrix of order 3 × 1)

−1
Negative of a Matrix
The matrix obtained from a matrix by multiplying each element by −1 (i.e., by changing
the sign of each element) is called the negative of (or additive inverse of ) and it is
denoted by − . Thus, if = then − = −
× ×
1 −2 3 −1 2 −3
Example: If = 2 1 4 then − = −2 −1 −4
−6 −4 −1 6 4 1
Submatrix
A submatrix of a matrix is an array formed by deleting one or more rows or columns of .
Note that this definition allows the deletion of a combination of rows and columns.
2 5 −1
Example: Let = 4 −7 13
3 −9 6
2 5 −1
Deleting the third row of gives the submatrix . Deleting second row and
4 −7 13
5 −1
first column of gives the submatrix
9 6
Trace of a square matrix
If = ×
is a square matrix of order , then the elements , ,…, are said to
constitute the principal diagonal (or simply diagonal) of .
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix is called the trace of and is
n
denoted by ( ) i.e., tr ( A)   a ii
i 1
Types of matrices
Diagonal matrix
A square matrix = ×
is called a diagonal matrix if = 0 for ≠
(i.e., if each non diagonal element is zero) and is denoted by diag[ , ,… , ].
−2 0 0
0 0 0 0
Examples: , , 0 1 0 are diagonal matrices.
0 0 0 3
0 0 −
Scalar matrix
A square matrix = ×
is called a scalar matrix if = 0, for ≠ and = =
⋯= . (i.e., if each non diagonal element is zero and all the diagonal elements are equal
to each other)
− 0 0
0 0 3 0
Examples: , , 0 − 0 are scalar matrices
0 0 0 3
0 0 −
Note that every scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix but not conversely.
Unit matrix or Identity matrix
A square matrix = ×
is called a unit matrix or identity matrix if = 0, for ≠
and = =⋯= = 1 (i.e., if each non diagonal element is zero and each diagonal
element is equal to 1)
The identity matrix of order is usually denoted by or simply when there is no
ambiguity about its order.
1 0 0
1 0
= , = 0 1 0
0 1
0 0 1
Triangular matrices
A square matrix = is said to be an upper triangular matrix if
×
= 0 for all >
2 −1 0
−1
Examples: , 0 −2 3 are upper triangular matrices.
0 4 0 0 4
A square matrix = is said to be a lower triangular matrix if
×
= 0 for all <
1 0 0
1 0
Examples: , 2 4 0 are lower triangular matrices.
−2 4
1 0 2
Note that and (identity and zero matrix of order ) are both upper and lower
triangular matrices.
Transpose of a matrix
Let be a matrix. The matrix obtained by interchanging the row and columns of is called
the transpose of . That is, if = then = . The transpose of is
× ×
denoted by (or ʹ ).
 1 −5
1 √2 −2
Example: If = then = √2 2 .
−5 2 1 + √7 −2 1 + √7
1 √2 −2
Observe that ( ) = = .
−5 2 1 + √7

Note:
(i) If is an × matrix then is an × matrix.
(ii) The transpose of a row matrix is a column matrix and the transpose of a column matrix
is a row matrix
(iii) For any matrix , ( ) = .
Symmetric and Skew-symmetric matrices
A square matrix = is said to be
×
(i) Symmetric if = , i.e., = ,∀ ,
(ii) Skew symmetric if = − , i.e., = − ,∀ ,
Note:
(i) The zero matrix is both symmetric and skew symmetric.
(ii) Any diagonal matrix and the identity matrix are symmetric
Example
3 5 −6 3 5 −6
The matrix = 5 0 2 is a symmetric matrix for = 5 0 2 =
−6 2 1 −6 2 1
0 0 − −
The matrix = − 0 − is a symmetric matrix for = 0 =−
− 0 − 0
The following are simple results
Lemma: If a square matrix of order is both symmetric and skew symmetric then is the
zero matrix of order .
Proof: We have = and
×
is symmetric ⟹ = ,∀ ,
is skew symmetric ⟹ = − ,∀ ,
Since is both symmetric and skew symmetric, we have
= − = − ,∀ ,
i.e., 2 = 0 , ∀ , ⇒ = 0 ,∀ ,
Therefore, is a zero matrix of order . Hence the result.
Lemma: If is a skew symmetric matrix, then all its diagonal elements are zero.
(The diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are all zero).
Proof: We have = ×
and is skew symmetric i.e., = − for all , .
Taking = , we get = − for all , i.e., 2 = 0 for all ⇒ = 0, for all .
Thus, the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are all zero.
Hence the result.
 PROBLEM SET
IP1:
− − +
If − = − , then find the values of , , .
− +

Solution:
5 −6 0 1 −4 + 15 0 1
Given that 2 7 −3 3 = 2 19 − 4 3
46 − 6 5 12 2 + 5 12
(If two matrices are equal then their corresponding elements are also equal)
∴ 5 − 6 = −4 + 15 ⟹ 5 − 6 + 4 = 15 … (1)
7 − 3 = 19 − 4 ⟹ 7 + 4 − 3 = 19 … (2)
46 − 6 = 2 + ⟹ 2 + + 6 = 46 … (3)
(2) × 1 ⟹ 7 + 4 − 3 = 19
(3) × 4 ⟹ 8 + 4 + 24 = 184 ⟹ + 27 = 165

(1) × 1 ⟹ 5 − 6 + 4 = 15
(3) × 6 ⟹ 12 + 6 + 36 = 46 ⟹ 17 + 40 = 291

⟹ 17( + 27 ) = 165 × 17 ⟹ 17 + 459 = 2805

⟹ 17 + 40 = 291 ⟹ =6
∴ + 27 = 165 ⟹ + 162 = 165 ⟹ = 3
(3) ⟹ 2(3) + + 6(6) = 46 ⟹ = 4
Therefore, = 3 , = 4 , = 6

P1. Let and be prime numbers.

I. If a matrix has elements then the possible sizes of the matrix are 1 × and × 1
II. If a matrix has elements then the possible sizes of the matrix are 1 × , ×
, × and × 1.
A. Only I is true
B. Only II is true
C. Both I and II are true
D. Neither I and II are true
Answer: C

IP2. Consider the following the statements

I. Every diagonal matrix is a scalar matrix
II. An identity matrix is both diagonal and scalar matrix.
A. Only I is true
B. Only II is true
C. Both I and II are true
D. Neither I nor II is true
Answer: B
P2.
Match the following
a) Nullmatrix i) 0 0 0 -1
0 0 0
b) Rowmatrix ii) 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 
 -1 0
c) Columnmatrix iii) 
0 1 
1 0
d) Diagonalmatrix,which is not scalar iv) 
0 1 
2 - 4 0
e) Scalarmatrix(  1) v) 0 3 0
0 0 1
1 0
f) Unitmatrix vi) 
2 3 
5 
vii) 7
 
2
3 0 0
viii) 0 3 0
 
0 0 3

Ans: → , → , → , → , → , → ,

IP3. Find the additive inverse of the matrix = −

−
Solution:
The additive inverse of is the negative of denoted by − and it is the matrix obtained
from the matrix by changing the sign of each element of .
− 0 −1
Therefore, − = 0 −2
1 −1 −5
− −
P3. Find the trace of the matrix = −
−
Solution:
The elements of the principal diagonal of are −4, −1, 1. The trace of is the sum of the
elements of the principal diagonal.
Therefore, ( ) = −4 − 1 + 1 = −4
IP4.
− −
I. If = is a symmetric matrix, then find
−
II. If = − is a skew symmetric matrix, then find
−
Solution:
−1 2 −3
I. Given = 2 5 6
−3 7
−1 2 −3 −1 2 −3
Therefore, = 2 5 6 = 2 5
−3 7 −3 6 7
Since is symmetric, =
−1 2 −3 −1 2 −3
Therefore, 2 5 = 2 5 6
−3 6 7 −3 7
⟹ =6
0 2 1
II. Given = −2 0 2
−1 0
0 2 1 0 −2 −1
Therefore, = −2 0 2 = 2 0
−1 0 1 2 0
Since is skew symmetric, =−
0 −2 −1
Now, − = 2 0 −2
1 − 0
0 −2 −1 0 −2 −1
Therefore, 2 0 = 2 0 −2 ⟹ = −2
1 2 0 1 − 0

P4. Find the number of submatrices of order × of the matrix = .

Solution:
The 2 × 2 submatrices of the matrix arise if we delete one row and one column.
We delete the following rows and columns to get the 2 × 2 submatrices of the matrix :
1st row, 1st column ; 1st row, 2nd column ; 1st row, 3rd column;
2nd row, 1 st column ; 2 nd row, 2 nd column ; 2nd row, 3 rd column;
3rd row, 1st column ; 3rd row, 2 nd column ; 3rd row, 3rd column
Thus, we get 9 submatrices and they are:
; ;

; ;

; ;
 Exercise
1. Construct a 2 × 2 matrix whose elements are given by:
( ) ( )
() = ( ) =
( ) ( )
( ) = ( ) =
| | | |
( ) = ( ) =
2. Construct a 3 × 4 matrix = whose elements are given by:
() = + ( ) = − ( ) =2
( ) = ( ) = |−3 + |
3. Write the size, rows ,columns and submatrices for the following matrices:
1 0 2
a)
3 4 5
8 0
b) 4 −2
3 6
7 14
c)
15 14
2 3 4
d) −3 4 8
2 3 4

−1 2 −5 1− 2 −
4. If 0 2 = 2 0 2 then find the values of , , and .
1 −1 1 + 1 −1 1

1 3 −5
5. Find the trace of the matrix 2 −1 5
2 0 1

0 1 4
6. Is the matrix −1 0 7 symmetric or skew symmetric?
−4 −7 0

−5 2 3
7. Find , if the matrix 2 −2 is symmetric?
3 −2 6

8. Find , if the following matrix is a skew symmetric.

0 4 −2 0 1 4
) −4 0 8 ) −1 0 7
2 −8 − −7 0
4.2. Algebra of Matrices
Learning objectives
 To define the Addition, subtraction, Scalar Multiplication, Multiplication of matrices
and to study their properties.
 To study the Powers of matrices
AND
 To solve the related problems.

We confine to matrices whose elements are complex numbers.

Addition of two matrices
If and are two matrices of the same order then their sum is defined to be the matrix
obtained by adding the corresponding elements of and and it is denoted by + .
If = ×
and = ×
, then
+ = ×
, where = + for all , .
2 1 −3
Example: If = and = −√2 1 0 , then
4 1 −2 −1 3 + 2
2 + −√2 1+1 −3 + 0
+ = = 2 − √2 2 −3
4 + (−1) 1 + 3 + −2 + 2 3 4+ 0
Two matrices are said to be conformable for addition if they have the same order.
Properties of addition of matrices
Let = , = and = be matrices conformable for addition, i.e., they have
the same order say × . The addition of matrices satisfies the following properties:
i) Commutative property : + = +
ii) Associative property : + ( + ) = ( + ) +
iii) Existence of additive identity:
There exists × the zero matrix of order × such that
+ × = × + =
The zero matrix × is the identity for addition or additive identity for addition matrices.
iv) Existence of additive inverse:
For each matrix , there is − the negative of such that
+ (− ) = (− ) + =
Here − is called additive inverse of .
We now study the multiplication of a matrix by a scalar and its properties.
Scalar multiple of a matrix
Let be a matrix of order × and be a scalar (i.e., a real or a complex number). The
× matrix obtained by multiplying each element of by is called a scalar multiple of
and is denoted by .
i.e., if = then =
× ×

Example: If = 1 −2√2 4 and = , then

−7 14 −2
−2√2 −√2 2
= =
− − − 7 −1
Note:
(i) (−1) = − , for (−1) = (−1) = (−1) = − =−
(ii) − = + (− ) = + (−1) .
(iii) 0 = × , for 0 = 0 = 0 = [0 ] × = ×
(iv) × = × , for any scalar .
Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix
Let and be matrices of the same order and , are scalars. Then
(i) ( + ) = +
(ii) ( + ) = +
(iii) ( ) = ( )
Multiplication of matrices
Let and be matrices. Matrices , are said to be conformable for multiplication (in
this order) giving the product if the number of columns of is equal to the number
rows of .
Product of two matrices
Let = [ ] × , = be two matrices which are conformable for multiplication
×
to give the product of order × . The product is defined as
= =[ ] × ,
n
where =  aik bkj .
k 1
Note that is the sum of the products of the elements of th row of with the
corresponding elements of the th column of .
 2 1 0 
 0 4 1
 2 1 2 1   
Example: Let A    and B   2 1 0 
  1 1 1  1
 
 1 3 2 
Note that and are of orders 2 × 4 and 4 × 3 respectively. The product is defined
since , are comformable for multiplication (i.e., the number of columns of is equal to
the number of rows of ) and is of order 2 × 3.
2 1 0
 1
 2 1 2 1   0 4

AB   
1 1 1 124 2 1 0
 
1 3 243
2 2   1 0   2 2 11 2 1   1 4   211 3 2 0   1 1   2 0 1 2
 
  1 2 1 0 1 2   11  1 1 1 4 11   1 3 1 0 1 1 1 0   1 2 
 9 5 1
 
5 3 1 23
Note that is not defined since the matrices and are not conformable for
multiplication.
 −2 3
1 2 3
Example: Let = and = 4 −5
4 −2 −5
−2 1
Notice that and are of orders 2 × 3 and 3 × 2 respectively. The product is defined
since , are conformable for multiplication and the order of is 2 × 2.
The product is also defined since , are conformable for multiplication and the order
of is 3 × 3. Now,
−2 3
1 2 3
= 4 −5
4 −2 −5 ×
−2 1 ×
1(−2) + 2(4) + 3(−2) 1(−2) + 2(−5) + 3(1) 0 −4
= =
( ) ( ) ( )( ) (
4 −2 + −2 4 + −5 −2 4 −2 + −2 −5 + −5 1) ( )( ) ( )( ) −6 17 ×
−2 3
1 2 3
= 4 −5
4 −2 −5 ×
−2 1 ×
(−2)1 + 3(4) (−2)2 + 3(−2) (−2)3 + 3(−5) 10 −10 −21
= 4(1) + (−5)4 4(2) + (−5)(−2) 4(3) + (−5)(−5) = −16 18 37
(−2)1 + 1(4) (−2)(2) + 1(−2) (−2)3 + 1(−5) 2 −6 −11 ×
Observe that and are defined but ≠ .
Note 1: The matrix multiplication, in general, is not commutative.
Note 2: It is known that, for non zero real number , we have ≠ 0. But in matrix
algebra, the product of two non-zero matrices can be a zero matrix. That is, if ≠ , ≠
but = .
Example: Given an example of two square matrices and of the same order for which
(i) = but ≠
(ii) = =
Solution:
1 0 0 0
(i) Let = , = . Then
2 0 4 3
0 0 0 0
= but = ≠ . (do it!)
0 0 10 0
0 3 2 1 −2 3
(ii) Let = −3 0 1 , = −2 4 −6 . Then
−2 −1 0 3 −6 9
0 0 0
= = 0 0 0 = (verify!)
0 0 0
Note 3: It is known that for real numbers , , , ≠ 0, if = then = . That is
cancellation laws hold. But in matrix algebra, if = then need not be equal to
even if ≠ .
1 2 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
Example: Let = −1 1 0 , = −1 1 −1 , = −1 1 −1
1 −4 0 3 −4 5 −6 7 −8
Note that ≠ , ≠ .
−1 4 1 −1 4 1
Then = −2 −1 −4 and = −2 −1 −4 (do it!)
5 −2 7 5 −2 7
Note that, ≠ and = but ≠ .
Remark: We cannot cancel A in the matrix equation = even if ≠ . However,
there is an impartant special case when the cancellation is possible. We will learn this in a
later lesson.
Properties of multiplication of matrices
We state the properties of multiplication of matrices without proof.
1. The associative law The
multiplication of matrices is associative, i.e., if the , and , are conformable for
multiplication then
( )=( )
2. The distributive laws
For any matrices , and (subject to the conformability)
(i) Left distributive law: ( + )= +
(ii) Right distributive law: ( + ) = +
3. If is a matrix of order × then
= =
Note: i) If is a square matrix then = = . The matrix is called the multiplicative
identity matrix.
ii) If , are compatible for multiplication and , are scalars, then
( )( ) = ( )( ) = ( ) = ( )
Powers of matrices
If is a square matrix and is a positive integer, then multiplied by itself times is
denoted by , i.e.,
= …

Further, by definition =
Familiar rules of exponents of real numbers hold for matrices.
Lemma: If is a square matrix of order and , are non negative integers and is a
scalar, then
(i) = (ii) ( ) = (iii) ( ) =
1 −2
Example: If = , then compute .
−1 0
Solution: We have = . However, the number of multiplications can be reduced if
we write = ( ) . Now,
1 −2 1 −2 3 −2
= = =
−1 0 −1 0 −1 2
3 −2 3 −2 11 −10
and =( ) = =
−1 2 −1 2 −5 6
3 −4 1+2 −4
Example: If = , then prove that = for all positive
1 −1 1−2
integers .
Solution: We prove this by induction.
1+2 −4
We have the statement ( ) ∶ =
1−2
1+2 −4 3 −4
Taking = 1, = = =
1 1−2 1 −1
Thus, ( ) is true when = 1.
 1+2 −4
Suppose that ( ) is true for = , ( ≥ 1) i.e., = . Then
1−2
3 −4 1 + 2 −4 3(1 + 2 ) − 4 3(−4 ) − 4(1 − 2 )
= = =
1 −1 1−2 1+2 − −4 − 1(1 − 2 )
3+2 −4 − 4 1 + 2( + 1) −4( + 1)
= =
1+ −2 − 1 +1 1 − 2( + 1)
This shows that ( ) is true when = + 1.
By mathematical induction
1+2 −4
=
1−2
for all positive integers .
−
Example: If = − then show that − − − =
−
1 −2 1
Solution: Given Matrix is = 0 1 −1
3 −1 1
1 −2 1 1 −2 1 4 −5 4
= . = 0 1 −1 0 1 −1 = −3 2 −2
3 −1 1 3 −1 1 6 −8 5
4 −5 4 1 −2 1 16 −17 13
= . = −3 2 −2 0 1 −1 = −9 10 −7
6 −8 5 3 −1 1 21 −25 19
Now, −3 − −3
16 −17 13 4 −5 4 1 −2 1 1 0 0
= −9 10 −7 − 3 −3 2 −2 − 0 1 −1 − 3 0 1 0
21 −25 19 6 −8 5 3 −1 1 0 0 1
16 −17 13 12 −15 12 1 −2 1 3 0 0
= −9 10 −7 − −9 6 −6 − 0 1 −1 − 0 3 0
21 −25 19 18 −24 15 3 −1 1 0 0 3
0 0 0
= 0 0 0 =
0 0 0
Hence −3 − −3 =

PROBLEM SET
−
IP1. If and are matrices such that − = , + = ,
− −
then find and .
3 −3 0 4 1 5
Solution: We have 2 − = and 2 + = + 2 =
3 3 2 −1 4 −4
3 −3 0 6 −6 0
Now, 4 − 2 = 2(2 − ) = 2 =
3 3 2 6 6 4
4 1 5
+2 =
−1 4 −4
4+6 1−6 5+0 10 −5 5
Adding, we get 5 = =
−1 + 6 4 + 6 −4 + 4 5 10 0
10 −5 5 2 −1 1
⟹ = =
5 10 0 1 2 0
4 1 5 4 1 5
We have + 2 = ⟹2 = −
−1 4 −4 −1 4 −4
 4−2 1+1 5−1 2 2 4
⟹2 = =
−1 − 1 4 − 2 −4 − 0 −2 2 −4
2 2 4 1 1 2
⟹ = =
−2 2 −4 −1 1 −2
2 −1 1 1 1 2
∴ = , =
1 2 0 −1 1 −2
− −
P1. If = , = and = then
−
verify + ( − ) = ( + ) −
1 2 −3 3 −1 2 4 1 2
Solution: Given = 5 0 2 ,= 4 2 5 , = 0 3 2
1 −1 1 2 0 3 1 2 3
Now,
3 −1 2 4 1 2 3 − 4 −1 − 1 2 − 2 −1 −2 0
− = 4 2 5 − 0 3 2 = 4 − 0 2 − 3 5 − 2 = 4 −1 3
2 0 3 1 2 3 2−1 0−2 3−3 1 2 0

1 2 −3 −1 −2 0 1 − 1 2 − 2 −3 + 0
+( − )= 5 0 2 + 4 −1 3 = 5 + 4 0 − 1 2+3
1 −1 1 1 2 0 1 + 1 −1 + 2 1 + 0
0 0 −3
= 9 −1 5
2 1 1
1 2 −3 3 −1 2 1 + 2 2 − 1 −3 + 2
+ = 5 0 2 + 4 2 5 = 5+4 0+2 2+5
1 −1 1 2 0 3 1 + 2 −1 + 0 1 + 3
4 1 −1
= 9 2 7
3 −1 4
4 1 −1 4 1 2 0 0 −3
( + )− = 9 2 7 − 0 3 2 = 9 −1 5
3 −1 4 1 2 3 2 1 1
Hence + ( − ) = ( + ) −
IP2. State and prove the properties of the scalar multiplication of matrices.
Solution:
Properties of scalar multiplication of matrices
Let and be matrices of the same order and , are scalars. Then
(iv) ( + ) = +
(v) ( + ) = +
(vi) ( ) = ( )
Proof: Let = ×
, = ×
and , be scalars.
(i) ( + )= + = + = + (by distributivity)
= + = +
(ii) ( + ) = ( + ) = + (by distributivity)
= + = +
(iii) ( ) = = = ( ) (by associativity for multiplication)
=( ) =( )
P2. State and prove the properties of addition of matrices.
Solution:
Properties of addition of matrices
Let = , = and = be matrices conformable for addition, i.e., they have
the same order say × . The addition of matrices satisfies the following properties.
v) Commutative property : + = +
vi) Associative property : + ( + ) = ( + ) +
vii) Existence of additive identity:
There exists × zero matrix of order × such that
+ × = × + =
The zero matrix × is the identity for addition or additive identity for addition matrices.
viii) Existence of additive inverse:
For each matrix , there is – the negative of such that
+ (− ) = (− ) + = .
Here − is called additive inverse of .
Proof:
(i) + = + = + = +
(since the addition of complex numbers is commutative)
= + = +
Thus, Addition of matrices is commutative

(ii) +( + ) = + + = + + = + +
(since the addition of complex numbers is associative)
= + + =( + )+
Thus, Addition of matrices is associative
(iii) We have = . There exists an × matrix whose every element is zero. i.e.,
×
× = and
+ × = + (since is the additive identity in )
= =
Similarly, × + = . Thus, + × = × + =

(iv) We have = . For this there exists − = − , its negative and

× ×
+ (− ) = + − ×
= ×
Similarly, (− ) + = × . Thus, + (− ) = (− ) + = ×
−
IP3. If = and × is a unit matrix, then show that

−
( − ) = +
Solution:
0 − 1 0
Given = and = =
0 0 1
 − 1 −
Now, ( − ) =
− 1

1 ⎡ − ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
− 1 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ + − + ⎤
⎢ ⎥
=⎢ ⎥
⎢ + + ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ − ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 1 −
=⎢ ⎥=
⎢ ⎥ 1
⎣ ⎦
1 0 0 −
= + = +
0 1 0
1 1 
−  
2 1 3 0  0 2 
P3. Find −  4 1 0 2   3 1
 
 
1 1 
Solution: Given
1 1 
 1 5   
1 3 5    2 1 3 0  0 2 
 2 4 6   3 2   4 1 0 2  3 1
  23    2 4
 0 3  3 2  
 1 1  4 2
 1  9  0 5  6  15   2  0  9  0 2  2  3  0 
   
 2  12  0 10  8  18  2 2  4  0  0  2 4  2  0  2  2 2
 10 26  11 1
   
 14 36  2 2  6 8 2 2
 110  156 10  208   46 198 
    
 154  216 14  288  22  62 274  2 2
1 1 
 1 5   
1 3 5    2 1 3 0   0 2   46 198 
   3 2   4 1 0 2   3 1  62 274 
 2 4 6   0 3    
   
1 1 
IP4. If = , then prove that = , , − , − according as = ,
+ , + and + respectively.
0 0 , 0 ,…
Solution: We have = and = =
0 0 0
0 for all positive integers by induction.
We will prove that =
0
0
Let the statement ( ) be =
0
Clearly, ( ) is true for =1
Suppose that ( ) is true for = , ( ≥ 1). i.e., = 0 .
0
0 0 = 0
= =
0 0 0
Thus, ( ) is true for = + 1
By the principle of mathematical induction ( ) is true for all positive integers .
If = 4 , then = 0 = 1 0 =
0 0 1
0 = 0
If = 4 + 1, then = =
0 0
If = 4 + 2, then = 0 = −1 0 = −
0 0 −1
0 = − 0
If = 4 + 3, then = =−
0 0 −
Hence the result.
P4. If = , then show that = for all positive
− −
integers .
Solution: We prove this by principle of mathematical induction.
Let the statement ( ) be =
−
Taking = 1, = = . Thus, ( ) is true for =1
−
Suppose that ( ) is true for = , ( ≥ 1). i.e., = .
−
= =
− −
− +
=
− − − +
( + ) ( + ) ( + 1) ( + 1)
= =
− ( + ) ( + ) − ( + 1) ( + 1)
Thus, ( ) is true for = + 1
By the principle of mathematical induction
=
−
is true for all positive integers .
 Exercises
1. Find + and −
1 4 3 6 2 0 1 2 
i) A   2 1 0 2  , B   1 1 3 1 
 1 1 0 1   0 1 1 0 
1 2 4 0 2 3
3 1 0 3 1 1
ii) A    , B 
1 1 0 0 1 1
   
2 2 4 1 3 2
1 4 3 6 1 0 0 0
0 2 1 4 3 1 0 0 
iii ) A    , B
0 0 3 1 1 2 4 0
   
0 0 0 2 1 1 1 3
2. Find the following
1 4 2 2 3 −1
i) If = 2 1 4 , = 1 2 4 , then find 13 − 15
3 2 2 1 0 3
−1 −2 3 1 −2 5 −2 1 2
ii) If = 1 2 4 , = 0 −2 2 and = 1 1 2 then find
2 −1 3 1 2 −3 2 0 1
2 + 22 − 222 .
0 1 2 −1 2 3
iii) If = 2 3 4 , = 0 1 0 , then find − and 4 − 5
4 5 6 0 0 −1
1 2 3 8
iv) If = , = and 2 + = , then find
3 4 7 2

3. Find and
T
i) A  1 4 2 3 , B  2 1 1 2 
T
ii) A  1 3 1 2 0  , B   1 2 13 4 1
1 2 1 0 3 4
2 1 1 
4 4 2
iii ) A   , B 
1 0 2 1  6 2 
   
1 1 2 1  1 4 
2 3 1
4 5 2 3
1 2
iv) A    , B  2 0 4
2 2 6  
  
 1 4 7 
1 5 2
 1 −2 3 1 0 2
4. If = 2 3 −1 and = 0 2 1 , then examine whether and commute
−3 1 2 1 2 0
w.r.t multiplication of matrices.
5. If − = , then show that

=
1 2 2
6. If = 2 1 2 , then show that −4 −5 =
2 2 1
1 −2 1
7. If = 0 1 −1 , then find −3 − −3
3 −1 1
0 1 0
8. If = and = , then find the value of for which = .
1 1 3 1
1 0
9. If = 1 , then find the value of
10.Under what conditions is the matrix equation − = ( − )( + ) is true?
0 −
11.If = − 0 and = then show that = =
− 0
1 1 1
12.If is a complex cube root of unity, show that 1 + 1 =
1 1
0
0
0
13.If and are square matrices of the same order, explain, why in general
i) ( + ) ≠ +2 +
ii) ( − ) ≠ −2 +
iii) ( − )( + ) ≠ −

4.3. Some Special Matrices

Learning objectives
 To study the properties of
i) transposes of matrices
ii) Symmetric and Skew symmetric matrices and
iii) Traces of matrices.
 To introduce the concepts of Idempotent, Involutary, Nilpotent and Orthogonal
matrices.
AND
 To solve the related problems.

In this module we study the properties of (i) transposes of matrices (ii) Symmetric and Skew
symmetric matrices and (iii) Traces of matrices. Further, we introduce the concepts of
Idempotent, Involutary, Nilpotent and Orthogonal matrices.
Properties of transposes of matrices
Lemma: If and are matrices of suitable orders, then
(i) ( + ) = +
(ii) ( ) = , where is a scalar
(iii) ( ) = (Reversal Law)
Proof:
(i) Let = , = . Then = , =
× × × ×
Now, + = + = , where = +
× × ×

( + ) = = = +
× × ×
= + = +
× ×
(ii) Let = , be a scalar. Then
×
= ×
= ×
, where =
Now, ( ) = = = = =
× × × ×
(iii) Let = and = . That is is comformable to for multiplication.
× ×
Then is of order × . Note that , are of orders × , × and is
of order × . Thus, ( ) and are the matrices of the same order × . We
will now show that ( ) = by showing the corresponding entries are equal.
th th
Now, ( , ) entry of ( ) = ( , ) entry of
n n n
  a jk bki   bki a jk   b 'ik a 'kj ,
k 1 k 1 k 1
where ′ = ( , ) = , ′ =( , ) =
th
= ( , ) entry of
Thus, ( ) =
The results for the transpose of a sum and a product can be extended to any number of
matrices. For example, for three matrices , and
( + + ) = + +
( ) = (reversal law)
Symmetric and Skew symmetric matrices
Lemma: If is a square matrix then
(i) + is symmetric
(ii) − is skew symmetric
(iii) and are symmetric
Proof:
(i) ( + ) = +( ) = + (∵ ( ) = )
= +
⇒ + is a symmetric matrix
(ii) ( − ) = + (− ) = + (−1)( ) = − = −( − )
⇒ − is a symmetric matrix
(iii) ( ) =( ) (∵ ( ) = )
=
⇒ is a symmetric matrix
 Similarly, is a symmetric matrix.
Note: If is a symmetric matrix (skew symmetric), is a scalar then is also symmetric
(skew symmetric).
Lemma:
Every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a
skew symmetric matrix.
Proof: Let be any square matrix. Note that
= ( + )+ ( − )= + ,
where = ( + ) and = ( − )
Now, is symmetric since + is symmetric and is skew symmetric since − is
skew symmetric. Thus, every square matrix can be expressed as a sum of a symmetric
matrix and a skew symmetric matrix.
To prove the uniqueness, let = + , where = and =−
Now, = + ⇒ =( + ) = + = − . Thus,
= +
= −
Adding the above and subtracting second from the first, we get + = 2 and − =
2 . Therefore, = ( + ) and = ( − )
Thus, every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of a symmetric matrix
and a skew symmetric matrix and
= ( + )+ ( − )
Example: If and are symmetric matrices, then
(i) + is symmetric
(ii) − is skew symmetric
Proof: We have that and are symmetric, i.e., = and =
(i) ( + ) =( ) +( )
= + (reversal law)
= + = +
⇒ + is symmetric
(ii) ( − ) =( + (−1) ) = ( ) + (−1)
= ( ) + (−1)( )
= − (reversal law)
= − = −( − )
⇒ − is skew symmetric
Example: Let and be symmetric matrices of the same order. Prove that is
symmetric if and only if = .
Proof: Given that and are symmetric matrices of the same order. Therefore, = ,
= and , are defined.
Suppose that is symmetric. Then
=( ) = =
Thus, if is symmetric then = .
Conversely, suppose that = . Then
( ) =( ) ⇒( ) = = ⇒ is symmetric
Thus, if is symmetric then = .
Hence the result.
Properties of trace
Let and be square matrices of the same order and be a scalar. Then
(i) ( + )= ( )+ ( )
(ii) ( )= ( )
(iii) ( )= ( )
(iv) ( )= ( )
We prove the property 3:
Let = ×
, = ×
.
n
Let = = , where cij   aik bkj
×
k 1
n n  n 
Then, tr ( AB)   cii     aik bki .
i 1 i 1  k 1 
n
Further, let = = where dij   bik akj
×
k 1
n  n  n
Then, tr ( BA)   dii     bik aki . Now,
i 1 i 1  k 1 
n n n n
tr ( AB )    aik bki    aki bik (exchanging the roles of and )
i 1 k 1 i 1 k 1
n n
   bik aki  tr ( BA)
i 1 k 1
Similarly, the other results can be proved.
Idempotent Matrix
A square matrix is said to be an idempotent matrix if = .
2 −2 −4
Example: The matrix = −1 3 4 is idempotent.
1 −2 −3
2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4
Solution: = ∙ = −1 3 4 −1 3 4
1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3
2 −2 −4
= −1 3 4 = (verify!)
1 −2 −3
Thus, the given matrix is idempotent.
Example: If is an idempotent matrix, then show that = − is idempotent and that
= = .
Solution: Given that is idempotent, i.e., = and = −
Now, = ( − ) = ( − )( − ) = − − + = − − +
= − − + (∵ is idempotent)
= − =
Thus, = − is idempotent.
Further = ( − )= − = − =
 =( − ) = − = − =
Thus, = = .
Involutory matrix
A square matrix is said to be involutary matrix if = .
4 3 3
Example: The matrix = −1 0 −1 is involutory.
−4 −4 −3
4 3 3 4 3 3 1 0 0
Solution: = ∙ = −1 0 −1 −1 0 −1 = 0 1 0 (do it!)
−4 −4 −3 −4 −4 −3 0 0 1
Example: Show that a matrix is involutory if and only if ( − )( + ) = .
Solution: Suppose that is involutory. Then =
Now ( − )( + ) = − + − = − = − =
Conversely, suppose that ( − )( + ) = .
⇒ − = ⇒ = ⇒ is involutory.
Nilpotent matrix
Let be a square matrix. If is the least positive integer such that = , then is called
the nilpotent matrix of index .
1 −3 −4
Example: The matrix = −1 3 4 is a nilpotent matrix of index 2.
1 −3 −4
1 −3 −4 1 −3 −4 0 0 0
Solution: = ∙ = −1 3 4 −1 3 4 = 0 0 0 (do it!)
1 −3 −4 1 −3 −4 0 0 0
Here 2 is the least positive integer such that =
Therefore, is a nilpotent matrix of index 2.
Orthogonal matrix
A real square matrix of order is said to be an orthogonal matrix if = .
cos sin
Example: The matrix = is an orthogonal matrix.
− sin cos
cos sin cos − sin
Solution: =
− sin cos sin cos
= cos + sin − cos sin + sin cos
− sin cos + cos sin sin + cos
1 0
= =
0 1
Thus, is an orthogonal matrix.
PROBLEM SET
  1
2
IP1. If =  , = 6 2 0 1 then find ( ) and ( ).
3
 
 5 
   1
2
Solution: Given =  , = 6 2 0 1
3
 
 5 
 1  6 2 0 1
2  12 4 0 2 
Now, =   6 2 0 1 =  
3  18 6 0 3 
   
 5   30 10 0 5 
⇒ ( ) =sum of the diagonal entries= −6 − 4 + 0 − 5 = −15
⇒ ( ) = −15
Now, (5 ) = 5 ( ) (∵ ( ) = ( ))
= 5(−15) = −75
⇒ (5 ) = −75
We have ( ) =
∴ ( ) = (( ) ) (∵ ( ) = )
= ( ) = −15
Therefore, (5 ) = −75 ; ( ) = −15

P1. Express the matrix = as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a skew

symmetric matrix.
3 2 3
Solution: Given = 4 5 3 .
2 4 5
It is known that every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a symmetric
matrix and a skew symmetric matrix , i.e., = + , where = ( + ),
= ( − ).
3 4 2
Now, = 2 5 4
3 3 5
3 2 3 3 4 2 6 6 5
= ( + )= 4 5 3 + 2 5 4 = 6 10 7
2 4 5 3 3 5 5 7 10
3 2 3 3 4 2 0 −2 1
= ( − )= 4 5 3 − 2 5 4 = 2 0 −1
2 4 5 3 3 5 −1 1 0
6 6 5 0 −2 1
∴ = 6 10 7 + 2 0 −1
5 7 10 −1 1 0
IP2. If and are square matrices of order such that = and = then show
that and are Idempotent matrices.
Solution:
Given and are square matrices of order such that = , = .
We have =( ) = =
Again = ( )= =
Hence = = ⇒ =
∴ is an Idempotent matrix.
Similarly, = ( )= ( )=
Again =( ) = =
Hence = = ⇒ =
∴ is an Idempotent matrix.
− −
P2. If = − then prove that is an idempotent matrix?
− −
2 −2 −4
Solution: Given = −1 3 4
1 −2 −3
2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4
Now, = −1 3 4 −1 3 4
1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3
4 + 2 − 4 −4 − 6 + 8 −8 − 8 + 12 2 −2 −4
= −2 − 3 + 4 2 + 9 − 8 4 + 12 − 12 = −1 3 4 =
2 + 2 − 3 −2 − 6 + 6 −4 − 8 + 9 1 −2 −3
⇒ =
⇒ is an Idempotent Matrix.
IP3. If both − and + are orthogonal matrices then prove that is skew
symmetric matrix and =− .
Solution: Given − and + are orthogonal matrices.
We have is an orthogonal matrix ⇒ =
∴ − − = and + + =
⇒ − − = and + + =
(∵ ( + ) = + )
⇒ − − = and + + =
⇒ − − + = and + + + =
⇒ − ( + )+ = and + ( + )+ =
Both conditions are true only when
+ =0⇒ = − and
+ = ⇒ (− ) = ⇒− = ⇒ =−
i.e., is a skew symmetric matrix and =−
Hence proved.

P3. If the matrix − is an orthogonal matrix, then find the values of , , .

−
0 2 0
Solution: Let = − , = 2 −
− −
Since is orthogonal, ∴ =
0 2 0 1 0 0
⇒ − 2 − = 0 1 0
− − 0 0 1
4 + 2 − −2 + 1 0 0
⇒ 2 − + + − − = 0 1 0
−2 + − − + + 0 0 1
Equating the corresponding elements, we have
4 + =1
⇒ =± , =±
2 − =0 √ √

+ + =1⇒ + + =1⇒ =±
√
Therefore, =± , =± , =±
√ √ √
− −
IP4. Show that the matrix = is an involutary matrix.
−
−5 −8 0
Solution: Given = 3 5 0
1 2 −1
−5 −8 0 −5 −8 0
Now, = . = 3 5 0 3 5 0
1 2 −1 1 2 −1
25 − 24 + 0 40 − 40 + 0 0+0+0
= −15 + 15 + 0 −24 + 25 + 0 0+0+0
−5 + 6 − 1 −8 + 10 − 2 0+0+1
1 0 0
= 0 1 0 =
0 0 1
⟹ =
⟹ is an involutary matrix.

P4. If the matrix = is a Nilpotent matrix, then find its index.

− − −
1 1 3
Solution: Given = 5 2 6
−2 −1 −3
1 1 3 1 1 3
Now, = = 5 2 6 5 2 6
−2 −1 −3 −2 −1 −3
1+5−6 1+2−3 3+6−9 0 0 0
= 5 + 10 − 12 5 + 4 − 6 15 + 12 − 18 = 3 3 9
−2 − 5 + 6 −2 − 2 + 3 −6 − 6 + 9 −1 −1 −3
0 0 0 1 1 3
Again = = 3 3 9 5 2 6
−1 −1 −3 −2 −1 −3
0+0+0 0+0+0 0+0+0 0 0 0
= 3 + 15 − 18 3 + 6 − 9 9 + 18 − 27 = 0 0 0 =
−1 − 5 + 6 −1 − 2 + 3 −3 − 6 + 9 0 0 0
∴ =
Thus, 3 is the least positive integer such that = .
Therefore, is the nilpotent matrix of index 3.
Exercises
1. If and are symmetric (skew symmetric) matrices of the same order, then so is +
.
2. If is symmetric or skew symmetric, then prove that is symmetric.
3. Let and be skew symmetric matrices of the same order then prove that is
symmetric iff = .
−1 3 5 −1 1 −1
4. Show that = 1 −3 −5 and = 3 −3 3 are idempotent.
−1 3 5 5 −5 5
0 1 −1 3 −4 4
5. Show that = 4 −3 4 , = 0 −1 0 are involutory.
3 −3 4 −2 2 −3
1 2 3 1 1 3 1 −2 −6
6. Show that = 1 2 3 , = 5 2 6 and = −3 2 9 are
−1 −2 −3 −2 −1 −3 2 0 −3
nilpotent matrices and determine their index.
−1 2 2 0
√ √
7. Show that = 2 −1 2 and = 0 1 0 are orthogonal matrices.
2 2 −1 − 0
√ √
4 0 6 1 0 1
8. If = 5 2 1, = 9 1 2 then find ( + ), ( ), ( ), ( ).
7 8 3 0 4 1

4.4. Determinant of a Matrix

Learning objectives
 To define the minor and cofactor of an element in a matrix
 To define the determinant of a square matrix.
 To study some properties of the determinant of a matrix
AND
 To solve the related problems.
Consider the following system of two linear equations in two variables and :
+ =
+ = … (1)
where at least one of and is non zero. It is known that the system (1) has a unique
solution or no solution according as − is not zero or zero respectively. That is,
− determines whether the system (1) has a unique solution or no solution and
hence − is called the determinant of the system (1). Thus we associate the value
− with the matrix = and it is called the determinant of the 2 × 2

matrix , denoted by | | or or .
The determinant of 1 × 1 matrix is defined as the element of . That is, if =[ ] × ,
then | | = .
To define the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix we need the following concepts:
Minor and cofactor of an element

Let = .

The minor of , denoted by , is defined as the determinant of the 2 × 2 matrix

obtained by deleting the row and th column of .
th

The cofactor of is denoted by and = (− )

For example
= The minor of = = −
= The cofactor of = (−1) = (−1)( − )
Example:
2 −1 4
Find all minors and cofactors of the elements of the 3 × 3 matrix = 4 −3 1.
1 2 1
Solution:
Minors Cofactors
−3 1 = (−1) = −5
= = −3 − 2 = −5
2 1
4 1 = (−1) = −3
= = 4−1= 3
1 1
4 −3 = (−1) = 11
= = 8 + 3 = 11
1 2
−1 4 = (−1) =9
= = −1 − 8 = −9
2 1
2 4 = (−1) = −2
= = 2 − 4 = −2
1 1
2 −1 = (−1) = −5
= =4+1= 5
1 2
−1 4 = (−1) = 11
= = −1 + 12 = 11
−3 1
2 4 = (−1) = 14
= = 2 − 16 = −14
4 1
2 −1 = (−1) = −2
= = −6 + 4 = −2
4 −3

Determinant of a × matrix

Let = . The sum of the products of the elements of first row and their

corresponding cofactors is called the determinant of , denoted by or | |.

3
That is, = + + =  a1 j A1 j
j 1
Note: = (−1) + (−1) + (−1)
= − +
= − +
Extension of the definition of the determinant to square matrices of order ( ≥ )
We have defined the concept of determinant to square matrices of order for = 1, 2 and 3.

For = 3, we have = and

3
=  a1 j A1 j , where is the cofactor of in
j 1
This concept can be extended to square matrices of order , ≥ 4.
Suppose that the definition of the determinant is true for the square matrices of order − 1.
n 1
That is, if = ×
, then =  b1 j B1 j , where is the cofactor of .
j 1
Let = ×
. Notice that is the cofactor of , which is the determinant of the
submatrix of of order − 1 by deleting the row and column. By induction hypothesis
is known. Therefore, is defined as
n
=  aij Aij ,for the square matrix of order .
j 1
This expansion of the determinant is called the expansion by cofactors along the row.
Note (1): Expansion along any row
We can expand the determinant as the sum of the products of the elements of any row and
their corresponding cofactors. That is, if = , then
×

= + +⋯+ =

(expansion along row)

Note (2): Expansion along any column
We can expand the determinant as the sum of the products of elements of any column and
the corresponding cofactors of the elements of the same column. That is, if = ,
×
then

= + + ⋯+ =

(expansion along column)

Note (3): This expansion has a very important property that the sum of the products of
elements of the th row and the corresponding cofactors of the elements of the th row
( ≠ ) is zero. That is, if = , then
×
+ + ⋯+ =

For example, if = , = 1 and = 3 then

 + + = + (−1) +
= ( − )− ( − )+ ( − )=0
The same results holds good for the column expansion
+ +⋯+ = , where ≠
Note (4): If and are square matrices and = then = .
2 −1 4
Example: Find the determinant of = 4 −3 1 .
1 2 1
Solution: det = The sum of the products of elements of the first row and their
corresponding cofactors.
= + + ,
where = 2, = −1, = 4, = −5, = −3, = 11
= 2(−5) + (−1)(−3) + 4(11) = −10 + 3 + 44 = 37
2 −1 4
Example: Find the determinant of = 4 −3 1
1 2 1
(i) by expanding along 3rd row and
(ii) by expanding along 2nd column
Solution:
(i) Expansion of the determinant along 3rd row:
det = + +
= 1(11) + 2(14) + 1(−2) = 11 + 29 − 2 = 37
(ii) Expansion of the determinant along 2nd column:
det = + +
= (−1)(−3) + (−3)(−2) + 2(14) = 3 + 6 + 28 = 37
Properties of determinants
The properties of determinants of the matrices of order are given below. These
properties are proved for the case of = 3.
Property 1: The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of its diagonal elements.
 a11 a12 a13 a14 
0 a a23 a24 
If =  22
(i.e., is an upper triangular matrix) then expanding the
 0 0 a33 a34 
 
0 0 0 a44 
determinant along the first column, we get

det = 0
0 0
= 0 again expanding along the first column
=
  3 1 2 4 
 0 2 3 1 
Example: The determinant of =   is the product of the diagonal
 0 0 1 7 
 
0 0 0 4
elements, i.e., (−3)(2)(−1)(4) = 24.
Example: The determinant of the identity matrix is 1.
Property 2: If each element of a row (column) of a square matrix is zero, then the
determinant of the matrix is zero.
Notice that the determinant of such a matrix is zero if we expand the determinant along the
row (column) containing zeros.
Example: The determinant of an × zero matrix is zero.
Property 3: The determinant of a matrix and its transpose are equal i.e., for any square
matrix , = ( ).

Let = . Then =

Now, det = + + (expanding along 1st row)

Expanding det along 1st column, we get
det = + + ,
where , and are the cofactors of , , in
= − +
= + + = det
Property 4: If and are square matrices of the same order, then
( )=( )( )
This property can be verified easily if , are matrices of order 2 and , are matrices of
order 3. The proof of this property in general case is beyond the scope of this course.
Example: If is an orthogonal matrix, then = ±1
Example: The determinant of a nilpotent matrix is zero.
Property 5: For any positive integer , ( )=( )
Property 6: If each element in a row (column) of a square matrix is the sum of two
elements then its determinant can be expressed as the sum of the determinants as shown
below:
+
+ = +
+
The above follows easily as shown below:
+
+
+
=( + ) −( + ) +( + )

= − + +

− +
= +

Hence the result

Property 7: If the elements of a square matrix are polynomials in and its determinant is
zero when = , then − is a factor of the determinant of the matrix.
( ) ( ) ( )
Let ( ) = ( ) ( ) ( ) . Note that det[ ( )] is a polynomial in . If
ℎ ( ) ℎ ( ) ℎ ( )
det[ ( )] = 0, then − is a factor of det[ ( )] (by remainder theorem).

PROBLEM SET
IP1. Find the determinant of = − − −
−
Solution: We use the cofactor expansion along the first row

det =

−3 −5 −2 −5 −2 −3
= 0(−1) + 1(−1) + 3(−1)
−4 4 4 4 4 −4
= 0 − (−8 + 20) + 3(8 + 12) = −12 + 60 = 48
−
P1. Find the determinant of = − −
− −
Solution: We use the cofactor expansion along the first row.

det =

−5 2 −3 2 −3 −5
= 1(−1) + 3(−1) + (−3)(−1)
4 −6 −4 −6 −4 4
= (−5)(−6) − 2(4) − 3[(−3)(−6) − (−4)2] − 3[−3(4) − (−4)(−5)]
= 22 − 3(26) − 3(−32) = 40
IP2. Prove that the determinant of an identity matrix of order is 1.
Solution:
Note that is a triangular matrix with each diagonal element 1.
Therefore det is the product of diagonal elements. Thus,
det = 1 ∙ 1 ∙ 1 ∙ … ∙ 1 = 1

 1 0 2 4 
 0 1 3 4 
P2. Find the determinant of the matrix =  
 0 3 5 4 
 
 2 3 2 6 
Solution: We use the cofactor expansion along the first column. (why?)
det =

1−3 −4 0 −2 4
= (−1)(−1) 3−5 4 + 0 + 0 − 2(−1) 1 −3 −4
−32 −6 3 −5 4
1 −3 −4 0 −2 4
= − det + 2 det , where = 3 −5 4 , = 1 −3 −4
−3 2 −6 3 −5 4
= − det + 2 det (∵ det = det )
= −40 + 2(48) = 56 (see P1 and IP1)

IP3. Find the determinant of = +

− +
Solution: det = ∑
1+ 2 3 2 3 1+
= ( )(−1) + (2)(−1) + (1)(−1)
1 4+ −2 4 + −2 1
= [(1 + )(4 + ) − 2] − 2[3(4 + ) + 4 ] + 1[3 + 2 (1 + )]
= [4 + 5 − 1] − 2[12 + 7 ] + [1 + 2 ]
= 4 − 5 − − 24 − 14 + 1 + 2
= −9 + 28
− +
P3. Find the determinant of = −
− +
Solution: det = ∑
1 1− 1 1−
= (−1)(−1) + (2 + )(−1) + 3(−1)
2 −1 + 3 −1 + 3 2
= (−1)[ (−1 + ) − 2] − (2 + )[(1 − )(−1 + ) − 3 ] + 3[2(1 − ) − 3 ]
= (−1)[− − 1 − 2] − (2 + )[−(1 − ) − 3 ] + 3[2 − 2 + 3]
= + 3 − (2 + )[−2 − 3 ] + 3[5 − 2 ]
= + 3 + 4 + 2 + 6 − 3 + 15 − 10 = 19 −
IP4. If is a nilpotent matrix, then prove that = .
Solution:
Let be a nilpotent matrix of index , then = .
Then det( ) = det ⇒ (det ) = 0 ⇒ det = 0
P4. If is an orthogonal matrix (of order ) then prove that =± .
Solution: is an orthogonal matrix of order ⇒ = =
Taking determinants on both sides
det( ) = det
⇒ det det = 1 ⇒ det det = 1
⇒ (det ) = 1 ⇒ det = ±1 (∵ is a real matrix)
Exercises
Evaluate the determinants of the following matrices
−1 7
(i)
3 8
4 −5
(ii)
2 3
 2+ −1 + 3
(iii)
1−2 3−
6 4
(iv)
−6 2
1 2 3
(v) 4 5 6 along second column
7 8 9
−1 3 2
rd
(vi) 4 −8 1 along 3 column
2 2 5
0 1+ 2
(vii) −2 0 1 − along 2nd row
3 4 0
2+ 0
(viii) −1 3 2 along 2nd column
0 −1 1 −
⎡ 0 2 1 3⎤
⎢ 1 0 2 2 ⎥
(ix) ⎢ ⎥ along 4th column
3 1 0 1
⎢ ⎥
⎣  1 1 2 0 ⎦
⎡ 1 0 2 3 ⎤
⎢ 3 1 1 2 ⎥ rd
(x) ⎢ 0 4 1 1 ⎥ along 3 column
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 3 0 1 ⎦

4.5. Evaluation of determinants using properties

Learning objectives:
 To evaluate the determinant by using elementary row (column) operations.
 To study some properties of the determinants.
AND
 To solve the related problems.
Elementary row (column) operations
There are two types of elementary matrix operations- row operations and column
operations. These are useful in matrix algebra. (for example in the evaluation of
determinants).
Let be an × matrix. Let , , … , be the rows and , , … , be the columns
of . Any one of the following three operations on the rows (columns) of is called an
elementary row (column) operation:
i) Interchange of any two rows (columns) of .
Interchange of the rows and (column and ) is denoted by
↔ ↔ .
ii) Multiplying the elements of any row (column) of by a non zero scalar .
Multiplying the elements of row (column ) by a non zero scalar is denoted by
→ ( → ).
iii) Adding any scalar multiple of the elements of a row (column) to the corresponding
elements of another row (column).
→ + → + denotes adding multiples of the elements of to
the corresponding elements of ( ).
Property 8: If a matrix is formed from a matrix by interchanging any two rows
(columns) of , then
=−

Let = . Then

det =

= ( − )− ( − )+ ( − )
st rd
Let be the matrix obtained from by interchanging the 1 and 3 row (i.e., ↔ ).

Then = .

Using the cofactor expansion along the 3rd row,

det = (−1) + (−1) + (−1)
= ( − )− ( − )+ ( − )
= (−1)[( − )− ( − )+ ( − )]
= − det
Property 9: If two rows (columns) of a square matrix are identical, then = .
th th
Proof: Let be a square matrix when and rows (columns) are identical. Let be the
matrix obtained from by interchanging th and th rows (columns). By property (1)
det = − det . Notice that = (since the th and th rows are identical). Therefore,
det = det . Thus,
det = det = − det ⇒ 2 det = 0 ⇒ det = 0.
+ + +
Example: Show that + + + =2 .
+ + +
Solution:
+ + + + + + +
+ + + = + + + + + (by property 6)
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
= + + + + + + +
+ + + +
,

= + + + + +
=2 = (−1) = (−1) =

Property 10: If a matrix is obtained from a matrix by multiplying the elements of a

row (column) by a scalar , then = .
3
Let = . Then det = a 3j A3 j . Let be the matrix obtained from by
j 1

multiplying the elements of 3rd row by the scalar (i.e., → ). Then

Notice that the cofactor of in is same as the cofactor of in for = 1,2,3.

Therefore,

det = = = = det

Property 11: If is a square matrix of order and is a scalar then

( )=

Let = be a square matrix of order 3 and be a scalar then

det( )= =

= ∙ = ∙ = det

Example: If is skew symmetric matrix of odd order, then det = 0.

Solution: Let be a skew symmetric matrix of odd order say 2 + 1. Then = − .
⇒ det = det(− ) = (−1) det (by property 11)
= (−1) det (∵ det( ) = det )
⇒ 2 det = 0 ⇒ det = 0
Property 12: If the corresponding elements of two rows (columns) of a square matrix
are in the same ratio, then the determinant of is zero.

Let = . Then

det = = (by property 10)

= . 0 = 0 (since the 2nd and 3rd rows are identical)

Property 13: If a matrix is obtained from a matrix by adding a scalar multiple of the
elements of a row (column) to the corresponding elements of another row (column), then
=
Let = . Let be the matrix obtained from by adding multiples of

the elements of 2nd row to the corresponding elements of the 3rd row (i.e., → +
). Then

=
+ + +

Now, det =
+ + +

= + (by property 6)

= | | + 0 (by property 12)

=| |
Note: The effect of an elementary row (column) operations on the determinant of a matrix
are given in properties 8, 10 and 12.
These properties of the determinants can be used to simplify the evaluation of a
determinant.
− − −
Example: Show that − − − =0
− − −
Solution:
− − −
− − − applying ⟶ + +
− − −
0 0 0
= − − −
− − −
= 0 (since each element in the 1st row is zero)
3 − −
Example: Show that − 3 − = 3( + + )( + + )
− − 3
Solution:
3 − −
− 3 − applying → + +
− − 3
+ + − + − +
= + + 3 − +
+ + − + 3
1 − + − +
=( + + ) 1 3 − + applying → − , → −
1 − + 3
1 − −
=( + + ) 0 2 + −
0 − 2 +
= ( + + )[(2 + )(2 + ) − ( − )( − )]
(expanding along the first column)
=( + + ){(4 + 2 + 2 + ) − ( − − + }
=( + + )(3 + 3 + 3 ) = 3( + + )( + + )
3 − −
∴ − 3 − = 3 ( + + )( + + )
− − 3
 1 1 0 x
 3 2 5 6
Example: If the determinant value of the matrix A    is −69 then find the
4 1 7 3
 
0 1 2 3
value of .
1 1 0 x
3 2 5 6
Solution: A  applying → − , → −
4 1 7 3
0 1 2 3
1 1 0 x
0 1 5 6  3x
 (expanding along 1st column)
0 5 7 3  4x
0 3 1 2
1 5 6−3
=1 5 7 3−4 applying → − , → −
1 2 3
1 5 6−3
= 0 −18 11 − 27 (expanding along 1st column)
0 −3 3 −3
−18 11 − 27
| |=1 = −18 (3 − 3) + 3(11 − 27 )
−3 3 −3
∴ −69 = −21 − 27 ⟹ = 2

PROBLEM SET
 n  3!
 n  1 !  n  1  !
n(n + 1)

IP1. For a fixed positive integer , if D   n  1!

 n  5 ! , then find the
 n  3 !
 n  2 n  3
 n  7 !
 n  3!  n  5!
 n  4 n  5
!
value of ( )!( )!( )!
Solution:
  n  3!
 n  1!  n  1!
n(n + 1)

D   n  1!
 n  5!
 n  3!
 n  2 n  3
 n  7 !
 n  3!  n  5!
 n  4 n  5
1  n  1 n  n  3 n  2
D   n  1!  n  1!  n  3! 1  n  3  n  2   n  5  n  4 
1  n  5  n  4   n  7  n  6 
1  n  1 n  n  3 n  2 
D
 1  n  3 n  2   n  5  n  4 
 n  1!  n  1!  n  3 !
1  n  5  n  4   n  7  n  6 
applying ⟶ − and ⟶ − , we get
1  n  1 n  n  3  n  2 
0 4n  6 4 n  14 applying ⟶ −
0 8n  20 8n  36
1  n  1 n  n  3 n  2
 0 4n  6 4 n  14 (expanding along 1st column)
0 8 8
= 1[32 + 48 − 32 − 112] = −64
⟹ = −64
( − 1 )! ( + 1 )! ( + 3 )!
P1. Evaluate
2 2 2
12 2 2 32 42
1 2 3
2 2 2 22 32 42 52
(i ) 2 3 4 (ii ) 2
2 2 2 3 42 52 62
3 4 5
4 2 52 62 72
Solution:
12 22 32 1 4 9
(i ) 22 32 42  4 9 16 applying R2  R2  4 R1 , R5  R3  9 R1
32 42 5 2 9 16 25
1 4 9
0 7 20
0 20 56
 1  7  56   20  20   392  400  8
 12 22 32 42 1 4 9 16
22 32 42 52 4 9 16 25
(ii ) 2  applying R4  R4  R3
3 42 52 62 9 16 25 36
42 52 62 7 2 16 25 36 49
1 4 9 16
4 9 16 25
 applying R3  R3  R2
9 16 25 36
7 9 11 13
1 4 9 16
4 9 16 25
 applying R2  R2  R1
5 7 9 11
7 9 11 13
1 4 9 16
3 5 7 9
 applying R4  R4  R2 , R3  R3  R2
5 7 9 11
7 9 11 13
1 4 9 16
3 5 7 9

2 2 2 2
4 4 4 4
0
(Since the elements of 4th row and the corresponding elements of 3rd row are in the same
ratio)
IP2: For all values of , , and , , , show that
( − ) ( − ) ( − )
( − ) ( − ) ( − ) =
( − ) ( − ) ( − )
Solution:
cos ( − ) cos ( − ) cos ( − )
cos ( − ) cos ( − ) cos ( − )
cos ( − ) cos ( − ) cos ( − )
+ cos ( − ) cos ( − )
= + cos ( − ) cos ( − )
+ cos ( − ) cos ( − )
cos( − ) cos( − )
= cos( − ) cos( − )
cos( − ) cos( − )
cos ( − ) cos ( − )
+ cos ( − ) cos ( − )
cos ( − ) cos ( − )
applying ⟶ − ; ⟶ − on first determinant and
 ⟶ − ; ⟶ − on second determinant, we get

= 0 + 0 = 0 (Since the columns , are same in both determinants)

Aliter:
For all values of , , and , , , show that
( − ) ( − ) ( − )
( − ) ( − ) ( − ) =
( − ) ( − ) ( − )
Solution:
cos ( − ) cos ( − ) cos ( − )
Note that = cos ( − ) cos ( − ) cos ( − )
cos ( − ) cos ( − ) cos ( − )
0
= 0 +
0 1 1 1
=
Now, = = .
= 0 (∵ = 0)
Hence, =0
P2: If , , , … , , … are in Geometric Progression, then find the value of the

determinant of the matrix =

Solution: Given , , , … , , … are in Geometric Progression (G.P)

Let be the common ratio of the given G.P. Then
= , = , = ,…,…

Now, | | =

= applying ⟶ −

= applying ⟶ −
 =

= 0 (Since the columns , are identical)

⟹| |=0

IP3: Show that = ( − )( − )( − )( + + )

1
Solution: 1 applying → − , → −
1
0 − −
= 0 − −
1
0 + + +
= ( − )( − ) 0 + + + applying → −
1
0 + + +
= ( − )( − ) 0 − − + −
1

0 + + +
= ( − )( − )( − ) 0 1 + +
1

= ( − )( − )( − ) + + +
1 + +

= ( − )( − )( − )[( + )( + + )−( + + )]

= ( − )( − )( − )( + + )
1
∴ 1 = ( − )( − )( − )( + + )
1

Note:

If = and = , then show that

| | = | | = ( − )( − )( − )( + + )
Solution:

We have | | =

Multiplying , and by , and respectively, we get

| |= =
1 1 1
 1 1 1
= = =| |
1 1 1
1
Note that | | = | | i.e., | | = 1
1
∴ | | = | | = ( − )( − )( − )( + + )

P3: Show that = ( − )( − )( − )

1
Solution: 1 applying →( − ); →( − )
1
1
= 0 − −
0 − −

− − 1 −
= 1. = ( − )( − )
− − 1 −

= ( − )( − )( − − − ) = ( − )( − )( − )

= ( − )( − )( − )
1
∴ 1 = ( − )( − )( − )
1
Note 1:
1 1 1
= (why?)

1
= 1 (why?)
1
= ( − )( − )( − )

1+
Note 2: If , , are pairwise distinct and 1+ = 0, then prove that = −1
1+
(how?)
IP4.
1 a 1 1 1
1 1 b 1 1  1 1 1 1
Show that  abcd  1     
1 1 1 c 1  a b c d
1 1 1 1 d
Solution:
1 a 1 1 1
1 1 b 1 1
1 1 1 c 1
1 1 1 1 d
Multiplying the elements of , , and by , , and respectively and multiplying
the determinant by to compensate it
1 1 1 1
1
a b c d
1 1 1 1
1
a b c d
 abcd applying ⟶ + + +
1 1 1 1
1
a b c d
1 1 1 1
1
a b c d
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1   
a b c d b c d
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1    1
a b c d b c d
 abcd
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1    1
a b c d b c d
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1    1
a b c d b c d
1 1 1
1
b c d
1 1 1
1 1
 1 1 1 1 b c d
 abcd 1     
 a b c d 1 1 1 1
1
b c d
1 1 1
1 1
b c d
applying ⟶ − , ⟶ − , ⟶ −
1 1 1
1
b c d
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0  abcd  1     
 abcd  1      0 1 0
 a b c d0 0 1 0  a b c d
0 0 0 1
(The det is the product of diagonal entries, as it is the det of an upper triangular matrix).
− − −
P4: If − − − = then find the value of .
− − −
Solution:
−2 2 −3 3 −4
0 = − 4 2 − 9 3 − 16 applying ⟶ ( − ), ⟶( − )
− 8 2 − 27 3 − 64
−2 2 −3 3 −4
= −2 −6 −12
−6 −24 −60
 −2 2 −3 3 −4
= (−2)(−6) 1 3 6 applying ⟶( − )
1 4 10
−2 2 −3 3 −4
= (−2)(−6) 0 −1 −4
1 4 10
−2 2 −3 3 −4
⟹ 0 −1 −4 = 0
1 4 10
⟹ ( − 2)(−10 + 16 ) + (1){(2 − 3)(−4) + (3 − 4)} = 0
(expanding along 1st column)
⟹ 6( − 2) − 4(2 − 3) + (3 − 4) = 0
⟹ − 4 = 0 ⟹ = 4.
Exercises
1 +
1. Show that 1 + = 0.
1 +
1 ( + )
2. Show that 1 ( + ) =0
1 ( + )
+ + +
3. Without expanding prove that = 0.
1 1 1
abc 2a 2a
4. Show that 2b bca 2b   a  b  c 3
2c 2c cab
sin cos sin( + )
5. Without expanding evaluate the determinant sin cos sin( + )
sin cos sin( + )
 2 1 3 0 
 5 4 2 1 
6. Find the determinant of the matrix A   
3 1 0 2 
 
 4 5 6 1
( + )
7. Show that ( + ) =2 ( + + )
( + )
− +
8. Show that + − = ( + + )( + + )
− +
− − 2 2
9. Show that 2 − − 2 =( + + )
2 2 − −
1
10. If is complex (non-real) cube root of 1, then show that 1 =0
1
 − −
11.If , , are different from zero and − − = 0 , then find the value of
− −
the expression + +
1 1 1
√
12. Let = . Then the value of the determinant 1 −1 − is
1
A. 3 B. 3 ( − 1) C. 3 D. 3 ( − 1) : Ans. B
13. For positive numbers , and , find the numerical value of the determinant
1 log log
log 1 log
log log 1
+
14.Find the value of the determinant + .
0 + +
6 −3 1
15.If 4 3 −1 = + , then ( , ) =
20 3
A. (3, 1) B. (1, 3) C. (0, 3) D. (0, 0) ; Ans. D

4.6. Finding the Inverse of a Matrix

Learning objectives
 To study the Inverse of a matrix.
 To study some properties of the inverse of a matrix.
 To define the adjoint of a matrix
 To study the inverse of a non-singular matrix.
 To study some properties of the adjoint of a matrix.
AND
 To solve the related problems.
Non-singular matrix
A square matrix is said to be non-singular if its determinant is not zero. Otherwise it is said
to be singular.
1 2 1 2
For example is non-singular and is singular. The following lemma gives
3 −4 −3 −6
conditions under which a given matrix is singular.
1 0 2
Example: If = 5 1 is a singular matrix, then find
1 1 1
Solution: Since is singular, det = 0. Then
1 0 2
0 = det = 5 1 applying ⟶ −
1 1 1
1 0 0
1 − 10
= 5 1 − 10 = = −1 − + 10 = − + 9
1 −1
1 1 −1
Thus, − + 9 = 0 ⇒ = 9.
Lemma:
Let be a square matrix. The matrix is singular if
(i) Each element of a row (column) of A is zero
(ii) The corresponding elements of two rows(columns) are proportional
(iii) Two rows(columns) are identical
Invertible matrix and its inverse
Let be a square matrix of order . If there is a square matrix of order such that =
= , then is said to be invertible and the matrix is called the inverse of denoted
by .
If such a matrix does not exist, then has no inverse.
Lemma: The inverse of an invertible matrix is unique.
Proof: Let and be inverses of the given invertible matrix . Then
= = and = =
We have, = = ( )=( ) = =
(∵ the matrix multiplication is associative)
Thus, = , i.e., the inverse of an invertible matrix is unique.
Lemma:
If is invertible then is non-singular and ( )= .
Proof: Let be invertible. Then exists and = = .
Now, (det )(det ) = det( ) = det = 1.
Therefore, det ≠ 0. Thus is non-singular. Further, det = .
Note: =
1 −1 1 4 2 2
Example: Let = 2 1 −3 and 10 = −5 0 .
1 1 1 1 −2 3
If is the inverse of , then find .
Solution: Given that is the inverse of , therefore = =
1 −1 1 4 2 2
Now, 10 = 10( ) = (10 ) = 2 1 −3 −5 0
1 1 1 1 −2 3
10 0 0 10 0 5 −
i.e., 0 10 0 = 0 10 −5
0 0 10 0 0 5+
⇒ − 5 = 0 and 5 + = 10 ⇒ = 5.

Properties of Matrix Inverse

We now summarize some of the algebraic properties of matrix inverse.
Theorem:
Let and be invertible matrices and a nonzero scalar. Then
i) ( ) =
ii) ( ) =
iii) ( ) = (Reversal Law)
iv) ( ) = ( ) , when is a positive integer. Further, =( )
v) ( ) = ( )
Proof:
i) Let A be an × invertible matrix.
Result 1 follows directly from the definition of inverse of a matrix. Since is the inverse
of , we have = =
This statement also tells us that is the inverse of . Thus ( ) =
ii) We have ( ) = ( )=
⟹ ( ) = ⟹( ) =
Further, ( )= . = = ⟹ is the inverse of
Thus, ( ) =
iii) To prove the Result 3, we want to show that the matrix is the inverse of the
matrix . We prove, using the properties of matrices,

( )( )= ( ) (by associativity)
= ( ) (by associativity)
= ( ) (∵ B is invertible)
= =
Similarly, it can be shown that ( )( ) =
Thus, is the inverse of the matrix .
∴( ) =
Note: ( … ) = …
vi) Let be the positive integer.
( ) =( … )
times
= …
times
=( )
Thus, =( ) =( )
v) Since A is invertible, = =
⟹( ) =( ) = ⟹( ) = ( ) =
⟹( ) is the inverse of
∴( ) =( )
Note:
i) If is invertible then , ( ≠ 0), and ( is a positive integer) are invertible.
ii) If and invertible matrices of the same order then and are all invertible.
Example:
If = [ , ,…, ], ≠ 0, ∀ = 1, 2, … , , then
= [ , ,…, ]
 We have =
Proof: [ , , …, ]
d1 0 ... 0 
0 d 2 ... 0 
 , where di  0, i  1,2, ... , n
 ...... ... ... 
 
0 0 ... d n 
 d 1 0 ... 0 
 1 
 0 d 2 1 ... 0 
Let B    , then
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 0 0 ... d n 1 
 d d 1 0 ... 0 
 1 1  1 0 ... 0 
 1 ... 0 
 0 d 2 d 21 ... 0  0   n
DB   
 ... ... ... ...  ... ... ... ...
  1   0 0 ... 1 

 0 0 ... d n d n 
Similarly, = . Thus, = =
⟹B=D
∴ = [ , ,…, ]
+ − −
Example: If = − + − is singular then find .
− − +
Solution:
3 − − −
det = 3 − + − applying → + +
3 − − +
1 − −
= (3 − ) 1 + − applying → − , → −
1 − +
1 − −
2 0
= (3 − ) 0 2 0 = (3 − ) = 4 (3 − )
0 2
0 0 2
Given that is singular.
i.e., det = 0 ⇒ 4 (3 − ) = 0 ⇒ = 0,3 .
Example: If is invertible, then show that ( ) = ( ), where is an × matrix.
Proof: ( )= ( )
= ( ) (Recall ( ) = ( ))
= ( )
= ( )
= ( )
Now, we develop a formula for the inverse of a nonsingular matrix and study the related
concepts.
Definition
Let = ×
be an × matrix and be the cofactor of . The matrix whose
( , ) element is is called the matrix of cofactors of . The transpose of this matrix is
called the adjoint of and is denoted by .
T
 A11 A12  A1n   A11 A12  A1n 
A  A 
 21 A22  A2n  adjA   21 A22  A2 n 
           
   
 An1 An 2  Ann   An1 An2  Ann 
matrix of cofactors adjoint matrix
Example1: Give the matrix of cofactors and the adjoint matrix of the following matrix:
2 0 3
= −1 4 −2
1 −3 5
Solution: The cofactors of A are given below.
4 −2 −1 −2 −1 4
= = 14, = = 3, = = −1
−3 5 1 5 1 −3
Similarly, = −9, = 7, =6
= −12, = 1, =8
The matrix of cofactors of is
14 3 −1
= −9 7 6
−12 1 8
The adjoint of is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of .
14 −9 −12 14 −9 −12
= 3 7 1 = 3 7 1
−1 6 8 −1 6 8
Theorem 1: If is a square matrix of order then . = . =| |
Proof: Let = ×
. We have
T
 A11 A12  A1n   A11 A21  An1 
A A22  A2n  A A22  An 2 
adjA   21   12 
           
   
 An1 An2  Ann   A1n A2n  Ann 
Now, consider . . The ( , ) element of this product is:
(, ) =( )×( )
 A j1 
 
 A j 2 
  ai1 ai 2  ain  
 
 
 A jn 
n
 ai1 A j1  ai 2 A j 2    ain A jn   aik A jk
k 1
 | | ,
=
=
0 ,≠
The product of . is thus a diagonal matrix with the diagonal elements all being | |.
∴ . =| |
Similarly, . =| |
Thus, . = . =| |
Corollary: If is singular then ( )=( ) =
Theorem 2
The inverse of a square matrix exists if and only if is non-singular.
(A square matrix is invertible if and only if | | ≠ )
Proof:
Let be a square matrix of order .Suppose the inverse of A exists, say B, then
= =
⟹ | | = | | ⟹ | || | = 1 ⟹ | | ≠ 0 ⟹ is non-singular.
Conversely, suppose that A is non-singular. Then | | ≠ 0. We have
. = . =| |
⟹ = = (∵ | | ≠ 0 )
| | | |

⟹ | |
is the inverse of . Thus, the inverse of exists.
Hence the theorem.
Note: If A is non-singular then exists and =| |
Lemma
−
If = is non-singular then =
−
Proof: Given = is non-singular
⟹| |= − ≠
Therefore, exists.
Now, = (−1) = , = (−1) =−
= (−1) =− , = (−1) =
− −
∴ = = =
− −
−
∴ =| =
| −
−
Thus, = , if − ≠0
−
Example 2: Find out which of the following matrices are invertible.
 2 4  3  1 2 1
1 1 4 2
A   , B  , C   4 12 7  , D   1 1 2 
3 2  2 1  1 0 1   2 8 0 
Solution
| | = 5 ≠ 0 ⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, is invertible
| | = 0 ⟹ is singular. Therefore, inverse does not exist.
| | = 0 ⟹ is singular. Therefore, inverse does not exist.
| | = 2 ≠ 0 ⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, is invertible.
 2 0 3
Example 3: Compute the inverse of the matrix = −1 4 −2
1 −3 5
Solution: We first compute the .
2 0 3
| | = −1 4 −2 applying ↔
1 −3 5
1 −3 5
= (−1) −1 4 −2 applying ⟶ + , ⟶ −
2 0 3
1 −3 5
1 3
= (−1) 0 1 3 = (−1) = 25
6 −7
0 6 −7
Since | | ≠ , exists.
14 −9 12
Now, = 3 7 1 (see example 1)
−1 6 8
 14 9 12 
 25  
25 25 
14 9 12   
1 1 1 1    3 7 1 
 A  adjA  adjA  3 7 1 
A 25 25    25 25 25 
 1 6 8  
1 6 8 
 
 25 25 25 
Example 4:
1 −1
Compute the inverse of the matrix =
3 2
Solution:
| | = 1 −1 = 2 + 3 = 5 ≠ 0
3 2
⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, A has inverse and
− 2 1
∴ = =
− −3 1
1 1 1
Example 5: If the matrix = 1 2 −3 satisfies the equation
2 −1 3
− 6 + 5 + 11 = 0, then find
1 1 1
Solution: Given = 1 2 −3
2 −1 3
1 1 1
Now, | | = 1 2 −3 applying ⟶ − , ⟶ −
2 −1 3
1 1 1
= 0 1 −4 = −11 ≠ 0
0 −3 1
⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, exists.
By hypothesis, satisfies the equation − 6 + 5 + 11 = 0
⟹ − 6 + 5 = −11 ⟹ ( − 6 + 5 ) = −11
⟹ . −6 . +5 = −11
⟹ ( . ) − 6( . ) + 5( ) = −11
⟹ . − 6 . + 5 = −11 ⟹ −6 +5 = −11
⟹ = − ( −6 +5 )
1 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 1
Now, = . = 1 2 −3 1 2 −3 = −3 8 −14
2 −1 3 2 −1 3 7 −3 14
1
∴ = (− + 6 − 5 )
11
−4 −2 −1 6 6 6 5 0 0 −3 4 5
= 3 −8 14 + 6 12 −18 − 0 5 0 = 9 −1 −4
−7 3 −14 12 −6 18 0 0 5 5 −3 −1
−9 −8 −2
⟹ = 8 7 2
−5 −4 −1

Some properties of adjoint of a matrix

Theorem 3
i) If and are non singular matrices of order , then ( )=( )( )
ii) If is square matrix of order then | |=| |
iii) If is non singular matrix of order , then prove that ( )=| | and
deduce that | ( )| = | |( ) .
Proof:
(See P4 for (i) and IP4 for (iii))
ii) We have two cases to consider
(i) is a zero matrix
(ii) is a non zero matrix
Case (i): If = 0, then = 0 and | | = 0, | |=0
Therefore | |=0=| |
Case (ii): ≠ 0. We have two subcases (a) is singular (b) is non singular.
(a) Suppose that is singular then | | = 0
We have ( ) = | | = 0 ------- (1)
Assume that | | ≠ 0. Then is non singular and ( ) exists. Post
multiplying (1) on both sides by ( ) we get
( )( ) =0∙( ) ⇒ = a contradiction
Therefore | | = 0 and | |=0=| | .
(b) Suppose that is non singular, i.e., | | ≠ 0.
We have ∙ =| |
⇒| ∙ | = | | = | | ⇒ | || |=| |
⇒| | = | | (∵ | | ≠ 0)
Hence the theorem.
 PROBLEM SET
IP1. Let ≠ be cube root of unity and be the set of all non singular matrices of the

form = , where , , are either or . Then find the number of

distinct matrices of
1 1
Solution: We have, det =1 − +
1 1
=1− − ( − )+ ( − )
=1− − − = (1 − )(1 − )
is non singular ⇔ det ≠ 0 ⇔ (1 − )(1 − ) ≠ 0
⇔ ≠ , ≠
⇔ ≠ , ≠ ⇔ = , =
Note that can take any value and = =
i.e., = or and = = .
⇒ There are two non singular matrices in .
−
P1. Find the value of for which the matrix = is singular.

−1 2
Solution: det = 1 2 (expanding along the first row)
1 2
2 1
= + 1 2 +2 1
2 1 2
= (0 ) + 2 − 2 + 2 −
= 2 (1 − ) + 2(1 − ) = 2(1 − )( + 1)
( )( )
Since is singular; det = 0. Thus, = 0 ⇒ = ±1
IP2. If and are invertible, symmetric and commutative matrices then prove that
is symmetric.
Proof: Let and be × matrices
Given, and are invertible i.e., , exists.
Also, and are symmetric and commute
i.e., = , = and =
Now, we have to show that ( ) =
( ) =( ) ( ) (Reversal law)
=( ) ( )
= (∵ A and B are symmetric)
=( ) (Reversal law)
=( ) (∵ A and B commute)
=
∴ ( ) =
Hence, is symmetric.
P2. If and are invertible, symmetric and commutative matrices then show that
and are symmetric.
Proof: Let and be × matrices.
Given, and are invertible i.e., , exists.
Also, and are symmetric and commute
i.e., = , = and =
We first prove that and commute
= ⟹( ) =( ) ⟹ ( )= ( ) (by Associativity)
⟹ ( )= = ⟹ ( ) =
⟹( )( )= (by Associativity)
⟹ ( )= ⟹ =
Thus, and commute.
Now, ( ) = ( ) (Reversal law)
= ( )
= (∵ , are symmetric)
= (∵ and commute
Hence, is symmetric. Further, is symmetric, since =
IP3. If is an invertible skew-symmetric matrix then is also skew-symmetric.
Proof: Given is skew-symmetric and invertible
⟹ = − and exists.
Now, ( ) =( )
= (− ) (∵ is skew-symmetric)
=( )
=−
⟹ is skew-symmetric
Hence the result.
P3. Show that the inverse of an invertible symmetric matrix is also symmetric.
Proof: Given is symmetric and invertible
⟹ = and exists.
Now, ( ) =( ) = (∵ is symmetric)
⟹ is symmetric
Hence the result.
IP4. If is invertible square matrix and = , then show that =
Proof: Given that A is an invertible square matrix of order .
Then exists and = =
Now, = ⟹ ( )=
⟹( ) = (by associativity)
⟹ =
⟹ =
P4. If is invertible square matrix and = then show that =
Proof: Given that A is an invertible square matrix of order .
Then exists and = =
Now, = ⟹ ( )= ( )
 ⟹( ) =( ) (by associativity)
⟹ =
⟹ =

IP5. Find the inverse of the matrix =

1 3 3
Solution: Given = 1 4 3
1 3 4
1 3 3
Now, | | = 1 4 3 = (16 − 9) − 3(4 − 3) + 3(3 − 4) = 1 ≠ 0.
1 3 4
⟹ is a non-singular matrix. Therefore, is invertible.
Let be the cofactor of in = ×
, then
4 3 1 3
= (−1) =7 ; = (−1) = −1
3 4 1 4
1 4 3 3
= (−1) = −1 ; = (−1) = −3
1 3 3 4
1 3 1 3
= (−1) =1 ; = (−1) =0
1 4 1 3
3 3 1 3
= (−1) = −3 ; = (−1) =0
4 3 1 3
1 3
= (−1) =1
1 4
The matrix of cofactors of is
7 −1 −1
= −3 1 0
−3 0 1
The adjoint of is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of .
7 −1 −1 7 −3 −3
= −3 1 0 = −1 1 0
−3 0 1 −1 0 1
7 −3 −3 7 −3 −3
Therefore, =| | = −1 1 0 = −1 1 0
−1 0 1 −1 0 1
7 −3 −3
⟹ = −1 1 0
−1 0 1
−
P5. Find the inverse of the matrix = − −

1 0 −2
Solution: Given = −2 −1 2
3 4 1
Now, | | = 1(−1 − 8) − 2(−8 + 3) = 1 ≠ 0
⟹ is a non-singular matrix. Therefore, is invertible.
Let be the cofactor of in = , then we have
×
−1 2 −2 2
= (−1) = −9 ; = (−1) =8
4 1 3 1
 −2 −1 0 −2
= (−1) = −5 ; = (−1) = −8
3 4 4 1
1 −2 1 0
= (−1) =7 ; = (−1) = −4
3 1 3 4
0 −2 1 −2
= (−1) = −2 ; = (−1) =2
−1 2 −2 2
1 0
= (−1) = −1
−2 −1
The matrix of cofactors of is
−9 8 −5
= −8 7 −4
−2 2 −1
The adjoint of is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of .
−9 8 −5 −9 −8 −2
= −8 7 −4 = 8 7 2
−2 2 −1 −5 −4 −1
−9 −8 −2 −9 −8 −2
Therefore, =| | = 8 7 2 = 8 7 2
−5 −4 −1 −5 −4 −1
−9 −8 −2
⟹ = 8 7 2
−5 −4 −1
−
IP6. Find the matrix satisfying the matrix equation =
−
2 1 −3 2 1 0
Solution: Given =
3 2 5 −3 0 1
2 1 −3 2
Let = and = . Then =
3 2 5 −3
2 1 −3 2
⟹| |= = 4 − 3 = 1 ≠ 0 and | | = = 9 − 10 = −1 ≠ 0
3 2 5 −3
⟹ and are non-singular matrices. Therefore, and exists.
Now, =
⟹ ( ) =
⟹( ) ( )=
⟹| |= ⟹ =
2 −1 −3 −2 3 2
∴ = and =− =
−3 2 −5 −3 5 3
2 −1 3 2 1 1
∴ = = =
−3 2 5 3 1 0
− −
P6. Find the matrix such that =
−
1 −4 16 −6
Solution: Given =
3 −2 7 2
1 −4 16 −6
Let = and = . Then =
3 −2 7 2
1 −4
⟹| |= = −2 + 12 = 10 ≠ 0
3 −2
⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, exists.
Now, =
⟹ ( )= ⟹( ) =
⟹ = ⟹ =
 − −2 4
∴ = =
− −3 1
−2 4 16 −6
∴ = =
−3 1 7 2
32 + 28 12 + 8 6 2
= = 2
48 + 7 18 + 2
−
IP7. If the matrix = − − satisfies the equation − − − = ,

then find
1 0 −2
Solution: Given = −2 −1 2
3 4 1
1 0 −2
Now, | | = −2 −1 2 applying ⟶ + , ⟶ −
3 4 1
1 0 −2
= 0 −1 −2 = 1 ≠ 0
0 4 7
⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, exists.
By hypothesis, satisfies the equation − −3 − =0
⟹ ( − −3 )= ⟹ ( − −3 )=
⟹ . − . −3 =
⟹ ( . ) −( . ) − 3( )=
⟹ . − . −3 = ⟹ − −3 =
⟹ = − −3
1 0 −2 1 0 −2
Now, = . = −2 −1 2 −2 −1 2
3 4 1 3 4 1
1 + 0 − 6 0 + 0 − 8 −2 + 0 − 2 −5 −8 −4
= −2 + 2 + 6 0 + 1 + 8 4 − 2 + 2 = 6 9 4
3 − 8 + 3 0 − 4 + 4 −6 + 8 + 1 −2 0 3

∴ = − −3
−5 −8 −4 1 0 −2 3 0 0
= 6 9 4 − −2 −1 2 − 0 3 0
−2 0 3 3 4 1 0 0 3
−5 − 1 − 3 −8 − 0 − 0 −4 + 2 − 0 −9 −8 −2
= 6+2−0 9+1−3 4−2−0 = 8 7 2
−2 − 3 + 0 0−4+0 3−1−3 −5 −4 −1
−9 −8 −2
⟹ = 8 7 2
−5 −4 −1
P7. If the matrix = satisfies the equation − − = , then find

1 2 2
Solution: Given = 2 1 2
2 2 1
 1 2 2
Now, | | = 2 1 2 applying ⟶ − , ⟶ −
2 2 1
1 2 2
= 0 −3 −2 = 5 ≠ 0
0 −2 −3
⟹ is non-singular. Therefore, exists.
By hypothesis, satisfies the equation −4 −5 =
⟹ ( −4 −5 )= .
⟹ −4 . −5 =
⟹ ( . ) −4( . )−5 =
⟹ . −4 −5 =0⟹ −4 −5 =0⟹ 5 = −4
1 2 2 1 0 0
∴ = [ −4 ]= 2 1 2 − 4 0 1 0
2 2 1 0 0 1
1−4 2−0 2−0
= 2−0 1−4 2−0
2−0 2−0 1−4
−3 2 2
= 2 −3 2
2 2 −3
IP8. If is non singular matrix of order , then prove that
( )=| |
and deduce that | ( )| = | |( ) .
Proof: We have, for any square matrix of order
( ) ( ) =| |∙ =| | (∵ | |=| | )
Pre multiplying both sides by we get
( ) ( ) =| |
⇒| | ( ) =| |

Given that is non singular, i.e., | | ≠ 0.

⇒ ( )=| |
Deduction: Taking determinants on both sides, we get
⇒| ( )| = || | | = | | ( ) | | = | |( )
P8. If and are non singular matrices of order , then prove that
( )=( )( )
Proof: For any square matrices of order , we have
( )=( ) =| |
( )=( ) =| |
Further, ( ) =| | … (1)
Now ( )( ) =( ) ( ) (associativity)
=( )(| | )
= | |( ) = | || | = | | … (2)
From (1) and (2), we have
( ) =( )( )
Since and are nonsingular, is also nonsingular.
Therefore ( ) exists.
∴( ) ( ) =( )( ) ( )
⇒ =( )( )
Hence the result.
Exercises:
2 0 7
1. Find the value for which the matrix = 0 1 0 is the inverse of
1 −2 1
− 14 7
= 0 1 0 .
−4 −2

2. If ≠ 1 is a cube root of unity then show that

1+2 1
= 1 1+ +2 is singular.
2+ +2

3. If is a same matrix of order and = , then show that

( − ) = + +

4. If the matrices , , ( + ) are non-singular, then show that

[ ( + ) ] = +

5. If = , where is a non-singular matrix with = 1, then show that − is

singular.
EXERCISES-2
1 −2 3
1. If = 0 2 −1 then find
−4 5 2
1 2 5
2. If = 2 3 1 then find
−1 1 1
−1 −2 −2
3. If = 2 1 −2 , show that =3
2 −2 1
4. Find the inverse of each of the following matrices:
( ) cos sin ( ) 1 0 2 5
( ) ( )
− sin cos 0 1 −3 1
1 2 3 1 2 5 2 −1 1
( ) 2 3 1 ( ) 1 −1 −1 ( ) −1 2 −1
3 1 2 2 3 −1 1 −1 2
2 0 −1 0 1 −1 0 0 −1
( ) 5 1 0 ( ) 4 −3 4 ( ) 3 4 5
0 1 3 3 −3 4 −2 −4 −7
1 0 0
( ) 0 cos sin
0 sin − cos
5. Find the matrix A satisfying the matrix equation
5 4 1 −2
a. =
1 1 1 3
3 2 −1 1 2 −1
b. =
7 5 −2 1 0 4
5 3 14 7
c. =
−1 −2 7 7
2 1 1 0
d. =
5 3 0 1

2 −1 1
6. If = −1 2 −1 then show that − 6 + 9 − 4 = and = ( −3 )
1 −1 2
and hence find
1 0 2
7. If = 1 2 1 then show that − 6 + 7 + 2 = and find .
2 0 3
5 5
8. Let = 0 5 , where is scalar. If | | = 25, then find the value of | |.
0 0 5
0 5 0
9. If = = , then find .
−1 5
10.If is a square matrix of order such that | ( )| = | | , then find .
1 3 3
11.If = 1 4 3 , then find | ( )|
1 3 5
 2 1 1 1
1 2 1 1 
12.If A    then find | |
1 1 2 1 
 
1 1 1 2 
1 −2 3
13.If = 0 2 −1 then find
−4 5 2
1 2 5
14.If = 2 3 1 then find
−1 1 1
−1 −2 −2
15.If = 2 1 −2 , show that =3
2 −2 1
16.Find the inverse of each of the following matrices:
( ) cos sin ( ) 1 0 ( ) ( ) 2 5
− sin cos 0 1 −3 1
1 2 3 1 2 5 2 −1 1
( ) 2 3 1 ( ) 1 −1 −1 ( ) −1 2 −1
3 1 2 2 3 −1 1 −1 2
 2 0 −1 0 1 −1 0 0 −1
( ) 5 1 0 ( ) 4 −3 4 ( ) 3 4 5
0 1 3 3 −3 4 −2 −4 −7
1 0 0
( ) 0 cos sin
0 sin − cos

17. Find the matrix A satisfying the matrix equation

5 4 1 −2
e. =
1 1 1 3
3 2 −1 1 2 −1
f. =
7 5 −2 1 0 4
5 3 14 7
g. =
−1 −2 7 7
2 1 1 0
h. =
5 3 0 1

2 −1 1
18.If = −1 2 −1 then show that − 6 + 9 − 4 = and = ( −3 )
1 −1 2
and hence find
1 0 2
19.If = 1 2 1 then show that − 6 + 7 + 2 = and find .
2 0 3
5 5
20.Let = 0 5 , where is scalar. If | | = 25, then find the value of | |.
0 0 5
0 5 0
21.If = = , then find .
−1 5
22.If is a square matrix of order such that | ( )| = | | , then find .
1 3 3
23.If = 1 4 3 , then find | ( )|
1 3 5
 2 1 1 1
1 2 1 1 
24.If A    then find | |
1 1 2 1 
 
1 1 1 2 
4.7. Rank of a Matrix
Learning objectives:
 To define the rank of the matrix by elementary transformation
And
 To solve the related problems
-rowed minor of a matrix
Let be a given matrix. If is a square submatrix of order of , then det is called an -
rowed minor of .
 0 1 1 2  0 1 −2
  0 2
Example: If =  4 0 2 5  , then 4 0 5 is 3 – rowed minor of and ,
1 3
 2 1 3 1  2 3 1
1 −2
are 2 – rowed minors of .
3 1
Rank of a matrix
Let be a non-zero matrix. A positive integer is said to be the rank of if
i) there exists a non zero -rowed minor of
ii) every ( + 1)-rowed minor of (if exists) is zero
That is, the rank of is the order of the largest non-vanishing minor.
The rank of a zero matrix is defined to be zero.
The rank of is denoted by ( ) or rank .
2 1 −1
Example: Find the rank of the matrix = 0 3 −2 .
2 4 −3
Solution: The matrix is a square matrix of order 3. The only minor of of largest order is
| | of order 3. Note that
2 1 −1
| | = 0 3 −2 applying → −
2 4 −3
2 1 −1
3 −2
= 0 3 −2 = 2 =0
3 −2
0 3 −2
Therefore, ( ) ≠ 3 and so ( ) < 3.
2 1
Now we consider 2 – rowed minors of . Note that = 6 ≠ 0. By definition ( ) = 2.
0 3
1 2 3 4 
Example: Find the rank of the matrix =  2 4 6 8 
 3 6 9 12 
Solution: The given matrix is of order 3 × 4. Therefore it has four submatrices of order 3.
They are
1 2 −3 1 2 −4 1 −3 −4
= −2 −4 6 , = −2 −4 8 , = −2 6 8 ,
3 6 −9 3 6 −12 3 −9 −12
2 −3 −4
= −4 6 8
6 −9 −12
 1 2 −3
Note that | | = −2 −4 6 = 0 and | | = | | = | | = 0.
3 6 −9
Thus, ( ) ≠ 3 and so ( ) < 3.
We now compute the 2 – rowed minors of .
Note that a square submatrix of order 2 from is obtained by deleting one row and 2
columns. Thus, we get 3C1  4C2  12 submatrices of order 2. We note that each submatrix
of order 2 is singular, i.e., each 2 – rowed minor of is zero. Therefore, ( ) ≠ 2. Thus
( ) = 1 (since is not a zero matrix).
Note 1: Suppose that is a non zero matrix of order 3. Then
i) If is non singular then ( ) = 3
ii) If is singular and if there is at least one of its submatrix of order 2 of is non
singular then ( ) = 2
iii) If is singular and every submatrix of order 2 of is singular then ( ) = 1.
Note 2: Suppose is a matrix of order 3 × 4 or 4 × 3. The rank of is the maximum of
ranks of all submatrices of order 3 of . (i.e., ( ) ≤ 3).
Note 3: Suppose is a matrix of order × or × then ( ) ≤ ( , ).
Note 4: If is a nonsingular square matrix of order then ( ) =
Echelon form: A matrix is said to be in echelon form if
(i) Every row of which has all its elements 0 occurs below every row which has a non
zero element
(ii) The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in a row is less than the number
of such zeros in the next row.
1 2 1 3
 0 0 2 1 
 
Example: If =  0 0 0 6  then is in echelon form.
 
0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 
Note: The rank of a matrix is equal to the number of non zero rows in echelon form of .
Equivalence of matrices
A matrix is said to be equivalent to another matrix , written as ~ if can be obtained
from by applying finite number of elementary transformations on .
Note: The relation ~ (is equivalent to) is an equivalence relation on the set of all ×
matrices with entries from the set of real numbers.
Elementary transformations enable us to transform a given matrix into echelon form. In an
echelon form, finding the highest order non singular sub matrix is easy. The following
theorem enables us to find the rank of a matrix using elementary transformations.
Theorem 1: Elementary transformations on a matrix do not change its rank.
4 3 0 2 
Example: Find the rank of =  3 4 1 3  using elementary transformations.
 7 7 1 5 
Solution:
 4 3 0 2 
=  3 4 1 3  applying → −
 7 7 1 5 
 1 1 1 1
~  3 4 1 3 applying → − , → +
 7 7 1 5 
1 1 1 1 
~ 0 7 4 6  applying → +
0 14 8 12 
1 1 1 1
~  0 7 4 6  echelon form of
 0 0 0 0 
( ) = The number of non zero rows in the echelon form of = 2.
 3 2 0 1 7 
0 2 2 1 5 
Example: Find the rank of the matrix =   using elementary
1 2 3 2 1
 
0 1 2 1 6 
transformations.
Solution:
 3 2 0 1 7 
 0 2 2 1 5 
=   applying ↔
1 2 3 2 1 
 
0 1 2 1 6 
1 2 3 2 1 
 0 2 2 1 5 
~  applying → −
 3 2 0 1 7 
 
0 1 2 1 6 
1 2 3 2 1 
0 2 2 1 5 
~   applying ↔
 0 4 9 5 10 
 
0 1 2 1 6 
1 2 3 2 1 
0 1 2 1 6 
~  applying → − , → −
 0 4 9 5 10 
 
0 2 2 1 5 
 1 2 3 2 1 
0 1 2 1 6 
~   applying → + , → −
0 0 1 1 14 
 
0 0 0 2 7 

1 2 3 2 1  echelon form of
0 1 2 1 6 
~ 
0 0 1 1 14  ∴ ( ) = The number of non zero rows in the echelon form
  of = 4.
0 0 0 0 35 

Exercise:
Find the rank of the following matrices:
1 0 −4
(i)
2 −1 3
1 2 6
(ii)
2 4 3
1 0 0
(iii) 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 1 1
(iv) 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 4 −1
(v) 2 3 0
0 1 2
 2 3 1 1
 1 1 2 4 
(vi)  
 3 1 3 2 
 
 6 3 0 7 

1 3 4 3
(vii)  3 9 12 9 
 1 3 4 3
6 1 3 8
4 2 6 1
(viii)  
10 3 9 7
 
16 4 12 15 
1 2 3 1
(ix)  2 4 6 2 
 1 2 3 2 
 3 9 12 3 
(x) 1 3 4 5 
 
1 3 4 1 

Answers:
(i) 2
(ii) 2
(iii) 3
(iv) 1
(v) 3
(vi) 3
(vii) 1
(viii) 2
(ix) 2
(x) 2

4.8. System of Linear Equations and consistency

Learning Objectives:
 To discuss the Cramer’s rule and Matrix Inversion Method to solve a System of linear
Equations in unknowns.
AND
 To solve the related problems.

System of linear equations in unknowns

In this module, we study the solutions of a system of linear equations in unknowns by
two methods, (1) Cramer’s rule and (2) Matrix inversion method.
Consider the following system of linear equations in unknowns , , … ,
+ +⋯+ =
+ +⋯+ =
… (1)
… … …
+ + ⋯+ =
where and are real numbers for 1 ≤ , ≤ . The system (1) can be represented by
the matrix equation
= … (2)

where = , = ⋮ and = . Here is called the coefficient matrix.

× ⋮

A set of values of , , … , which satisfies the system (1) is called a solution of the
system.
The following are the two methods to find the solution of the system (2) if the coefficient
matrix is non-singular.
Method 1: Cramer’s Rule
Determinants can be used to solve a system of linear equation in unknowns.
Cramer’s rule: Let be non singular. The cramer’s rule for the solution of = , a system
of linear equations in unknowns , , … , is given by
| |
= | | , = , ,…,
where | | is the determinant of the matrix obtained by replacing the th column of by
the column vector .
Proof: We have = , a system of linear equations in unknowns , , … , where

= , = ⋮ and =
× ⋮

i.e., + +⋯+ = …()

+ +⋯+ = …( )
… … …
+ + ⋯+ = …( )
Let be the cofactor of in | |. Multiplying the equations ( ), ( ), … , ( ) by
, ,… respectively, we get
+ +⋯+ =
+ +⋯+ =
… … …
+ + ⋯+ =
Adding the above equations,
( + +⋯+ ) +( + + ⋯+ )
+⋯+ ( + + ⋯+ )
= + +⋯+

. ., + + = + +⋯+

b1 a12  a1n
n  A , if j  k
b a22  a2 n
⇒| | = 2 , ∵  ij ik 0 , if j  k
a A 
   
i 1 
bn an 2  ann
=| |, where | | is the determinant of obtained by replacing the 1st column of
by the column vector .
| | | |
Thus, = | |
. Similarly = | | for = 2,3, … , .
Hence the rule.
Example 1: Solve the following simultaneous linear equations by using Cramer’s rule.
− =
− =−
Solution: The given linear equations can be written as = , where
4 −1 5
= , = , =
−3 4 −7
4 −1
Here | | = = 16 − 3 = 13 ≠ 0. Thus, is non-singular.
−3 4
Hence we can solve the given linear equations by using Cramer’s rule
 | == 5 −1 = 13 ; | = 4 5
| | = −13
−7 4 −3 −7
| | | |
Hence by cramer’s rule = | |
= = 1; = | |
= − = −1
∴ The solution of the given system of equations is = 1, = −1.
Example 2: Solve the following simultaneous linear equations by using Cramer’s rule.
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
Solution: The given linear equations can be written as = , where
1 1 1 1
= 2 2 3 , = , = 6
1 4 9 3
1 1 1
Here | | = 2 2 3 applying ⟶ − , ⟶ − ,
1 4 9
1 1 1
= 0 0 1 = (−1)(3) = −3 ≠ 0
0 3 8
Thus, is non-singular.
Hence we can solve the given linear equations by using Cramer’s rule
1 1 1 1 1 1
| | = 6 2 3 = −21 ; | | = 2 6 3 = 30
3 4 9 1 3 9
1 1 1
| | = 2 2 6 = −12
1 4 3
Hence by cramer’s rule
| | | | | |
= | | = =7 ; = | | = = −10 ; = | | = =4
∴ The solution of the given system of equations is = 7, = −10, = 4.
Method 2: Matrix Inversion method
Theorem: Let = be a system of linear equations in variables. If is nonsingular
then the system has a unique solution = .
Proof: We have = , a system of linear equations in unknowns. Given that is non
singular. Therefore, exists. We first prove that = is a solution. Pre-multiplying
the equation = both sides by ,
= ⟹ ( )= ⟹( ) =
⟹ = ⟹ =
Thus, = is a solution of = .
Uniqueness: We now prove the uniqueness of the solution. Let , be a solutions
of = . Then
= and = ⟹ = ⟹ = (since is non-singular)
This shows that = is the unique solution of the system = .
Example 3: Solve the system of linear equations by matrix inversion method
− + =
+ + =
Solution: The given system of linear equations is
 2 − = −6
… (1)
6 + = −8
(1) can be written in the matrix form as
= … (2)
2 −1 −6
where = , = , =
6 1 −8
2 −1
Now,| | = =2+6 =8 ≠0
6 1
⟹ is a non-singular matrix. Therefore is invertible and the system (2) has a unique
solution =
− 1 1
We have ∴ = =
− −6 2
We have =

1 1 −6 −6 − 8 −
i.e., = = =
−6 2 −8 36 − 16

⟹ =− , =
Hence, the unique solution of the given system of linear equations is
=− , =
Example 4: Solve the system of linear equations by matrix inversion method
+ + =
+ =
− =
Solution: The given system of linear equations is
+2 + =7
+ 3 = 11 … (1)
2 −3 = 1
(1) can be written in the matrix form as
= … (2)
1 2 1 7
where = 1 0 3 , = , = 11
2 −3 0 1
1 2 1
Now,| | = 1 0 3 (expanding along 2nd row)
2 −3 0
= −1(0 + 3) − 3(−3) = 18 ≠ 0
⟹ is a non-singular matrix. Therefore is invertible and the system (2) has a unique
solution =
Let be the cofactor of in = , then we have
×
0 3 1 3
= (−1) =9 ; = (−1) =6
−3 0 2 0
1 0 2 1
= (−1) = −3 ; = (−1) = −3
2 −3 −3 0
1 1 1 2
= (−1) = −2 ; = (−1) =7
2 0 2 −3
2 1 1 1
= (−1) =6 ; = (−1) = −2
0 3 1 3
 1 2
= (−1) = −2
1 0
The matrix of cofactors of is
9 6 −3
= −3 −2 7
6 −2 −2
The adjoint of is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of .
9 6 −3 9 −3 6
= −3 −2 7 = 6 −2 −2
6 −2 −2 −3 7 −2
9 −38 37
We have =| | = 26 −4 −14
1 26 −11
We have, =
9 −38 37 7 2
⟹ = 26 −4 −14 11 = 1
1 26 −11 1 3
⟹ = 2, = 1, = 3
Hence, the unique solution of the given system of linear equations is
= 2, = 1, = 3
Consider a system of linear equations in unknown , , … ,
(where > , = , < ). Such a system can be written as
+ +⋯+ =
+ +⋯+ =
… (1)
… … ….
+ +⋯+ =
where and are real numbers for 1 ≤ ≤ and 1 ≤ ≤ .
If each = 0, 1 ≤ ≤ , then the system (1) is said to be a homogeneous system. If at least
one ≠ 0, then the system (1) is said to be a non-homogeneous system.
System (1) can be represented by the matrix equation
= … (2)

where = , = ⋮ and =
× ⋮

The matrix is called the coefficient matrix and the matrix [ ] (the matrix obtained by
placing the column matrix to the right of the matrix ) is called the augmented matrix.
 a11 a12 ... a1n b1 
a a ... a2n b2 
i.e., [ ] =  21 22
 ... ... ... ... ... 
 
am1 am 2 ... am n bm 
A set of values , , … , satisfying the equations in the system (1) is called a solution of
the system (1)
The system (1) is said to be consistent if the system has a solution. If the system has no
solutions then it is said to be inconsistent.
The solution of the system of linear equations (2) depends on the ranks of the coefficient
matrix and the augmented matrix [ ].The following theorem gives the nature of
solutions of the system.
Theorem 1: The system of linear equations in unknowns
= , …( )
is consistent if and only if ( ) = [ ].
Further, the system ( ) has
(i) unique solution if ( ) = [ ] = (the number of unknowns)
(ii) Infinitely many solutions if ( ) = [ ]<
Note:
1. The system (2) is inconsistent if ( ) ≠ [ ].
2. Suppose = , . , the number of equations is equal to the number of unknowns.
Then in = , is a square matrix of order . If is singular then we cannot apply
crammer’s rule and matrix inversion method for the solution of the system. But we can
apply this method. Further, we can apply this method even if is non singular.
3. If < and the system is consistent then it has infinitely many solutions.
4. We use only elementary row transformation to reduce [ ] to an echelon form.
Example: Examine whether the following system of equations is consistent or inconsistent:
5 + +2 = 3
3 +2 −2 =2
2 + + 4 = −1
If consistent find the complete solution.
Solution: The given system is a non-homogeneous system of three equations in three
unknowns.
The matrix equation of the given system of equations is = , where
5 1 2 3
= 3 2 −2 , = , = 2
2 1 4 −1
The augmented matrix is [ ]
5 1 2 3
[ ] =  3 2 2 2

applying ⟶ −
 2 1 4 1
1 1 6 5
~ 3 2 2 2 applying ⟶ − , ⟶ −
 
 2 1 4 1
 1 1 6 5 
~ 0 5 16 13 applying ⟶ −
 
 0 3 16  11
 1 1 6 5 
~ 0 5 16 13  echelon form of [ ] … (3)
 
 0 0 32 16 
Now, [ ] = the number of nonzero rows in the echelon form of [ ]
=3
 1 −1 −6
and ( ) =rank of 0 5 16 = 3
0 0 32
Thus, ( ) = [ ] = 3 =the number of unknowns.
Therefore, by theorem 1 the given system is consistent and it has a unique solution.

From (3) we write the equivalent system of equations

− −6 = 5
5 + 16 = −13
32 = −16
32 = −16 ⟹ = −
5 + 16 = −13 ⟹ 5 − 8 = −13 ⟹ = −1
− −6 = 5⟹ +1+3= 5⟹ =1
Thus, = 1, = −1, = − is the solution of the given system.
Example: Examine whether the following system of equations is consistent or inconsistent:
5 − 3 − 7 + = 10
− + 2 + 6 − 3 = −3
+ +4 −5 = 0
Solution: The given system is a non homogeneous system of three equations in four
unknowns. The matrix equation of the given system of equations is
=
5 3 7 1  10
where =  1 2 6 3 , = , = −3
1 1 4 5 0

The augmented matrix is [ ]
5 3 7 1 10 
[ ] =  1 2 6 3 3  applying ↔
1 1 4 5 0 

1 1 4 5 0 
~ 1 2 6 3 3  applying ⟶ + , ⟶ −
5 3 7 1 10 

1 1 4 5 0 
~ 0 3 10 8 3  applying ⟶ +
0 8  27 26 10 

1 1 4 5 0 
~ 0 3 10 8 3  echelon form of [ ] … (3)
0 0 1 14 6 

Now [ ] = The number of non zero rows in the echelon form of [ ]
=3
 1 1 4  5
and ( ) = 0 3 10 8  = 3
0 0 1 14 

Thus, ( ) = [ ] = 3 < 4, (the number of unknowns).
Therefore, by theorem 1 , the given system is consistent and it has infinite number of
solutions. We have the following equivalent system of equations:
+ +4 −5 = 0
3 + 10 − 8 = −3
− + 14 = 6
If = ∈ , then
− + 14 = 6 ⟹ − + 14 = 6 ⟹ = 14 − 6,
3 + 10 − 8 = −3 ⟹ 3 + 10 (14 − 6) − 8 = −3 ⟹ = 19 − 44 ,
+ + 4 − 5 = 0 ⟹ = 5 − 4(14 − 6) − 19 + 44 ⟹ =5−7
Thus = 5 − 7 , = 19 − 44 , = 14 − 6 , =
where ∈ is arbitrary . Therefore, we get infinite number of solutions.
Example: Examine whether the following system of equations is consistent or inconsistent.
4 − 2 − + 2 = −5
3 − 2 + 3 = −4
5 − 4 + = −3
If consistent ,find the complete solution.
Solution: The given system is a non homogeneous system of three equations in four
unknowns. The matrix equation of the given system of equations is
=
 4 2 1 2 −5
where =  3 0 2 3, = , = −4
 5 4 0 1  −3

The augmented matrix is [ ]
4 2 1 2 5 
[ ]=  3 0 2 3 4  applying ⟶ −
5 4 0 1 3 

1 2 1 1 1 
~3 0  2 3 4  applying ⟶ − , ⟶ −
5 4 0 1 3 

1 2 1  1 1 
~ 0 6 5 6 1  applying ⟶ −
0 6 5 6 2 

  1 2 1  1 1 
~ 0 6 5 6 1  echelon form of [ ] … (3) Now,
 0 0 0 0 3 

[ ] = The number of non zero rows in the echelon form of [ ]
=3
 1 2 1 1
And ( ) =  0 6  5 6  2
 0 0 0 0 

Thus ( ) ≠ [ ].Therefore , by theorem 1 the given system is inconsistent.
Example: Investigate for what values of and the simultaneous equations
+ + =6
+ 2 + 3 = 10
+2 + =
have i) no solution ii) unique solution iii) infinitely many solutions
Solution: The given system is a non-homogeneous system of three equations in three
unknowns.
The matrix equation of the given system of equations is = , where
1 1 1 6
= 1 2 3 , = , = 10
1 2
The augmented matrix is [ ]
1 1 1 6 
[ ] = 1 2 3 10  applying ⟶ − , ⟶ −
1 2   
1 1 1 6 

~ 0 1 2 4  applying ⟶ −
 
 0 1   1   6 
1 1 1 6 

~ 0 1 2 4 
 
 0 0   3   10 
i. If − 3 ≠ 0, then ( ) = ([ ]) = 3 = number of unknowns. Therefore the
system has a unique solution
ii. If − 3 = 0 and − 10 = 0 . , = 3 and = 10 , then
( ) = ([ ]) = 2, which is less than the number of unknowns.
Therefore , the system has infinitely many solutions.
iii. If − 3 = 0 and − 10 ≠ 0 . . , = 3 and ≠ 10 , then
( ) = 2, ([ ]) = 3, . . , ( ) ≠ ([ ]). Therefore the system is
inconsistent .
Homogeneous system of linear equations.
Consider the following system of homogeneous linear equations in unknowns
+ +⋯+ =0
+ +⋯+ =0
… (1)
… … ….
+ +⋯+ =0
The matrix equation of the above system is
= … (2)
0
0
where = , = ⋮ and =
× ⋮
0 ×
Note that the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix [ ] have the same rank(
because they differ by a column of zeros). Therefore, a homogeneous system of linear
equations is always consistent. We see that
= = =⋯= =0
is always a solution. This solution is called the trivial solution . A solution which is not trivial
solution is called a nontrivial solution. We are interested in finding a nontrivial solutions of
a homogeneous system of linear equations.
The following theorem gives the nature of solutions of the system (2)
Theorem 2:
The system of homogeneous linear equations in unknowns = has
a. the trivial solution only if ( ) = (the number of unknowns)
b. an infinite number of solutions if ( ) <
Note: if < ( the number of equations is less than the number of unknowns) then a
system of homogeneous linear equations in unknowns always has an infinite
number of nontrivial solutions
Example: Find all the nontrivial solutions ,if any, for the following linear system of
equations:
− + =0
+2 + =0
2 + +3 = 0
Solution: The given system is a homogeneous system of three linear equations in three
unknowns. The matrix equation of the given system of equations is = 0, where
1 −1 1 0
= 1 2 1 , = , = 0
2 1 3 0
1 −1 1
Now, = 1 2 1 applying ⟶ − , ⟶ −
2 1 3
1 −1 1
~ 0 3 0 applying ⟶ −
0 3 1
1 −1 1
~ 0 3 0 echelon form of
0 0 1
and ( ) = the number of non zero rows of
 = 3 = the number of unknowns
Therefore , by theorem 2, the trivial solution = = = 0 is the only solution of the
given system.
Example:
Find all nontrivial solutions , if any, for the following system of equations:
2 −4 −5 = 0
3 −6 + =0
5 − 10 − 3 = 0
7 − 14 − 16 = 0
Solution: The given system is a homogeneous system of four linear equations in three
unknowns. The matrix equation of the given system of equations is = 0, where
2 4 5 
0
3 6 1 
= 5 , = , = 0
10 3  0
7 
14 16
0

2 4 5 
3 6 1 
Now , = applying ⟷
5 10 3 
7 
14 16

3 6 1 
2 4 5 
~ applying ⟶ −
5 10 3 
7 14 16


1 2 6 
2 4 5 
~ applying ⟶ − , ⟶ − , ⟶ −
5 10 3 
7 14 16


1 2 6 
0 0 17
~ applying ⟶ − , ⟶ − , ⟶ −
0 0 33
0 0 58


1 2 6 
0 0 1
~ applying ⟶ − , ⟶ − ,
0 0 1
0 0 1


 1 2 6 
0 0 1
~ echelon form of
0 0 0
0 0 0


and ( ) = 2 < 3 (the number of unknowns). Therefore , by theorem 2, the system has an
infinite number of nontrivial solutions. We have the following equivalent system of
equations
−2 +6 =0
=0
. . , = 0 and = 2
If = ∈ then = 2 , = 0
Thus = 2 , = , = 0, where ∈ is arbitrary. If ≠ 0, then we get an infinite
number of nontrivial solutions
Example:
Find all nontrivial solutions, if any , for the following system of equations:
2 +3 − + = 0
3 +2 −2 +2 =0
5 −4 +4 = 0
Solution: The given system is a homogeneous system of three linear equations in four
unknowns. Since the number of equations is less than the number of unknowns, the system
has an infinite number of nontrivial solutions.
The matrix equation of the given system of equations is = 0,
 2 3 1 1  0
 3 2 2 2 
Where =   = , = 0
5 0 4 4  0
2 3 1 1 
 2 2 2  applying
Now, = 3 ⟷
 5 0 4 4 
3 2 2 2 
~  2 3 1 1  applying ⟶ −
 5 0 4 4 
 1 1 1 1 
~  2 3 1 1  applying ⟶ − , ⟶ −
 5 0 4 4 
 1 1 1 1
~  0 5 1 1 applying ⟶ −
 0 5 1 1
  1 1 1 1
~  0 5 1 1  echelon form of
 0 0 0 0 
And ( ) = 2 < 4 (the number of unknowns). Therefore, by theorem 2, the system has an
infinite number of nontrivial solutions. We have the following equivalent system of
equations.
− − + =0
5 + − =0
. . , 5 = − + and − + 5 = 0 ⟹ = −4
If = ∈ and = ∈ , then = − + and = −4 − +
If ( , ) ≠ (0,0), then we get the following infinite number of solutions
= − ,− + , = , = , where and are arbitrary constants.

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Solve the following simultaneous linear equations by using Cramer’s rule.
− =−
+ =
Solution: The given linear equations can be written as = ,
3 −2 −4
where = , = , =
1 1 12
3 −2
Here | | = = 3 + 2 = 5 ≠ 0. Thus, is non-singular.
1 1
Hence we can solve the given linear equations by using Cramer’s rule
| | = −4 −2 = 20 ; | | = 3 −4 = 40
12 1 1 12
| | | |
Hence by cramer’s rule = | |
= = 4; = | |
= =8
∴ The solution of the given system of equations is = 4, = 8.
P1: Solve the following simultaneous linear equations by using Cramer’s rule.
+ =
− =−
Solution: The given linear equations can be written as = ,
4 3 16
where = , = , =
8 −3 −4
4 3
Here | | = = −12 − 24 = −36 ≠ 0. Thus, is non-singular.
8 −3
Hence we can solve the given linear equations by using Cramer’s rule
| | = 16 3 = −36 ; | | = 4 16 = −144
−4 −3 8 −4
| | | |
Hence by cramer’s rule = | | = = 1; = | | = =4
∴ The solution of the given system of equations is = 1, = 4.
IP2: Solve the following simultaneous linear equations by using Cramer’s rule.
+ + =
− + =
− + =
Solution: The given linear equations can be written as = , where
3 4 5 18
= 2 −1 8 , = , = 13
5 −2 7 20
3 4 5
Here | | = 2 −1 8 (expanding along first row)
5 −2 7
= 3(−7 + 16) − 4(14 − 40 + 5(−4 + 5) = 136 ≠ 0
Thus, is non-singular.
Hence we can solve the given linear equations by using Cramer’s rule
18 4 5 3 18 5
| | = 13 −1 8 = 408 ; | | = 2 13 8 = 136
20 −2 7 5 20 7
3 4 18
| | = 2 −1 13 = 136
5 −2 20
Hence by cramer’s rule
| | | | | |
= | |
= =3 ; = | |
= =1 ; = | |
= =1
∴ The solution of the given system of equations is = 3, = 1, = 1.
P2: Solve the following simultaneous linear equations by using Cramer’s rule.
− + =
+ + =
− + =
Solution: The given linear equations can be written as = , where
2 −1 3 9
= 1 1 1 , = , = 6
1 −1 1 2
2 −1 3
Here | | = 1 1 1 applying ⟷
1 −1 1
1 1 1
= (−1) 2 −1 3 applying ⟶ − , ⟶ − ,
1 −1 1
1 1 1
= (−1) 0 −3 1 = (−1)(2) = −2 ≠ 0
0 −2 0
Thus, is non-singular.
Hence we can solve the given linear equations by using Cramer’s rule
9 −1 3 2 9 3
| | = 6 1 1 = −2 ; | | = 1 6 1 = −4
2 −1 1 1 2 1
2 −1 9
| | = 1 1 6 = −6
1 −1 2
Hence by cramer’s rule
| | | | | |
= | | = =1 ; = | |
= =2 ; = | |
= =3
∴ The solution of the given system of equations is = 1, = 2, = 3.
IP3. Solve the system of linear equations by matrix inversion method
− + =
− =
− =
Solution: The given system of linear equations is
− + =2
2 − =0 … (1)
2 − =1
(1) can be written in the matrix form as
= … (2)
1 −1 1 2
where = 2 −1 0 , = , = 0 and
0 2 −1 1
1 −1 1
Now,| | = 2 −1 0 (expanding along 1st column)
0 2 −1
= 1(1 − 0) − 2(1 − 2) = 1 + 2 = 3 ≠ 0
⟹ is a non-singular matrix. Therefore is invertible and the system (2) has a unique
solution =
Let be the cofactor of in = ×
, then we have
−1 0 2 0
(−1) =1 ; = (−1) =2
2 −1 0 −1
2 −1 −1 1
= (−1) =4 ; = (−1) =1
0 2 2 −1
1 1 1 −1
= (−1) = −1 ; = (−1) = −2
0 −1 0 2
−1 1 1 1
= (−1) =1 ; = (−1) =2
−1 0 2 0
1 −1
= (−1) =1
2 −1
The matrix of cofactors of is
1 2 4
= 1 −1 −2
1 2 1
The adjoint of is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of .
1 2 4 1 1 1
= 1 −1 −2 = 2 −1 2
1 2 1 4 −2 1
1 1 1
We have =| | = 2 −1 2
4 −2 1
We have, =
1 1 1 2 1
⟹ = 2 −1 2 0 = 2
4 −2 1 1 3
 ⟹ = 1, = 2, = 3
Hence, the unique solution of the given system of linear equations is
= 1, = 2, = 3
P3. Solve the system of linear equations by matrix inversion method
+ =
− =
Solution: The given system of linear equations is
2 + 5 = 11
… (1)
4 −3 =9
(1) can be written in the matrix form as
= … (2)
2 5 11
where = , = , =
4 −3 9
2 5
Now, | | = = −6 − 20 − 26 ≠ 0
4 −3
⟹ is a non-singular matrix. Therefore is invertible and the system (2) has a unique
solution =
− −3 −5
We have = =−
− −4 2
We have =
−3 −5 11 −33 − 45 −78 3
i.e., =− =− =− =
−4 2 9 −44 + 18 −26 1
3
∴ = ⟹ = 3, = 1
1
Hence, the unique solution of the given system of linear equations is
=3, =1
IP4. Solve the system of linear equations
− + =
+ − =
+ + =
Solution: The given system of linear equations is
5 − 6 + 4 = 15
7 + 4 − 3 = 19 … (1)
2 + + 6 = 46
(1) can be written in the matrix form as
= … (2)
5 −6 4 15
where = 7 4 −3 , = , = 19
2 1 6 46
5 −6 4
Now,| | = 7 4 −3 (expanding along 1st row)
2 1 6
= 5(24 + 3) + 6(42 + 6) + 4(7 − 8) = 419 ≠ 0
⟹ is a non-singular matrix. Therefore is invertible and the system (2) has a unique
solution =
Let be the cofactor of in = , then we have
×
4 −3 7 −3
= (−1) = 27 ; = (−1) = −48
1 6 2 6
 7 4 −6 4
= (−1) = −1 ; = (−1) = 40
2 1 1 6
5 4 3 4
= (−1) = 22 ; = (−1) = 26
2 6 5 −2
−6 4 5 4
= (−1) =2 ; = (−1) = 43
4 −3 7 −3
5 −6
= (−1) = 62
7 4
27 −48 −1
= 40 22 −17
2 43 62
The matrix of cofactors of is
27 −48 −1
= 40 22 −17
2 43 62
The adjoint of is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of .
27 −48 −1 27 40 2
= 40 22 −17 = −48 22 43
2 43 62 −1 −17 62
27 40 2
We have =| | = −48 22 43
−1 −17 62
We have, =
27 40 2 15 3
⟹ = −48 22 43 19 = 4
−1 −17 62 46 6
⟹ = 3, = 4, = 6
Hence, the unique solution of the given system of linear equations is
= 3, = 4, = 6
P4. Solve the system of linear equations by matrix inversion method
+ + =
− + =
− + =
Solution: The given system of linear equations is
3 + 4 + 5 = 18
2 − + 8 = 13 … (1)
5 − 2 + 7 = 20
(1) can be written in the matrix form as
= … (2)
3 4 5 18
where = 2 −1 8 , = , = 13
5 −2 7 20
3 4 5
Now,| | = 2 −1 8 (expanding along 1st row)
5 −2 7
= 3(−7 + 16 ) − 4(14 − 40 ) + 5(−4 + 5) = 136 ≠ 0
⟹ is a non-singular matrix. Therefore is invertible and the system (2) has a unique
solution =
Let be the cofactor of in = , then we have
×
−1 8 2 8
= (−1) =9 ; = (−1) = 26
−2 7 5 7
2 −1 4 5
= (−1) =1 ; = (−1) = −38
5 −2 −2 7
3 5 3 4
= (−1) = −4 ; = (−1) = 26
5 7 5 −2
4 5 3 5
= (−1) = 37 ; = (−1) = −14
−1 8 2 8
3 4
= (−1) = −1
2 −1
The matrix of cofactors of is
−9 8 −5
= −8 7 −4
−2 2 −1
The adjoint of is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of .
9 26 1 9 −38 37
= −38 −4 26 = 26 −4 −14
37 −14 −11 1 26 −11
9 −38 37
We have =| | = 26 −4 −14
1 26 −11
We have, =
9 −38 37 18 3
⟹ = 26 −4 −14 13 = 1
1 26 −11 20 1
⟹ = 3, = 1, = 1
Hence, the unique solution of the given system of linear equations is
= 3, = 1, = 1
EXERCISES
1. Solve the following linear equations by Cramer’s rule and Matrix Inversion method

a. 5 + 7 + 2 = 0 c. 3 + 4 − 5 = 0
4 +6 +3=0 − +3= 0

b. 5 + 2 = 3 d. 3 + = 19
3 +2 =5 2 − 3 = 24

2. Solve the following linear equations by Cramer’s rule and Matrix Inversion method
a. + − =3 e. 3 + 4 + 2 = 8
2 + 3 + = 10 2 −3 = 3
3 − −7 =1 − 2 + 6 = −2

b. + + =3 f. 2 + + = 2
2 − + = −1 +3 − = 5
2 + − 3 = −9 3 + −2 =6
 c. 6 − 12 + 25 = 4 g. 2 + 6 = 2
4 + 15 − 20 = 3 3 − = −8
2 + 18 + 15 = 10 2 − + = −3

d. 5 + 3 + = 16 h. 3 + 4 + 7 = 14
2 + + 3 = 19 2 − +3 = 4
+ 2 + 4 = 25 +2 −3 = 0
I. Examine whether the following system of equations is consistent or inconsistent .If it is
consistent, find the complete solution.
1. + = ,− + = − ,− + =
2. − + = , − + = , − + = ,− + − =
3. − + = , − + =− , + + =−
4. + + = , + + = , + + =
5. + =− , + − =− , − =−
6. + + = , + + = , + − =

II. Find all the non trivial solutions, if any , for the following system of equations
7. + − = , + + = , − − =
8. + + = , + − = , − + =
9. + − + = , − + − = , + + =
10. + − − = , − − + = ,− + − − =
11. + − = , − − = , + + =

Answers:
I.
1. Consistent , unique solution, = , =
2. Inconsistent
3. Consistent, Infinitely many solutions, = − −4, = −6, = ∈
4. Consistent , infinitely many solutions, = 3 − 2 , = , = −1, ∈
5. Inconsistent
6. Consistent , unique solution, = 1, = 3, = 5

II.

7. = 2 , = −2 , = , ∈ , infinitely many nontrivial solutions

8. = = =0
9. =− , = − , = , = , , ∈ , infinitely many nontrivial solutions
10. = , = , = , = , , ∈ , infinitely many nontrivial solutions
11. Trivial solution only
5.1. Binomial Series
Learning Objectives:
 To define the Binomial Series when the index is negative and fractional values
 To find the general term of the Binomial series
AND
 To solve problems related to them

We shall consider the binomial theorem when the index has negative and fractional values.
It gives rise to an infinite series, called binomial series.
The expansion of a binomial may always be made to depend upon the case in which the
first term is unity.
n

x  y  x1 y   xn 1  zn

n

  x 
y
where, z  . Therefore, it is sufficient to confine our attention to binomials of the form
x
1  x n . By actual division, we find
1
1  x 1   1 x  x2  x3  
1 x
1
1  x  2  2
 1  2 x  3x2  4 x3  
1  x 
In each of these series, the number of terms is unlimited. They are only particular cases of
the general formula for the expansion of (1 + ) , where is any rational quantity.
For a positive integral index the expansion of (1 + ) is

1  x n
 1  x   x
n
1
n
2
2
   x
n
r
r
  n
n xn

When n is fractional or negative, the symbol n

r is no longer applicable. We write the
above expansion as
n n  1  2 n n  1 n  2  3
1  x n  1  nx  x  x 
12 1 2 3
It can be proved that the above expansion into infinite series holds only when the modulus
of is less than 1.
The binomial theorem for any index may then be stated as follows.
If is a real number and is a rational number, then the following formula, known as
the binomial expansion,
n n  1  2 n n  1 n  2  3
1  x n  1  nx  x  x   .........( 1) holds
1 2 12 3
whenever | | < 1 i.e., (− , ).
The general term of the expansion is given by
n n  1n  2  n  r  1 r
Tr 1  x
r!
where r = 1, 2, 3 …
The coefficient of the general term vanishes only when one of the factors of its numerator
is zero. The series will therefore stop at the th term when n  r  1 is zero; that is when
r  n 1 ; but since is a positive integer this equality can never hold except when the
index is positive and integral. Thus, the expansion by the binomial theorem extends to
an infinite number of terms when is negative or fractional. (If is zero or a positive
integer, then the series is finite)
If we apply the binomial expansion formula to 1  2  , we will have
2

1  22  1   2 2   2 3  22  

1.2
1 = 1 + 4 + 12 + …
which is impossible.
It is important to remember that the condition x  1 is necessary for the binomial
expansion when is fractional or negative.
Example
1

 x 2
Expand  1   when x 2
 2
Solution
x 1 2
Let z   . Then z  x  1
2 2 2
 1  1  1 
1
        1
 2  z   2   2  z2 
Therefore, 1 z 2 1


1 1 2
1

 x 2 x 3x2
1   1  
 2 4 32
The following particular cases of binomial series occur in science and engineering often, and
they are valid only when x  1 .
1. 1  x 
1
 1  x  x 2  x3  
2. 1  x 
1
 1  x  x 2  x3  
3. 1  x 
2
 1  2 x  3x 2  4 x3  

4.
1  x 2  1  2x  3x 2  4x3  
Theorem:
If | | < 1 and , then
( + ) ( + )( + )
( + ) = − + −+
! !
( + )…( + − )
… + (− ) +⋯
!
Proof: We have, by Binomial expansion (1)
( − 1) ( − 1)( − 2)
(1 + ) = 1 + + + +⋯
2! 3!
( − 1) … ( − + 1)
+ +⋯
!
Replacing by – , we get
( )( ) ( )( )( )
(1 + ) = 1 + (− ) + + +⋯
! !
( )( )…( )
+ !
+⋯
( ) ( )( )
= 1− + !
− !
+⋯
( )…( )
+(−1) !
+⋯
Note (1):
a) If | | < 1, , then
1  xn  1 nC1x  ( n 1)C2 x2  ( n2)C3x3     1r ( n r 1)Cr x r  ....(2)

  1
r ( n  r 1)
Cr xr
r 0

b) Its general term is T r  1   1  r ( n  r  1)

Cr xr
Note (2):
a) If | | < 1, , then (Replacing by − in (2))
1  x  n
 1  nC 1 x  ( n  1)
C2x2  (n  2 )
C3x3    ( n  r 1)
C r x r  ...

( n  r 1)
 Cr xr
r 0
( n  r  1) r
b) Its general term is T r  1  Cr x
Some particular cases of Binomial expansion:
a)

1 r ( n  r 1)
1  x     1 Crxr w h e re n  1
r0
 
r r r r
=   1  Crx    1  xr
r0 r0
r
= 1  x  x 2  x 3 + . . . +   1  x r  . ..
r r
Its general term is T r  1    1  x
 1
b). 1  x  = 1  x  x 2  x 3 + . ..+ x r  .. .
(Replacing by – in the above)

Its general term is Tr 1  x r

c).

2 r ( n  r 1)
1  x      1 Cr x r where n  2
r 0
 
r ( r 1) r r ( r 1)
=    1 C r x     1 C1 x r
r 0 r0

r
=    1 ( r  1) x r
r 0
r
= 1  2 x  3 x 2  4 x 3 +...+  1 ( r  1) x r  ...
r r
Its general term is T r  1    1  ( r  1) x
b) By replacing by – in the above, we get

2
1  x  =  ( r  1) x r
r0

=1  2 x  3 x 2  4 x 3 +...+( r  1) x r  ...
Its general term is Tr 1  ( r  1) x r

3 r ( n  r 1)
1  x      1 Cr x r where n  3
r 0
 
r (r 2 ) r r ( r  2)
=   1 C r x     1 C2 x r
r 0 r 0

r ( r  1)( r  2) r
=   1
r 0 2
x

1 r
= 1.2  2.3 x  3.4 x 2  4.5 x 3 +...+   1 ( r  1)( r  2) x r  ...
2 
r ( r  1)( r  2) r
Its general term is Tr 1    1 x
2
c) Replacing by – in the above, we get
3 1
1  x  = 1.2  2.3x  3.4 x 2  4.5x3 +...+(r  1)( r  2) xr  ...
2
 ( r  1)( r  2 ) r
Its general term is T r  1  x
2

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Find the general term in the expansion of − .

Solution: Given: 3−

3− =3 1−
…
=3 −
!

= (−1) …
!
× × ×…×( )
=3
!
× × ×…×( )
The general term of 3 − is 3
!

P1: Find the general term in the expansion of ( − ) .

Solution: Given: (2 − 3 )

(2 − 3 ) =2 1−
…
=2 !
−

= (−1) …
!
× × ×…×( )
=2 !

IP2: Find 8th term of −

Solution: Given: 1−
…
= −
!
…
=
!
× × ×…×
= =
!

P2: Find 6th term of +

Solution:

Given: 3+ =3 1+

=3 !
 =3
!
× × × √
= −3√3 !
=−
( )
IP3: Find the coefficient of in .
( )
( )
Solution: Given:
( )
( )
= (1 + 2 + ) 1−
( )

= (1 + 2 + ) 1+3 +4 + 5 +⋯

∴ = 10 +2×9 +8

= (10 × +2×9 × +8 )

= (20 + 48 + 28) = × 96 =
( )
Therefore, Coefficient of in is
( )
( )
P3: Find the coefficient of in ( )
.
( )
Solution: Given:
( )
( )
( )
= (1 + 3 )(1 + 4 )
1 − 4 (4 ) + 5 (4 ) − 6 (4 ) + ⋯ +
= (1 + 3 )
(−1) (4 + − 1) (4 )
∴ = 15 4 + 3 × (−1) 14 4
= 4 (15 × 4 − 3 × 14 )
× × × × × ×
=4 −
= 4 × 14 × 13 × 4
= 182 × 4
. . . . . .
IP4: If = + + + ⋯, then + = ___.
. . . . . .

. . . . . .
Solution: Given: = .
+ . .
+ . . .
+⋯
Adding 1 + on both sides, we get
. . . . . .
1+ + = 1+ + .
+ . .
+ . . .
+⋯
( )
Comparing the series with 1 + + + ⋯, we get
( ) .
= …………… (1) and = .
……………… (2)
From (2), we have: ( − )= ⇒ − = ⇒ =−
From (1), we have: − = ⇒ =−

Therefore, 1 + + = (1 + ) = 1 − = (3)
 ⇒ + =3
⇒ + + =3
⇒ 9 + 24 = 11
. . .
P4: If = + . + . . + ⋯, then + = ___.
Solution:
. . .
Given: = + + +⋯
. . .
Adding 1 on both sides, we get
. . .
1+ =1+ + + +⋯
. . .
( )
Comparing the series with 1 + + + ⋯, we get
( ) .
= …………… (1) and = ……………… (2)
.
( )
From (2), we have: = ⇒ − = ⇒ =−
From (1), we have: − = ⇒ =−

Therefore, 1 + = (1 + ) = 1 − =
⇒ (1 + ) =
⇒ +2 =
Exercises:
1 x
1. Find the coefficient of in the expansion of if x  1 .
1 x
3

2. Find the r  1 term and the coefficient of x in the expansion of 1  2 x 
th r
2 where
2x  1 .
3. Find the range of for which the binomial expansions of the following are valid
a. (3 − 4 )
b. (9 + 5 )
c. (4 + 7 )
d. (7 + 3 )
4. Write the first 3 terms in the expansion of
a. (4 − 5 )
b. (2 − 7 )
c. 1 +
5. Write the general term in the expansion of
a. (1 − 4 )
b. 1−

c. 3+
 6. Find the coefficients of
a. in (1 − 4 )
b. in (1 − 3 )
7. Find the
a. 6th term of 1 +

b. 5th term of 7 +
c. 10th term of (3 − 4 )
8. Find the coefficient of in the expansion of
(1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ ∞)
9. Find the sum of the series
. . .
a. 1 + + . + . . + ⋯ + ⋯
. . .
b. 1 + + + + ⋯+ ⋯
. . .
. . .
c. 1 + . + .
. + . .
. + ⋯+ ⋯
. . .
d. 1 − + − +⋯+⋯
. . .
. . .
10.If = 1+ + .
+ . .
+ ⋯ + ⋯, then find +2 .

5.2. Geometric Series

Learning objectives:
 To derive a formula of sum of an infinite number of terms of a decreasing geometric
series and to solve related problems

Now, consider the series 1, , , , ….

Let be the sum of the infinite series.

The sum to terms = = 2 1− =2−

By making sufficiently large, we can make the fraction

as small as we please. Then the sum differs from 2 by as little as we please. Thus, by taking
sufficient number of terms, we have = 2.
We now consider a more general case. We have
( )
=
= −
Suppose is a proper fraction; then the grater the value of the smaller is the value of ,
and consequently of ;
and therefore by making sufficiently large, we can make the sum of n terms of the series
differ from by a small quantity as we please.
Thus: the sum of an infinite number of terms of a decreasing geometrical progression
is . In other words, the sum to infinity is
=
Example:
The sum of an infinite number of terms in a G.P. is 15, and the sum of their squares is 45;
find the series.
Solution:
Let denote the first term, the common ratio; then the sum of the terms is .
The squares series is
, , ,…
The common ratio is r 2 . Therefore the sum of the series is .
Hence,
= 15, = 45
Dividing
. = ⟹ =3
Now, = 3, = 15 ⟹ . =
Hence
=5⟹ = =5
Thus the series is 5, , , …
Example:
Find the value of . 423
Solution
. 423 = + + +⋯
= + + +⋯
= + 1+ + +⋯
= + .

= + .
= + =
PROBLEM SET
IP1: Sum of 4 + 2 + 1 + .5 + .25 + ⋯ + ⋯
Solution :4 + 2 + 1 + .5 + .25 + ⋯ , It is a G.P.
= 4, =
Sum of infinite number of terms = = =8
P1: Sum 0.4 + 0.04 + 0.004 + ⋯ + ⋯
Solution: 0.4 + 0.04 + 0.004 + ⋯ + ⋯
It is a G.P with first term o.4 and common ratio .
 = 0.4, =
.
∴ = = =
IP2: Find a rational number which when expressed as a decimal will have0.1 as its
expansion
Solution:
. 1276 = + + +⋯
= + + +⋯
= + 1+ + +⋯
= + .

= + .
= + = =
P2: Find a rational number which when expressed as a decimal will have0.1 as its
expansion.
Solution:
. 157 = + + +⋯
= + + +⋯
= + 1+ + +⋯
= + .

= + .
= + = = =
IP3: The sum of an infinite G.P is and the sum of their cubes is , find the G.P.
Solution: Let be the first term and the common ratio of the G.P.
Then, Sum = 57 ⇒ = 57 … . . (1)
Sum of the cubes = 9747
⇒ + + + ⋯ = 9747
⇒ = 9747 … . . ( )
Dividing the cube of ( ) by( ), we get
( ) ( )
. =
( )

⇒ = 19
( )

⇒ = 19
( )
⇒ 18 − 39 + 18 = 0
⇒ (3 − 2)(6 − 9) = 0
⇒ = or, =
⇒ = [∴ ≠ , −1 < <1 . .]
 Putting = in( ), we get
= 57 ⇒ = 19

Hence, the G.P. is 19, , , … ..

P3: The sum of an infinite geometric series is √ and the sum of the squares of these
terms is . Find the series.
Solution:
Let be the first term and be the common ratio of the infinite geometric series.
Sum = 3√5 ⇒ ( + + + ⋯ ∞) = 3√5 ⇒ = 3√5 … ( )
Sum if the squares = 9
⇒ + + +⋯∞ = 9
⇒ = 9 …( )
Dividing the square of (i) by (ii), we get
× =5
( )
⇒ =5⇒1+ =5−5 ⇒ =
Putting = in ( ), we get
= 3√5 ⇒ = √5
√ √
Hence, the required series is √5+ + + ⋯+ ⋯
IP4: Let , = , , ……. be the sum of infinite geometric series whose first term is
and the common ratio is ( )
⋯
Then →∞ =
⋯
Solution: Given that = and = ( )
Then the sum of the terms in infinite geometric series is
= , as → ∞
∴ = = ( + 1)
1
1−
( + 1)
Now , + + +⋯+
= 2( + 1) + 3 + 4( − 1) + ⋯ + ( + 1)2

= ( + 1)( − + 2)

= [ − +2 + − + 2]

= [ − + + + 2] = [ ( + 1) − + ( + 2)]
= [ ( + 1)] − [ ] + ( + 2) 1

= ( + 1) − + ( + 2)
( + 1) ( + 1)(2 + 1)
= ( + 1) − + ( + 2)
2 6
By simplifying, we get
+ + +⋯+ = [ + 9 + 14 ]
6
………………..(1)
+ +⋯+ = 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯ + ( + 1)
= 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯ + ( + 1) − 1
( + 1)[( + 1) + 1][2( + 1) + 1]
= −1
6
By simplifying, we get
+ +⋯+ = [2 + 9 + 13 ] ………….(2)
⋯
Now lim →∞ ⋯
[ + 9 + 14 ]
= lim 6
→∞ [ ]
6 2 + 9 + 13
9 14
1+ + 1
= lim =
→∞ 9 13 2
2+ +
P4: Let , = , , ……. be the sum of infinite geometric series whose first term is
( + ) and the common ratio is
( )
⋯
Then →∞ =
⋯
Solution:
Given that = ( + 1) and =( )
Then the sum of the terms in infinite geometric series is
= , as → ∞
( + 1)
∴ = = ( + 2)
1
1−
( + 2)
Now , + + +⋯+
= 3( + 2) + 4( + 1) + 5 + ⋯ + ( + 2)3

= ( + 2)( − + 3)

= [ − + 3 + 2 − 2 + 6]
= [ − + + 2 + 6]

= [ ( + 1) − + 2 + 6]

[ ( + 1)] − [ ] + (2 + 6) 1

= ( + 1) − + (2 + 6)
( + 1) ( + 1)(2 + 1)
= ( + 1) − + (2 + 6)
2 6
By simplifying, we get
+ + +⋯+ = [ + 15 + 38]
6
………………..(1)
+ +⋯+ = 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯ + ( + 2)
= 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ⋯ + ( + 2) − 1 − 2
( + 2)[( + 2) + 1][2( + 2) + 1]
= −5
6
By simplifying, we get
+ +⋯+ = [2 + 15 + 37 ] ………….(2)
Now
+ + + ⋯+
lim
→∞ + +⋯+
[ ]
= lim →∞ [ = lim →∞ =
]

EXERCISES

1) Find the sum of the following series to infinity:

+ + + + ⋯ ∞.
2) Prove that ( 9 / . 9 / . 9 / … . ∞ ) = 3.
3) If denotes the sum of the series 1 + + + ⋯ to ∞ and the sum of the
series 1 − + − ⋯ to ∞ , prove that + = 2. .
4) The sum of first two terms of an infinite G.P. is 5 and each term is three times the
sum of the succeeding terms. Find the G.P.
5) If second term of a G.P. is 2 and the sum of its infinite terms is 8, then its first term is
6) The sum of an infinite G.P. is 4 and the sum of the cubes of its terms is 92. The
common ratio of the original G.P. is.
7) If the sum of infinite Geometric series , 1, , , … is . Then the value of ?
8) The first term of a G.P is 2 more than the second term and the sum to infinity is 50.
Find the G.P.
9) Find a rational number which when expressed as a decimal will have 1.256 as its
expansion.
5.3. Arithmetic- Geometric Series
Learning objectives:
 To define an Arithmetic-Geometric series (AGS).
 To develop a method to find the sum of terms of a given AGS.
 To find the sum of the infinite number of the terms of a given AGS.
 To solve related problems.

The series
+( + )+( +2 ) +( +3 )
in which each term is the product of corresponding terms in an arithmetic and geometric
series is called Arithmetic-Geometric series.

Let be the sum of the terms of the above series. Then

= +( + )+( +2 ) +⋯ + −1
= + ( + ) +⋯+ + −2 + + −1
By subtraction
(1 − ) = + ( + +⋯+ )− + −1
( )
= + − + −1
Therefore
( )
= + ( )
−
We write in the form
= +( )
−( )
−
If < 1, we can make as small as we please by taking sufficiently large. In this case, we
obtain
∞ = + ( ) , for the sum to infinity.
Example: If < 1, sum the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ to infinity.
Solution: Let denote the sum of the series; then
= 1+2 +3 +4 +⋯
= + 2 + 3 +. ..
(1 − ) = 1 + + + +⋯
=
Therefore = ( )

PROBLEM SET
I.P1: Find the sum of terms of an Arithmetic-Geometric series
+ + + + + ⋯ … … ….
Solution: Given Arithmetic-Geometric series is
= 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 +……..+(3 − 2)
= + 4 + 7 + 10 +……..+(3 − 5) + (3 − 2)
Now, (1) − (2)
(1 − ) = 1 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 +……..+3 + (3 − 2 )
(1 − ) = 1 + 3( + + + +……..+ ) + (3 − 2 )
( )
(1 − ) = 1 + − (3 − 2 )
( )
( ) ( )
⟹ = + −
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
⟹ =( )
+ ( )
− ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
⟹ =
( )
{( )( )}
⟹ =
( )
{ }
⟹ = ( )
( ) ( )
⟹ = ( )
which is the sum of terms of the given series.
P1: Find the sum of terms of an Arithmetic-Geometric series
+ + + + + ⋯ … … ….
Solution: Given Arithmetic-Geometric series is
= 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 +……….+(2 − 1) ….(1)
= + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + (2 − 3) + (2 − 1) ………………….(2)
Now, (1) − (2)
(1 − ) = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 +……..+2 − (2 − 1 )
(1 − ) = 1 + 2( + + + +……..+ ) − (2 − 1 )
2 (1 − )
(1 − ) = 1 + − (2 − 1)
(1 − )
( ) ( )
⟹ = + −
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
⟹ = + −
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
⟹ =
( )
{( )( )}
⟹ =
( )
{ }
⟹ =
( )
( ) ( )
⟹ = ( )
which is the sum of terms of the given series.
IP2: Find the sum of the terms of the Arithmetic- Geometric series
+ + + + + ⋯…………
Solution: Given Arithmetic-Geometric series is
1 + + + + + ⋯ … … … … (1)
To manipulate the sum of the terms of the given series,
we have
( ) ( ( ) )
= + −
( ) ( ) ( )

From (1), = 1, = 4 − 1 = 3, = =
 ( ) ( ( ) )
∴ = + −
( ) ( ) ( )

( ( ) )
⟹ = + −

( ( ) )
⟹ = + −

⟹ = + − − (3 − 2 )
⟹ = + − − (3 − 2)
⟹ = − − −
⟹ = − − −
⟹ = − −
( ) ( )

⟹ = − ( )
− ( )
( )
⟹ = − ( )
which gives the sum of terms of the series (1)
P2: Find the sum of the terms of the Arithmetic- Geometric series
+ + + + + ⋯…………
Solution: Given Arithmetic-Geometric series is
1+ + + + +⋯ (1)
To manipulate the sum of the terms of the given series,
we have
( ) ( ( ) )
= + −
( ) ( ) ( )

From (1), = 1, = 3 − 1 = 2, = =
( ) ( ( ) )
∴ =( )
+ ( )
− ( )

( ( ) )
⟹ = + −

( ( ) )
⟹ = + −

⟹ = + − − (2 − 1 )
⟹ = + − − (2 − 1)
⟹ = − − −
⟹ = − − −
⟹ = − −
. .( )
⟹ = − −
( ) ( )
 ( )
⟹ = − ( )
which gives the sum of terms of the series (1)
IP3: Find the sum of the terms of the Arithmetic- Geometric series
+ + + + + ⋯ … … … … to infinity.
Solution: Method:1
Given Arithmetic-Geometric series is
1 + + + + + ⋯ ∞ … … … … … . (1)
We know that the sum of the series up to infinity is
= +
( )
From (1), = 1, = 3, =

∴ = +

⟹ = +

⟹ = + =

Method:2
=1+ + + + +……………. (1)
= + + + +……………. (2)
Now, (1) − (2)
1− =1+ + + + +⋯
⟹ =1+3 + + + +⋯

⟹ =1+3 ( By the geometric series)

⟹ =
P3: Find the sum of the terms of the Arithmetic- Geometric series
+ + + + + ⋯ … …to infinity.
Solution: Method:1
Given Arithmetic-Geometric series is
+ + + + + ⋯………∞ (1)
We know that the sum of the series up to infinity is
= +
( )
From (1), = 1, = 2, =

∴ = + = +

⟹ = + =
Method: 2
= + + + + +⋯ (1)
= + + + +⋯ (2)
Now, (1) − (2)
1− =1+ + + + +⋯
⟹ = 1+2 1+ + + + +⋯ −2
⟹ = −1 + 2 ( By the geometric series)

⟹ =
IP4: The sum of the series + + + + …………..∞, | | < 1 is
Solution: Given series is
= 2 +4 +6 +8 + 10 + ⋯ ∞Notice that the above series is
not an Arithmetic-Geometric Series.
Here 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 … are not in A.P
, . , 4, 16, 36, 64, 100, … are not in A.P
But 4, 16 − 4, 36 − 16, 64 − 36, 100 − 64, … are in A.P
. ., 4, 12, 20, 28, 36 … are in A.P
Now,
= 2 +4 +6 +8 + 10 + ⋯∞
= 4 + 16 + 36 + 64 + 100 + ⋯ ∞ (1)
= 4 + 16 + 36 + 64 + 100 + ⋯ ∞ (2)
Subtracting (2) from (1), we get
(1 − ) = 4 + 12 + 20 + 28 + 36 + ⋯ ∞ (3)
Now (3) is an Arithmetic-Geometric Series.
(1 − ) = 4 + 12 + 20 + 28 + 36 + ⋯ ∞ (4)
Subtracting (3) from (4), we get
(1 − )(1 − ) = 4 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + ⋯ ∞
⟹ (1 − ) = 4 + 8( + + + + ⋯ ∞)
8
⟹ (1 − ) = 4 +
1−
4+4
⟹ (1 − ) =
1−
4(1 + )
⟹ =
(1 − )
P4: The sum of the series + + + + + ⋯ ∞, | | < 1 is
Solution:
Given series is
= 1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +…………..∞,
Notice that the above series is not an Arithmetic-Geometric Series.
Here 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ……… are not in A.P
, . , 1, 4, 9, 16, 25,……….. are not in A.P
But 1, 4 − 1, 9 − 4, 16 − 9, 25 − 16, …………. are in A.P
. ., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9………… are in A.P
Now,
= 1 +2 +3 +4 +5 + ⋯∞
= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + ⋯ ∞ … … … . . (1)
= + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + ⋯ ∞ … … … (2)
Subtracting (2) from (1), we get
(1 − ) = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ⋯ ∞ … … … . (3)
Now (3) is an Arithmetic-Geometric Series.
(1 − ) = + 3 + 5 + 7 + 25 + ⋯ ∞ … … (4)
Subtracting (3) from (4), we get
(1 − )(1 − ) = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ ∞
⟹ (1 − ) = 1 + 2( + + + +⋯∞
2
⟹ (1 − ) = 1 +
1−
1+
⟹ (1 − ) =
1−
(1 + )
⟹ =
(1 − )
Exercises:
I. Find the sum of the following series
i) Up to n terms
ii) Up to infinity

1. 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 +……….. , | | < 1
2. 1 + + + + ………..
3. 2 + 3.3 + 4. 3 + 5. 3 +………..
4. 4. 7 + 7. 7 + 10. 7 + 13. 7 +…………..
5. 2 + + + +………
6. 1 + + + +…………..
7. 2. +4. 2 + 6. 2 + 8. 2 +………..
8. 3 + 9 + 12 + 15 +……….. | | < 1
9. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 ……….., | | < 1
10. 1 + + + +………
11.1 + 3 + 6 + 10 +……….. ,| | < 1
12.1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +……….. , | | < 1
13.If the sum of the series 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 +…………. is
Then find the value of .
14. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +……….. | | < 1
5.4. Exponential Number
Learning Objectives:
 To define the exponential number ( )
 To study its properties
AND
 To solve problems related to

n
 1
We expand the quantity 1   by the binomial theorem where is a positive integer.
 n
n
 1 1 n( n  1) 1 n(n  1)(n  2) 1
1    1  n    
 n n 1  2 n2 1 2  3 n3
1 1  1  1  2  1  1 1  2  1  3 
1       
n  n  n   n  n  n 
11   
1 2 1 2  3 1 2  3  4
The series is true for all values of .
n
 1
When is indefinitely large, we usually denote the left-hand side as nlim1   and

 n
n
 1 1 1 1
lim  1    1  1     
n   n 2! 3! 4!
The sum of the series on the right-hand side is denoted by the quantity .
n
 1 
Hence we have, lim  1   e
n
 n 
where, = + !+ !+ !+ !
+⋯
1
m
If we put = , we have, lim (1  m ) e
m0
Properties of e
 < <3
We first note that > 2.
1 1 1
  2
3! 2  2 2
1 1 1
Since ,  
4! 2  2  2 2 3

1 1 1
e  1 1   2  3  
2 2 2
1
we have, 1 1 2  3
1
1
2
Hence lies between 2 and 3.
 By taking sufficient number of terms in the series, it can be shown that
e  2 . 7182818285 
 It can also be shown that the quantity is an irrational number.
 In the next module, we show that
1 1 1 1
e 1  1     
1! 2! 3! 4!
 Note:
1 1 1 1
e 1    
1! 2! 3! 4!
  
1 1 1
  
n  0 n! n  1 ( n  1)! n  2 ( n  2 )!
n
1 1 1 1
e 1      
1

 1
1! 2! 3! 4! n 0 n!
1 1 1 1
Example: Prove that  e    1   
2 e 3! 5!
Solution: Using the relations
1 1 1 1
e 1     and
1! 2! 3! 4!
1 1 1 1
e 1  1    ,
1! 2! 3! 4!
we obtain by subtraction
 1 1 
e  e1  21    
 3! 5! 
and then
1 1 1 1
e   1  
2 e 3! 5!
PROBLEM SET
IP1: + !
+ !
+ !
+ ⋯ = ______
Solution: We have, 1+ + + + ⋯ …………………… (1)
! ! !
th
The term of the series (1) is
( )!
( ) ( )
∴1+ !
+ !
+ !
+⋯+( )!
=∑ ( )!
=∑ !

=∑ !
+∑ !

= 2∑ +∑
( )! !
 = 2∑ +∑
( )! !
=2 + =3
Therefore,
1+ + + +⋯+ =3
! ! ! ( )!
P1: + + + ⋯ = ______
! ! !
Solution: We have, !
+ !
+ !
+ ⋯ …………………… (1)
th
The term of the series (1) is
( )!
∴ + + +⋯ = ∑
! ! ! ( )!
(2 + 1) 1
= −
(2 + 1)! (2 + 1)!
1 1
= −
(2 )! (2 + 1)!
1 1 (−1) 1
= − = =
(2 )! (2 + 1)! !
Therefore, + + +⋯+ =
! ! ! ( )!
IP2: + + + + ⋯ = ______
! ! ! !
Solution: We have, !
+ ! + ! + ! + ⋯ …………………… (1)
The numerators of the series 5, 11, 17, 23 … are in A.P. with first term 5 and common
difference 6.
So th term = 5 + ( − 1)6 = 6 − 1
And denominators, 1, 2, 3, 4, … are also in A.P, then
th
term = 1 + ( − 1)1 =
Therefore, th term of the series (1) is
!
5 11 17 23 6 −1 6 −1
∴ + + + + ⋯+ =
1! 2! 3! 4! ! !
1
=6 −
! !
1 1
=6 −
( − 1)! !
= 6 − ( − 1)
= 5 +1
Therefore, + + + +⋯+ =5 +1
! ! ! ! !
P2: + + + + ⋯ = ______
! ! !
Solution: We have, !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+ ⋯………………… (1)
The numerators of the series 1, 4, 7, 10… are in A.P. with the first term 1 and common
difference 3.
So th term = 1 + ( − 1)3 = 3 − 2
And denominators, 1, 2, 3, 4, … are also in A.P, then
th
term = 1 + ( − 1)1 =
Therefore, th term of the series (1) is
!
1 4 7 10 3 −2 3 −2
∴ + + + +⋯ =
1! 2! 3! 4! ! !
1
=3 −2
! !
1 1
=3 −2
( − 1)! !
= 3 − 2( − 1)
= +2
Therefore, !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+⋯ !
= +2
IP3: + !
+ !
+ !
+ ⋯ = ______
Solution: We have, !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+ ⋯ …………………… (1)
th
The term of the series (1) is !
1 2 3 4
∴ + + + +⋯+ =
1! 2! 3! 4! ! !
( − 1) +
=
!
( )
=∑ !
+∑ !
=∑ +∑
( )! ( )!
= + =2
Therefore, ! + ! + ! + ! + ⋯ + ! = 2
P3: + !
+ !
+ !
+ ⋯ = ______
Solution: We have, !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+ ⋯ …………………… (1)
th
The term of the series (1) is !
∴ + + + +⋯+ =∑
! ! ! ! ! !
( )
=∑ !
( )( )
=∑ +∑
! !
=∑ ( )!
+∑ ( )!
 ( )
=∑ ( )!
+∑ ( )!
=∑ ( )!
+ 3∑ ( )!
+∑ ( )!
= +3 + =5
Therefore, !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+⋯+ !
=5
IP4: + + + + ⋯ = ______
! ! !
Solution: We have, !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+ ⋯ …………… (1)
th ⋯
The term of the series (1) is
!
⋯
∴ !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+⋯+ !
⋯
=∑ !
( )
=∑
!
( )
= ∑ ( )!
( )
= ∑ ( )!
= ∑ ( )!
+∑ ( )!
= + =
Therefore,
⋯
+ + + + ⋯+ =
! ! ! ! !

P4: + !
+ !
+ ⋯ = ______
Solution:
We have, + + + ⋯ …………………… (1)
! ! !
th ⋯
The term of the series (1) is
!
1 1 +2 1 +2 +3 1 +2 +3 +⋯+
∴ + + + ⋯+
1! 2! 3! !
1 +2 +3 +⋯+
=
!
( + 1)(2 + 1)
=
6 !
1 2 +3 +1
=
6 ( − 1)!
1 (2 + 3) + 1
=
6 ( − 1)!
1 (2 − 2 + 5) + 1 1 1
= +
6 ( − 1)! 6 ( − 1)!
 2 ( − 1) 5 1 1
= + +
6 ( − 1)! 6 ( − 1)! 6 ( − 1)!
1 ( − 2) + 2 5 ( − 1) + 1 1 1
= + +
3 ( − 2)! 6 ( − 1)! 6 ( − 1)!
1 1 2 1 5 1 5 1 1 1
= + + + +
3 ( − 3)! 3 ( − 2)! 6 ( − 2)! 6 ( − 1)! 6 ( − 1)!
1 2 5 5 1
= + + + +
3 3 6 6 6
17
=
6
Therefore,
⋯
!
+ !
+ !
+⋯+ !
=
Exercises:
Show that
 1 1 1  1 1 1 
1.  1      1       1
 1! 2! 3!  1! 2! 3! 
2 2
 1 1 1   1 1 
2.  1        1   1     
 2! 4! 6!   3! 5! 
1 1 1
   
2! 4! 6! e 1
3. 
1 1 e 1
1   
3! 5!
. . .
4. + + +⋯ =3
! ! !
5. !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+⋯= 6 −1
. . .
6. !
+ !
+ !
+ ⋯ = 27

5.5. Exponential Series

Learning objectives:
 To derive exponential series
 To prove exponential theorem
AND
 To solve problems related to the above.

When n is greater than unity and ∈ , we have

( ) ( )( )
1+ = 1+ =1+ . + .
+ . .
+⋯

=1+ + + + +…
. . . . . .
 X
For an indefinitely large , ( . , ⟶ ∞) the left-hand side is e and the right hand side
becomes
1+ + + + +⋯
! ! ! !
Hence we have = 1+ !+ ! + ! + !
+⋯
Let > 0 = , then = log
= = 1+ + + + +⋯
! ! ! !
Thus, for > 0, ∈
=1+ log + (log ) + (log )
! ! !
+ (log ) +⋯
!
This is known as Exponential Theorem.

We note the following:


1) =1+ !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+⋯ =  !
… … . (1)
n0
Replacing x by –x, we get

( )
2) =1−
!
+
!
−
!
+⋯=  !
… … . (2)
n0
Taking x=1 in (1) and (2) we get

3) =1+ !
+ !
+ !
+⋯ =  !
n0

( )
4) =1−
!
+
!
−
!
+⋯ =  !
n0
Adding (1) and (2)
5) + =2 1+ + +⋯
! !
ℎ = = 1+ + +⋯
! !
Subtracting (2) from (1) we get
6) − =2 !
+ !
+ !
+⋯
ℎ = =2 + + +⋯
! !
!
7) > 0, ∀ ∈
7) , ∈ > ℎ >
  
8) =  !
=  ( )!
=  ( )!
=⋯
n0 n1 n2
 PROBLEM SET
IP1:Show that + ! + !
+ !
+ ⋯∞ =
Solution: In the given series
⋯
= = .
! !
Sum of the given series
= + + +⋯
( ) ! ! !

= + + +⋯ − + + +⋯
( ) ! ! ! ! ! !
=( [( − 1) − ( − 1)]
)
= ( − ).
( )

1+ + + +⋯∞ =
! ! !
P1: Sum the series + ! + !
+ !
+⋯
Solution:
Let be the term of the series and be the sum of the series.
⋯
Then = !
= . !
= !
− !
∴ =∑ = ∑
!
−∑ !
= [( − 1) − ( − 1)]
= [( − )]
= ( − 1).
IP2: Find the coefficient of in the series expansion of
+ !
+ !
+⋯ when is even
Solution:
1+ + +⋯ =
! !
= ( + + 2)
( ) ( ) ( )
1+ + + +⋯ +
! ! !
= ( ) ( ) ( )
1− ! + ! − !
+⋯ +2
Coefficient of in the series expansion is
( ) .
= +
! !
When is even, coefficient of
= !
+ !
=
!
P2: Find the coefficient of in the series expansion of
+ + +⋯ when is odd
! !
Solution:
1+ !
+ !
+⋯ =
= ( + + 2)
( ) ( ) ( )
1+ !
+ !
+ !
+⋯ +
= ( ) ( ) ( )
1− + − +⋯ +2
! ! !
Coefficient of in the series expansion is
( ) .
= !+ !
When is odd, the coefficient of in the expansion = 0
IP3: Find the coefficient of in the expansion of
Solution:
Let =
= = 1+ !
+ !
+ !
+ ⋯∞
= 1+ + + + ⋯∞
! ! !
= 1+ !
1+ !
+ !
+ !
+ ⋯∞
( )
+ 1+ + +⋯∞
! ! !
( )
+ !
1+ !
+ !
+⋯∞
Hence, coefficient of in is
= + . + . …∞
! ! ! ! !

= 1+ + +⋯ ∞
! ! !
Coefficient of in is = !
1+ !
+ !
+⋯ ∞

P3: Find the coefficient of in the expansion of

Solution:
=( + + )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=( + + ) 1 + (− ) + +⋯+ ( )!
+ + +⋯
! ( )! !

Hence coefficient of in the expansion is

( ) ( ) ( )
= + (
)!
+
! )! (
( ) ( ) . ( ) . ( )
= − )!
+
! .( ( )( )!
( ) ( ) . ( ) . ( )
= − +
! ! !
 ( )
= ( − + − )
!
( )
= [ −( + ) + ]
!
. . .
IP4: Find the sum of the series + + +⋯
! ! !
Solution:
3.5 4.6 5.7 ( + 2)( + 4)
+ + +⋯ =
1! 2! 3! !
+6 +8
=
!
( + 6) 8 +6 8 −1+7 8
= + = + = +
! ! ( − 1)! ! ( − 1)! !
1 7 8
= + +
( − 2)! ( − 1)! !

= +7 +8
( − 2)! ( − 1)! !

= +7 +8
( − 2)! ( − 1)! !
= +7 + 8( − 1)
=( + 7 + 8) − 8
P4: Find the sum of the series + ! + ! +⋯
Solution:
2 3 ( + 1)
1+ + +⋯ = .
1! 2! !

+3 +3 +1
=
!
( + 3) 3 1
= + +
! ( − 1)! !
( + 3) 3 1
= + +
( − 1)! ( − 1)! !
( − 1)( + 4) + 4 3 1
= + +
( − 1)! ( − 1 )! !
( + 4) 7 1
= + +
( − 2)! ( − 1)! !
 ( − 2) + 6 7 1
= + +
( − 2)! ( − 1)! !
1 6 7 1
= + + +
( − 3)! ( − 2)! ( − 1)! !

= +6 +7 +
( − 3)! ( − 2 )! ( − 1)! !

= +6 +7 +
( − 3 )! ( − 2 )! ( − 1 )! !

=( +6 + 7 + 1)
EXERCISE
1. Find the coefficient of xr in the expansion of .
2. Find the sum of the series 1 + !
+ !
+ !
+⋯
⋯
! ! !
3. Show that = e −1
⋯
! ! !

4. The sum of the series + + + ⋯ is equal to

! ! !
(a) 2 (b) (c) (d) 2
5. If = ∑ ( )!
, =∑ ( )!
, then equals
(a) 1 (b) (c) (d)
6. If is expanded in a series of ascending powers of and is an odd natural
number, then the coefficient of is
7. The product of the following series
1 + ! + ! + ! + ⋯ × 1 − ! + ! − ! + ⋯ is
(a) 1 (b) (c) − (d) −1
8. If = + + +⋯+ + ⋯ , find the value of − =
9. By comparing two different expansions of ( − ). prove that
( ) ( )( )
− + −⋯ = 2 . .
! !
. .
10.1.2 + !
+ !
+⋯ = ( + 4 + 2)
11.Show that !
+ !
+ !
+ !
+⋯=
12.Find the coefficient of in the series expansion of in powers of .
13.Find the coefficient of in the series expansion of
(3 + 2 ) in powers of .
14.Show that the coefficient of in the series expansion of
( ) . .( )
is .
!
5.6. Logarithmic Series
Learning objectives:
1. To derive the logarithmic series from exponential series.
2. To express the given series in terms of logarithmic functions.
And
Solve the problems related to the above concepts.

Logarithmic Series
From the exponential series, we have for > 0,
= 1 + log + (log ) + (log ) + (log ) +⋯
! ! ! !
In this series, we write 1 + for a ; thus
(1 + ) = 1 + log + (log ) + (log ) + (log ) + ⋯ (1)
! ! ! !

When is numerically less than unity, we have by the binomial theorem

( ) ( )( )
(1 + 1 ) = 1 + + + + ⋯ (2)
! !
Equating the power of y in (1) and (2), we obtain,
log (1 + ) = − + − + ⋯ , | | < 1 … (3)
This is known as Logarithmic Series.
Replacing by – in (3), we get
log (1 − ) = − − − − − ⋯ , | | < 1 … (4)
Note:
The logarithmic series
log (1 + ) = − + − + ⋯,
exists for ∈ ℝ such that −1 < ≤ 1
Example1: Show that = + + +⋯ | |<
We have the Logarithmic Series
log (1 + ) = − + − + ⋯ , and log (1 − ) = − − − − −⋯
By subtraction
log (1 + ) − log (1 − ) = 2 + + +⋯
Therefore,
log =2 + + +⋯
Example2: If > 1 then log =2 + + +⋯
We have from example (1)
log =2 + + +⋯ valid when | | < 1
Suppose that > 1 .Let = then <1
∴ log =2 + + +⋯
⟹ log =2 + + +⋯

⟹ log =2 + + + ⋯ , where >1

Note:
= + + + +…..= − − − − −……
. . . . . . . .
We have
log (1 + ) = − + − +………….. valid in −1 < ≤1
Put = 1,
= − + − + − +………

log 2 = 1 − + − + − +…………..
= 1− + − + − +………….

= .
+ .
+ .
+ .
+……………

Also, log 2 = 1 − + − + − + …………..

= 1− − + − + − +………….

= − .
− .
− .
−……………

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Show that − = + + +⋯∞
. . . . . .
Solution:
. . = log 2 − =
We have,
log 2 = + + +⋯ (1)
. . .
log 2 = 1 − .
− .
− .
−⋯ (2)
(2) + (3)
log 2 + log 2 = + + +⋯ + 1− − − −⋯
. . . . . .
⟹ 2 log 2 = 1 + − + − + − +⋯
. . . . . .
⟹ 2 log 2 − 1 = + + +⋯
. . . . . .
⟹ log 2 − = . .
+ . .
+ . .
+⋯∞
P1: Find: − =
Solution: − log 8 = − log 2 = − 3 log 2 = (5 − 6 log 2)
We have log 2 = + + +⋯ (1)
. . .
 log 2 = 1 − − − −⋯ (2)
. . .
1 1 1
(2) × 5 ⟹ 5 log 2 = 5 1 − − − −⋯
2. 3 4 . 5 6. 7
=5 − . − . − . −⋯ (3)
Now (1) + (3)
log 2 + 5 log 2 = .
+ .
+ .
+⋯ + 5− .
− .
− .
−⋯
⟹ 6 log 2 = 5 − − − − − − −⋯
. . . . . .
⟹ 6 log 2 = 5 − − − −⋯
. . . . . .
⟹− =− 5 − . .
− . .
− . .
−⋯
⟹ −3 log 2 = − + + + +⋯
. . . . . .
⟹ − log 2 = . .
+ . .
+ . .
+⋯
∴ − log 8 = + + +⋯
. . . . . .
I.P2: Show that for | | < 1,
√
+ + + +⋯ = + . ( − ),
. . . . √ √
Solution:
Given series is .
+ .
+ .
+ .
+⋯ (1)
The term of (1) is =( )(
, ∈
)

.
+ .
+ .
+ .
+⋯

= ( )( )

= ( )
−
( )

= ( )
−
( )

= 1+ + + +⋯ − 1+ + +⋯
√ √ √
= √ + + + +⋯ − + + + …
√
√ √ √
= √ + + + +⋯ − + + + …
√
√
= . . log + . log (1 − ) (∵ | | < 1)
√ √
√
= + . log (1 − )
√ √
√
Hence, .
+ .
+ .
+ .
+⋯= + . log (1 − )
√ √
P2. For| | < 1, + + + +⋯=
Solution: Given series is
+ + + +⋯ (1)
The term of (1) is = . , ∈

∴ + + + +⋯

= 1−

= ( )−

=( + + +⋯)− + + +⋯
=( + + +⋯)+ − + + +⋯
= + + − − − −⋯ (∵ | | < 1 )
= + log (1 − ) (∵ | | < 1)
= + log (1 − )
∴ + + + +⋯= + log (1 − ), | | < 1
IP3: If , are roots of the equation + + = then prove that
( + + )= + − ( + )
− ( + )− ( + )−⋯
Solution:
By the Hypothesis, , are roots of the equation + + =0
Sum of the roots = + =
Product of the roots = =
log + 2 log − ( + )− ( + )− ( + )− ⋯
= log + log − + + +⋯ − + + +⋯
= + + 1− + 1−
= . . 1− . 1−
= { . ( − ). ( − )}
= { + + }
P3: If , are roots of the equation − + = then
( + ) − + − … = ______
Solution: Given that , are roots of − + =0
Sum of the roots = + =
Product of the roots = =
By Hypothesis,
( + ) − + − ……
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= − + −⋯ + − + −⋯
 = (1 + )+ (1 + )
= [(1 + ) . (1 + )]
= [1 + ( + ) + ]
= (1 + + )
∴( + ) − + − ……. = (1 + + )
IP4: If = − and | | < 1 then show that + + + ⋯∞ =
Solution: Given that =2 − ⟹ =
+ + + ⋯…….∞
= 2 ( + + + ⋯…….∞

= log = log

= log = log
= . 2 log = log
Hence + + + ⋯ … … . ∞ = log ,| |< 1
√
P4: If = | |< then + + + + +…………∞ =
√
√
Solution: Given that = …………….(1)
√
1+ + + + +…………∞
= 1+ 1− + − + − + − +……∞
= 1− − − ……… + + + + ………
= − − − ……… − − − − − ………
= 2 − − − − … … … − log (1 − )
= (2 + log (1 − )) − log (1 − )
= 2+ − 1 log (1 − )
√
= 2+ √
− 1 log 1− (From (1))
√
√

=2+ log 2
√
= 2 + √2 + 1 − log 2
= 2 − √2 + 1 log 2
Hence
1+ + + +…………∞ = 2 − √2 + 1 log 2
 EXERCISES:

1. Find the sum of the infinite series

.
+ . + . + . +⋯
2. Find the sum of the infinite series
. . .
+ . . . + . . . + . . . +⋯
3. Prove that
1+ + + + + + + ⋯ ∞ = log √12
4. Show that + . + . + . +⋯ =2− 2
5. Show that + + + +⋯= 2
. . .
6. Show that .
+ .
+ .
+⋯ =1− 2.
7. Show that + + + ⋯ = log
. . .

8. Prove that
log [(1 + ) (1 − ) ]=2 + + +⋯∞
1.2 3.4 5.6

9. If , , are three consecutive positive integers, prove that

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
log + log + + + = log
2 2 (2 + 1) 3 2 + 1 5 2 +1

10. Show that = + + +⋯

( ) ( )
11. Show that 2 − log ( + 1) − log ( − 1)
= + + + ⋯ if n>1
12. Show that =5 − + − + ⋯,
Where | | <
13. Find the coefficient of in the series expansion of
(1 + + ), ℎ | | < 1.
6.1. Vectors in Plane
Learning Objectives:
 To define a vector in a plane, scalar multiples of a vector and geometric addition of two
vectors in a plane.
AND
 To practice related problems.

Some of the things we measure are determined by their magnitudes. To record mass,
length, or time, for example, we need only to write down a number and name an
appropriate unit of measure. But we need more information to describe a force,
displacement, or velocity. To describe a force, we need to record the direction in which it
acts as well as how large it is. To describe a body’s displacement, we have to say in what
direction it moves as well as how far. To describe a body’s velocity, we have to know where
the body is headed as well as how fast it is going.
Quantities that have direction as well as magnitude are usually represented by arrows that
point in the direction of the action and whose lengths give the magnitude of the action in
terms of a suitably chosen unit.
When we discuss these arrows abstractly, we think of them as directed line segments and
we call them vectors.
Definitions
A vector in the plane is a directed line segment. Two vectors are equal or the same if they
have the same length and direction.
Thus, the arrows we use when we draw vectors are understood to represent the same
vector if they have the same length, are parallel, and point in the same direction.
In print, vectors are usually described with single boldface roman letters, as . The vector
defined by the directed line segment from point to point is written as ⃗.
Example 1
The four arrows in figure below have the same length and direction. They therefore
represent the same vector, and we write
⃗= ⃗= ⃗= ⃗

Arrows with the same length and direction represent the same vector.
Scalars and Scalar Multiples
We multiply a vector by a positive real number by multiplying its length by the number.
To multiply a vector by 2, we double its length. To multiply a vector by 1.5, we increase its
length by 50%, and so on. We multiply a vector by a negative number by reversing the
vector’s direction and multiplying the length by the number’s absolute value.
If is a nonzero real number and is a vector, the direction of agrees with that of if
is positive and is opposite to that of if is negative. Since real numbers work like scaling
factors in this context, we call them scalars and call multiples like scalar multiples of .
To include multiplication by zero, we adopt the convention that multiplying a vector by zero
produces the zero vector , consisting of points that are degenerate line segments of zero
length. Unlike other vectors, the vector has no direction.
Geometric Addition: The Parallelogram Law
Two nonzero vectors and can be added geometrically by drawing a representative
of , say from to as in figure below, and then a representative of starting from the
terminal point of .

In the figure above, = ⃗. The sum + is then the vector represented by the
arrow from the initial point of to the terminal point of . That is, if
= ⃗ and = ⃗
Then
+ = ⃗+ ⃗= ⃗

This description of addition is called the Parallelogram Law of addition because + is

given by the diagonal of the parallelogram determined by and .
 PROBLEM SET
IP1: If a is a vector as shown in figure given below. Then find the following scalar multiples
of the vector a.

a) 2a
b) – a
c) a
Solution:
a. Finding the vector 2a :
If we double the magnitude (length) of a in the same direction, then we get the vector
2a.

b. Finding the vector – a :

If we take vector a in the opposite direction, then we get the vector – a.

c. Finding the vector a:

If we reduce the magnitude of the vector a by 50%, then we get the vector a in the
same direction.

P1: If a is a vector as shown in figure given below. Then find the following scalar multiples
of the vector a.

d) 3a
e) –2 a
f) a
Solution:
d. Finding the vector 3a :
If we make three times the magnitude (length) of a in the same direction, then we get
the vector 3a.

e. Finding the vector –2a :

If we double the vector a and take it in the opposite direction, then we get the vector –
2a.
f. Finding the vector a:
If we increase the magnitude of the vector a by 50%, then we get the vector a in the
same direction.

IP2: If a and b are two vectors in the figure given below, then find a + b.

Solution:
Given:

Finding a + b:

The sum a + b is the vector represented by arrow from the initial point of a to the terminal
point of the b.
P2: If a and b are two vectors in the figure given below, then find b + a.

Solution:
 Given: Finding a + b

The sum b + a is the vector represented by arrow from the initial point of b to the terminal
point of the a.
IP3: If a and b are two vectors in the figure given below, then find b – a.

Solution:
Given:

Finding a – b:

P3:
If a and b are two vectors in the figure given below, then find a – b.
Solution:
Given:

Finding a – b:

IP4:
If a, b and c are three vectors in the figure given below, then find a + (b – c).

Solution:
Finding b – c:
Finding a + (b – c):

P4: If a, b and c are three vectors in the figure given below, then find (a + b) + c .
Solution:
Finding a + b:

Finding (a + b) + c :

Exercises:
1. The vectors , and in the figure here lie in a plane.

By arranging vectors head to tail, sketch

 (a) + (b) + +
(c) − (d) −
2. The vectors , and in the figure here lie in a plane.

By arranging vectors head to tail, sketch

(a) − (b) + +
(c) 2 − (d) −( − )

6.2. Component of a Vector

Learning objectives:
1) To represent a vector in a plane in terms of components parallel to the Cartesian
coordinate axes and to write each component as an appropriate multiple of a basic
vector of length 1.
2) To define equality of vectors in a plane.
3) To derive the magnitude or length of a vector.
4) To define algebraic addition, subtraction and scalar multiplication of vectors in the
plane.
And
5) To practice the related problems.
Two vectors are said to be parallel if they are nonzero scalar multiples of one another or,
equivalently, if the line segments representing them are parallel.
Whenever a vector can be written as a sum
= +
of two nonparallel vectors, the vectors and are said to be components of . We also
say that is represented or resolved in terms of vectors and .
The algebra of vectors is based on representing each vector in terms of components parallel
to the Cartesian coordinate axes and writing each component as an appropriate multiple of
a basic vector of length 1.
The basic vector in the positive -direction is the vector determined by the directed line
segment that runs from (0,0) to (1,0).
The basic vector in the positive -direction is the vector determined by the directed line
segment that runs from (0,0) to (0,1).
Then , being a scalar, represents a vector of length | | parallel to the -axis, pointing
to the right if a > 0 and to the left if a < 0. Similarly, is a vector of length b parallel to
the y -axis, pointing up if b > 0 and down if b < 0. Figure below shows a vector = ⃗
resolved into - and -components as the sum = +

Definitions
If = + , the vectors and are the vector components of in the directions of
and . The numbers and are the scalar components of in the directions of
and .
Components enable us to define the equality of vectors algebraically.
Definition
Equality of vectors
ai  bj  ai  bj  a  a and b  b (1)
Two vectors are equal if and only if their scalar components in the directions of and are
identical.
Algebraic Addition
Vectors may be added algebraically by adding their corresponding scalar components, as
shown in figure below.

If v1  a1 i  b1 j and v2  a2 i  b2 j , then
v 1  v 2   a1  a2  i   b1  b2  j (2)
Example 1:
 2i  4 j    5i  3 j    2  5  i    4  3  j  7 i  j
Subtraction
The negative of a vector is the vector− = (− ) . It has the same length as but points
in the opposite direction. To subtract a vector from a vector , we add − to . This
can be done geometrically by drawing − from the tip of and then drawing the vector
from the initial point of to the tip of − , as shown in figure (a) below, where
  
AD  AB  BD  v 1    v 2   v 1  v 2

Another way to draw − is to draw and with a common initial point and then
draw − as the vector from the tip of to the tip of . This is illustrated in figure
(b), where
⃗= ⃗+ ⃗=− + = −
Still another way is to draw from the tip of − (figure c).
In terms of components, vector subtraction follows the algebraic law
− = ( − ) +( − ) (3)
which says that the corresponding scalar components are subtracted.
Example 2:
 6i  2 j    3i  5 j    6  3  i   2   5   j  3i  7 j
We find the components of the vector from a point P1  x1 ,y 1  to a point P2  x 2 ,y 2  by
subtracting the components ⃗= + from the components of
⃗= + .

The vector from P1  x1 ,y1  to P2  x 2 ,y2  is

⃗=( − ) +( − ) (4)
Example 3
The vector from P1  3,4 to P2  5,1 is
⃗ = (5 − 3 ) + (1 − 4 ) = 2 − 3
Magnitude
The magnitude or length of = + is
| | = √ + . We arrive at this number by applying the Pythagorean Theorem to the
right triangle determined by and its two vector components.

The magnitude or length of

= + is| | = √ + . (5)
Example 4 You push a loaded supermarket cart by applying a 20-N force that makes a
30° angle with the horizontal. Resolve into its horizontal and vertical components. (The
horizontal component is the effective force in the direction of motion. The vertical
component just adds weight to the cart.)

Solution:
We draw a vector triangle for = + and its vector components along with the right
triangle determined by their magnitudes.

The triangle is a 30-60-90 triangle,

so | | = | | cos = 10 √3 and | | = | | sin = 10. The horizontal component of is
10 √3 . The vertical component is −10 (negative because it points down). That is,
= 10 √3 − 10
Scalar Multiplication:
Scalar multiplication can be accomplished component by component.
If is a scalar and = + is a vector, then
= ( + ) =( ) +( ) (6)
The length of is | | times the length of :
| | = |( ) + ( ) |
 = ( ) +( )
= ( + )
= | || |

If is a scalar and is a vector, then | | = | || |.

Example 5
If = −2 and = −3 + 4 then
| | = |−3 + 4 | = (−3) + 4 = √9 + 16 = √25 = 5
|−2 | = |(−2)(−3 + 4 )| = |6 − 8 | = 6 + (−8) = √36 + 64
= √100 = 10 = |−2|5 = | || |
The Zero Vector
In terms of components, the zero vector is the vector
= 0 +0
It is the only vector whose length is zero, as we can see from the fact that
| + |=√ + =0 ⇔ = =0

PROBLEM SET
IP1) . Find if + is parallel to + .
Solution:
+ 4 is parallel to 2 +
⟹ + 4 = (2 + ) for some scalar .
⟹ 4= ,
=2 ⟹ = 3 = 12.
= 12
P1). Find the values of ,and so that the vectors
= + and = + are equal.
Solution:
Given, = + 2 and = 2 +
Note that two vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding components are equal.
Thus, the given vectors and are equal if and only if = 2, = 2
IP2). If + = 7 + 4 and = 7 + 4 . Find
Solution: Given, = 7 + 4 and + = 7 + 4
We have to find
Subtract from + .
= + − = (7 + 4 ) − (7 + 4 )
= (7 − 7 ) + (4 − 4 ) =
Therefore, is a zero vector.
P2). Find the sum of the vectors = 2 + 2 and = 2 +
Solution: = 2 + 2 and = 2 +
The sum of the given vectors is
+ = 2 + 2 +2 +
= (2 + 2) + (2 + 1) = 4 + 3
IP3). Prove that the vectors 3 + 5 , 5 − 3 , and −5 + 3 form the sides of an equilateral
triangle.
Solution:
Let = 3 + 5 , = 5 − 3 and = −5 + 3
∴ the vectors , , are represented by three sides of a triangle.
Now | | = |3 + 5 |
= √3 + 5 = √34
| |= 5 −3
= 5 + (−3) = √34
| | = −5 + 3
= √25 + 9 = √34
∴ | | = | | = | |;
Thus, three vectors represent sides of equilateral triangle.
P3).
Use vectors to decide whether the triangle with vertices
2, – 1 , (1, − 3 ) (3, − 4 ) is a right angled triangle.
Solution:
We have 2, – 1 , (1, − 3 ) (3, − 4 ), then
⃗ = (1 − 2) + (−3 + 1) = − − 2
⃗ = (3 − 1) + (−4 + 3) = 2 − and
⃗ = (2 − 3) + (−1 + 4) = − + 3
Further, note that
| | = 1 + 4 = 5,
| | = 4 + 1 = 5 and | | = 1 + 9 = 10,
| | = | | +| |
Hence, the triangle is a right angled triangle.
IP4). If is a scalar and a is vector, then
(− ) = (− ) = −( )
Proof: Let > 0,
|(− ) | = | − | | | = | | | |.
| (− )| = | | | − | = | | | |.
|−( )| = | | = | | | |.
∴ The length of (− ) , (− ), − are equal.
Direction of (− ) = opposite to the direction of
Direction of (− ) = Direction of (− ) = Opposite to the direction of
Direction of – ( ) = Opposite to the direction of = opposite to the direction of
∴ Direction of (− ) , (− ), −( ) are the same.
Hence (− ) = (− ) = −( ).
The result follows on similar lines when < 0 , hence the result.
P4). If , are two vectors then
) | + | ≤ | |+| |
) | − | ≤| |+| |
) | − | ≥ || | − | ||
Proof:
 ) Let = ⃗ , = ⃗.
Now + = ⃗ + ⃗ = ⃗ . and ABC is a triangle.
∴| + |= , | |= , | |=
In a triangle we have ≤ + ⟹ | + | ≤ | | + | |.

) | − | = | + (− )| ≤ | | + |− | ≤ | | + | | ) | | = |( − ) + | ≤
| − |+| |
⟹ | |−| |≤ | − |
| | = |( − ) + | ≤ | − | + | |
⟹ | |−| | ≤| − | =| − |
∴ | | − | | ≤ | − |.
EXERCISE
1. Find the values of and so that the vectors 2 + 3
and − are equal.
2. Find the sum of the vectors = − 2 ;
= −2 + 4 ; = − 6 ;
3. Compute the magnitude of the following vectors:
= + ; = 2 −7 = +
√ √
4. Write two different vectors having same magnitude.
5. Sum of two vectors is 4 + 2 . if one of the vectors is 3 − 2 then another vector is
6. If = −2 + 3 and = 6 − 8 then find
3 + 4 and − 6
7. If = 2 + , = + 2 and = 3 + are sides of a triangle then prove that it is a
right angled triangle.
If = 3 + , = − 3 and = 2 + √6 are sides of a triangle then prove that it is a
equilateral triangle.

6.3. Slopes, Tangents and Normals

Learning Objectives:
 To introduce the concept of unit vectors in the plane
 To learn how to express a given non-zero vector in terms of its length and direction
 To define a vector parallel to a non-vertical line
 To find tangent and normal vectors to a curve at a point
AND
 To practice the related problems
Unit Vectors
Any vector whose length is 1 is a unit vector. The vectors and are unit vectors.
| | = |1 + 0 | = 1 + 0 = 1
| | = |0 + 1 | = 0 + 1 = 1
If is the unit vector obtained by rotating through an angle in the positive direction,
then has a horizontal component of cos and vertical component of sin , so that
= (cos ) + (sin ) ------- ------- --- (1)

As varies from 0 to 2π, the point traces the circle + = 1 counterclockwise. This
takes on all possible directions, so equation (1) gives every unit vector in the plane.
Length and Direction
If ≠ 0, then
1 1
= = | |=1
| | | | | |
so | | is a unit vector in the direction of . We can therefore express in terms of its two
important features, length and direction, by writing =| | | |
.
If ≠ 0, then
1. | | is a unit vector in the direction of ;
2. the equation =| | | |
expresses in terms of its length and direction.
Example 1
Express = 3 − 4 as a product of its length and direction.
Solution
Length of : | | = (3) + (−4) = √9 + 16 = 5
Direction of : | |
= = −
=3 −4 =5 −
Slopes
A vector is parallel to a line if the line segments that represent the vector and the line are
parallel.
The slope of a vector that is not vertical is the slope of the lines parallel to the vector. Thus,
if ≠ 0, the vector = + has a well-defined slope, which can be calculated from the
components of as the number .
Tangents and Normals
A vector is tangent or normal to a curve at a point if it is parallel or normal to the line that
is tangent to the curve at that point.
In the next example, we learn how to find such vectors.
Example 2
Find unit vectors tangent and normal to the curve
= +
at the point (1,1).
Solution
We find the unit vectors that are parallel and normal to the curve’s tangent line at (1,1).

The slope of the line tangent to the curve at (1,1) is

ʹ = =
We look for a unit vector with this slope. The vector = 2 + 3 has slope , as
does every nonzero multiple of . To find a multiple of that is a unit vector, we divide
by
| | = 2 + 3 = √13
obtaining
=| |= +
√ √
The vector is tangent to the curve at (1, 1) because it has the same direction as . Of
course,
− =| |=− −
√ √
which points in the opposite direction, is also tangent to the curve at (1,1). Without some
additional requirement, there is no reason to prefer one of these vectors to the other.
To find unit vectors normal to the curve at (1,1), we look for unit vectors whose slopes are
the negative reciprocal of the slope of . This is quickly done by interchanging the scalar
components of and changing the sign of one of them. We obtain
=− + and − = −
√ √ √ √
Again, either one will do. The vectors have opposite directions but both are normal to the
curve at (1,1).
If = + , then = − + and = − are perpendicular to because their
slopes are both − , the negative reciprocal of the slope of .

PROBLEM SET
IP1. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector = 2 + 3 .
Solution: The given vector is = 2 + 3 and | | = √2 + 3 = √13
The unit vector in the direction of the vector is,
=| |
Therefore, the required unit vector is
=| |= = +
√ √ √
P1: Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors
= 2 + 2 and = 2 + .
Solution:
Given vectors are, = 2 + 2 and = 2 +
Sum of the vectors is, + = (2 + 2) + (2 + )
= (2 + 2 ) + (2 + 1 )
=4 +3
and | + | = √4 + 3 = √25 = 5
Therefore, the required unit vector is
( )
+ =| |
= = +
IP2: Find a vector in the direction of the vector = 5 − 3 that has magnitude 8 units.
Solution:
The given vector is, = 5 − 3
and | | = 5 + (−3) = √34
The unit vector in the direction of the given vector is
=| |
= = −
√ √ √
Now, the vector having magnitude 8 units in the direction of is 8 and −8 , where
8 =8 − = −
√ √ √ √
−8 = −8 − =− +
√ √ √ √
P2.
Find a vector in the direction of the vector = − 2 that has length 7 units.
Solution:
The given vector is, = − 2 and | | = 1 + (−2) = √5
The unit vector in the direction of the given vector is
=| |
= = −
√ √ √
Now, the vector having magnitude 7 units in the direction of is 7 and −7 , where
7 =7 − = −
√ √ √ √
−7 = −7 − =− +
√ √ √ √
IP3:
Find the unit vector tangent to the curve = at the point (0, −1).
Solution:
The given curve is, =
ʹ ( )( ) ( )( )
Differentiating w.r.t , = ( )
= ( )
=( )
The slope of the line tangent to the curve at (0, −1) is
ʹ
= ( )
=( )
=2
Therefore, the vectors = + 2 and − have a slope 2; and they are parallel to the
tangent line of the curve at (0, -1).
Now, the unit vectors tangent to the curve at (0,-1) are and – , where
=| |=√ = = +
√ √ √
P3.
Find the unit vector tangent to the curve = − + 5 at the point (1, 2).
Solution:
The given curve is, = − +5
Differentiating w.r.t , ʹ = 2 −
The slope of the line tangent to the curve at (1, 2) is
ʹ
= 2 − =2− =
Therefore, the vectors = 3 + 4 and − have a slope ; and they are parallel to the
tangent line of the curve at (1, 2).
Now, the unit vectors tangent to the curve at (1, 2) are and – , where
=| |= = = = +
√ √
IP4:
Find the unit vector normal to the curve = +4 at the point (−1, 3).
Solution:
The given curve is, = +4
Differentiating w.r.t , we get ʹ = 3 + 8
The slope of the line tangent to the curve at (−1, 3) is
ʹ = [3 +8 ] = 3 − 8 = −5
Slope of the normal =
Therefore, the vector = 5 + and – have slope , and they are parallel to the normal
of the curve at (-1, 3).
Now, the unit vectors normal to the curve at (-1, 3) are and – , where
=| |= = = +
√ √ √ √
P4.
Find the unit vector normal to the curve
= −6 +13 − 10 + 5
at the point (0, 5).
Solution:
The given curve is, = −6 +13 − 10 + 5
Differentiating w.r.t , we get
ʹ
= 4 −18 + 26 − 10
The slope of the line tangent to the curve at (0, 5) is
ʹ = [4 −18 + 26 − 10] = −10
Slope of the normal =
Therefore, the vectors = 10 + and − have slope , and they are parallel to the
normal of the curve at (0, 5).
Now, the unit vectors normal to the curve at (0, 5) are and − , where
=| |=√ = = +
√ √ √

Exercises:
Compute the magnitude of the following vectors.
I. = +
II. =2 −7
III. = −
√ √
Find the unit vectors in the direction of the following vectors and express each vector as
product of its length and direction.
A. − 3
B. – 3 − √5
C. –
D. −5
Find the slopes of the unit vector Tangents and Normals to the following curves at given
points.
a. = : (1, 1)
 b. = : (0, 0)
c. = 3 − 4 : at = 4
d. = − + 1 at the point whose − coordinate is 2
Find the unit vector tangents and Normals to the following curves at the given points.
i. = +4 : (−1, 3)
ii. = 10 : (2, 5)
iii. =5 : (1, 5)

6.4. Cartesian Coordinates

Learning Objectives:
 To introduce the three-dimensional rectangular Cartesian coordinate system and to
describe the points in space.
 To write verbal descriptions of defining inequalities or equations in , and .
In this module we describe the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system and learn
about the space around us. This means defining distance, practicing with the arithmetic of
vectors in space, and making connections between sets of points and equations and
inequalities.
To locate points in space, we use three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes, arranged
as in figure below.

The axes , , and make a right-handed coordinate frame. When you hold your right-
hand so that the fingers curl from the positive -axis toward the positive -axis, your thumb
points along the positive -axis.
The Cartesian coordinates ( , , ) of a point in space are the numbers at which the
planes through perpendicular to the axes cut the axes.
Cartesian coordinates for space are also called rectangular coordinates because the axes
that define them meet at right angles.
Points on the -axis have - and -coordinates equal to zero. That is, they have coordinates
of the form ( , 0,0). Similarly, points on the -axis have coordinates of the form (0, , 0).
Points on the -axis have coordinates of the form (0,0, ).
The planes determined by the coordinate axes are the -plane, whose standard equation
is = 0; the -plane, whose standard equation is = 0; and the -plane, whose
standard equation is = 0. They meet at the origin(0,0,0).

The three coordinate planes = 0, = 0, and = 0 divide space into eight cells called
octants. The octant in which the point coordinates are all positive is called the first octant;
there is no conventional numbering for the other seven octants.
The points in a plane perpendicular to the -axis all have the same -coordinate, this being
the number at which that plane cuts the -axis. The - and -coordinates can be any
numbers. Similarly, the points in a plane perpendicular to the -axis all have a common -
coordinate and the points in a plane perpendicular to the -axis all have a common -
coordinate.
To write equations for these planes, we name the common coordinate’s value. The plane
= 2 is the plane perpendicular to the -axis at = 2. The plane = 3 is the plane
perpendicular to the -axis at = 3. The plane = 5 is the plane perpendicular to the -
axis at = 5. Figure below shows the planes = 2, = 3, and = 5 together with their
intersection point (2,3,5).

The planes = 2 and = 3 in figure above intersect in a line parallel to the -axis. This
line is described by the pair of equations = 2 , = 3. A point ( , , ) lies on the line if
and only if = 2 and = 3. Similarly, the line of intersection of the planes = 3 and
= 5 is described by the equation pair = 3, = 5. This line runs parallel to the -axis.
The line of intersection of the planes = 2 and = 5, parallel to the -axis, is described by
the equation pair = 2 , = 5.
In the following examples, we match coordinate equations and inequalities with the set of
points they define in space.

Example 1
Defining equations
Verbal description
and inequalities
The half-space consisting of the points on and above
≥0
the -plane.
The plane perpendicular to the -axis at = −3. This
= −3 plane lies parallel to the -plane and 3 units behind
it.
= 0, ≤ 0, ≥ 0 The second quadrant of the -plane.
≥ 0, ≥ 0, ≥ 0 The first octant.
The slab between the planes = −1 and = 1
−1 ≤ ≤1
(planes included)
The line in which the planes = −2 and = 2
= −2 , = 2 intersect. Alternatively, the line through the point
(0, −2,2) parallel to the -axis.

Example 2
What points ( , , ) satisfy the equations
2
+ 2 = 4 and = 3 ?
Solution The points lie in the horizontal plane = 3 and, in this plane, make up the
2
circle + = 4 . We call this set of points “the circle 2 + 2 = 4 in the plane = 3” or,
2

more simply, “the circle 2 + 2 = 4 , = 3”.

 PROBLEM SET
IP1: Give a geometric description of the set of points in space whose coordinates satisfy
the given pair of equations. + = , =−
Solution:
We have pair of equations: + = 4 , = −2
It is the set of points on the circle + = 4 in the plane = −2.
P1: Give a geometric description of the set of points in space whose coordinates satisfy
the given pair of equations. + = , =
Solution:
We have pair of equations: + =4 , =0
The points lie in the xz-plane and on the circle + = 4 in it.
That is, the set of points of the circle + = 4 in the xz-plane.
IP2: Give a geometric description of the set of points in space whose coordinates satisfy
the given pair of equations. + + = , =−
Solution:
We have pair of equations: + + = 25 , = −4
When = −4 we have + =9
We make the circle + = 9 in the vertical plane = −4.
We call this as “the circle + = 9 in the plane = −4”.
P2: Give a geometric description of the set of points in space whose coordinates satisfy
the given pair of equations. + +( + ) = , =
Solution:
We have pair of equations: + + ( + 3) = 25 , = 0
When = 0 we have + = 16
It is the set of points on the circle + = 16 in the xy-plane.
IP3:
Describe the set of points in space whose coordinates satisfy the given inequalities.
a. ≤ ≤
b. ≤ ≤ , ≤ ≤
c. ≤ ≤ , ≤ ≤ , ≤ ≤
Solution:
a. We have the inequality: 0 ≤ ≤ 1
Verbal description: The slab bounded between the planes = 0 and = 1 and
included these planes.
b. We have the combination of inequalities:
0≤ ≤1 , 0≤ ≤1
Verbal description: The square column bounded by the planes = 0, = 1, = 0,
= 1.
c. We have the combination of inequalities:
0≤ ≤1 , 0≤ ≤1 , 0≤ ≤1
Verbal description: The unit cube in the first octant having one vertex at the origin.
P3:
Describe the set of points in space whose coordinates satisfy the combination of
inequalities and equations.
 d. + ≤ , =
e. + ≤ , =
f. + ≤ , no restriction on
Solution:
a. We have + ≤1 , =0
Verbal description: The circumference and interior of the circle + = 1 in the xy-
plane.
b. We have + ≤1 , =3
Verbal description: The circumference and interior of the circle + = 1 in the
plane = 3.
c. We have + ≤ 1 , no restriction on
Verbal description: A solid cylindrical column of radius 1 whose axis is the z-axis.
IP4: Describe the given set with a single equation or with a pair of equations.
The circle of radius 2 centered at (0, 0, 0) and lying in the
g. xy-plane b. yz-plane c. xz-plane
Solution:
d. The circle of radius 2 centered at (0, 0, 0) and lying in the xy-plane is + =4 ,
= 0.
e. The circle of radius 2 centered at (0, 0, 0) and lying in the yz-plane is + =4 ,
= 0.
f. The circle of radius 2 centered at (0, 0, 0) and lying in the xz-plane is + =4 ,
= 0.
P4: Describe the given set with a single equation or with a pair of equations.
The circle of radius 2 centered at (0, 2, 0) and lying in the
h. xy-plane b. yz-plane c. plane y = 2
Solution:
g. The circle of radius 2 centered at (0, 2, 0) and lying in the xy-plane is + ( − 2) =
4 , = 0.
h. The circle of radius 2 centered at (0, 2, 0) and lying in the yz-plane is ( − 2) + =
4 , = 0.
i. The circle of radius 2 centered at (0, 2, 0) and lying in the xz-plane is + =4 ,
= 2.
Exercises:
1. Give a geometric description of the set of points in space whose coordinates satisfy the
given pairs of equations.
a. =2, =3
Sol: The line passing through the point (2,3,0) parallel to the
− .
b. = −1 , = 0
Sol: The line passing through the point (−1,0,0) parallel to the −
c. = 0 , = 0
Sol: The − .
d. =1, =0
Sol: The line passing through the point (1,0,0) parallel to the − .
 e. + =4 , =0
Sol: The circle + = 4 in the XY-Plane
f. + =1 , =0
g. + + =1 , =0
h. + ( − 1) + = 4 , = 0

2. Describe the sets of points in space whose coordinates satisfy the given inequalities or
combinations of equations and inequations.
a.
i. ≥ 0 , ≥ 0 , = 0
ii. ≥0, ≤0, =0
b.
i. + + ≤1
ii. + + >1
c.
i. + + =1, ≥0
ii. + + ≤1, ≥0
d.
i. = , = 0
ii. = , no restriction on
3. Describe the given set with a single equation or with a pair of equations.
a. The plane perpendicular to the
i. x-axis at (3,0,0)
ii. y-axis at (0,-1,0)
iii. z-axis at (0,0,-2)
b. The plane through the point (3,-1,2) perpendicular to the
i. x-axis
ii. y-axis
iii. z-axis
c. The plane through the point (3,-1,1) parallel to the
i. xy-plane
ii. yz-plane
iii. xz-plane
d. The circle of radius 1 centered at (-3,4,1) and lying in a plane parallel to the
i. xy-plane
ii. yz-plane
iii. xz-plane
e. The line through the point (1,3,-1) parallel to the
i. x-axis
ii. y-axis
iii. z-axis
f. The set of points in space equidistant from the origin and the point (0,2,0).
g. The circle in which the plane through the point (1,1,3) perpendicular to the z-axis
meets the sphere of radius 5 centered at the origin.
 h. The set of points in space that lie 2 units from the point (0,0,1) and , at the same
time, 2 units from the point (0,0,-1).
4. Write inequalities to describe the sets given below.
a. The slab bounded by the planes = 0 and = 1 (planes included).
b. The solid cube in the first octant bounded by the coordinate planes and the
planes = 2 , = 2 , and = 2.
c. The half-space consisting of the points on and below the xy-plane.
d. The upper hemisphere of the sphere of radius 1 centered at the origin.
e. The (i) interior and (ii) exterior of the sphere of radius 1 centered at the point
(1,1,1).

6.5. Vectors in Space

Learning objectives:
 To introduce the concept of the position vector of a point in space.
 To define the magnitude or length of a vector.
 To define addition, subtraction and scalar multiplication of vectors in the space.
And
 To practice the related problems.

Just as in the plane, a directed line segment in space is called a vector. The same rules of
addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication apply.
The vectors represented by the directed line segments from the origin to the points
(1,0,0), (0,1,0), and (0,0,1) are the basic vectors.

We denote them by , and . The position vector r from the origin to the typical point
( , , ) is
= ⃗= + + (1)

Definition
Addition and Subtraction for Vectors in Space
For any vectors = + + and
= + +
 + = ( + ) +( + ) +( + )
− = ( − ) +( − ) +( − ) (2)
The Vector between Two Points
We can express the vector ⃗ from the point ( , , ) to the point ( , , )
in terms of the coordinates of and because
⃗= ⃗− ⃗
=( + + )−( + + )
= ( − ) +( − ) +( − )

The vector from point ( , , ) to ( , , ) is

⃗= ( − ) +( − ) +( − ) (3)
Magnitude
The important features of a vector are its magnitude and direction. We find a formula for
the magnitude (length) of + + by applying the Pythagorean theorem to the
right triangles in figure below.

From triangle , ⃗ = +
and from triangle ,
⃗ =| + + |
⃗ = | | +| | = + +

The magnitude (length) of = + + is

| |=| + + |= + + (4)
Scalar Multiplication
Definition
If is a scalar and = + + is a vector, then
=( ) +( ) +( )

Example 1 The length of ⃗ = − + 3 is

| | = 1 + (−2) + 3
= √1 + 4 + 9 = √14
If we multiply = + + by a scalar , the length of is| | times the length
of , as in the plane. The reason is the same, as well: = ( ) +( ) +( )
| |= ( ) +( ) +( )

= ( + + )

=| | ( + + ) =| || | (5)
Example 2
If is the vector of example 1, then the length of
2 = 2( − 2 + 3 ) = 2 − 4 + 6 is
(2) + (−4) + (6) = √4 + 16 + 36 = √56
= √4.14 = 2√14 = 2 | ⃗|

PROBLEM SET
IP1). Find the vector ⃗,
if A is the point ( , − , − ) ( , , )
Solution:
We have ⃗=3 − −2
⃗=3 + +
⃗ = ⃗ − ⃗ = (3 − − 2 ) − (3 + + )
= (3 − 3) + (−1 − 1) + (−2 − 1) )
= −2 − 3
P1). Find the vector ⃗
if A is the point (4,0, −2) is the point (4,2,1)
Solution:
We have ⃗=4 −2
⃗ =4 +2 +
⃗ = ⃗ − ⃗ = (4 + 2 + ) − (4 + 2 )
= (4 − 4) + (2 − 0) + (1 − 2) = 2 −
IP2). Find 3 − 2 if = 4 − 3 and = − 2 − 3
Solution: Given,
= 4 −3 and = −2 −3
3 = 3(4 − 3 ) = 12 − 9
2 = 2( − 2 − 3 ) = 2 − 4 − 6
3 − 2 = (12 − 9 ) − (2 − 4 − 6 ) = 10 − 5 + 6
P2). Find 5 + 2 if = 3 + and = 2 + 3 −
Solution: Given,
= 3 + and =2 +3 −
5 = 5(3 + ) = 15 + 5
2 = 2(2 + 3 − ) = 4 + 6 − 2
5 + 2 = 15 + 5 + 4 + 6 − 2 = 4 + 21 + 3
IP3) . Find | − | where = + + , = −
Solution:
Given, = 2 + 4 + 4
=2 −
3 = 3(2 + 4 + 4 ) = 6 + 12 + 12
2 = 2 (2 − ) = 4 − 2
3 − 2 = 6 + 12 + 12 − (4 − 2 )
= 6 + 12 + 12 − 4 + 2 = 6 + 8 + 14
|3 − 2 | = 6 + 8 + 14 = √36 + 64 + 196 = 296
P3). Find | + | where = + + , = −
Solution:
Given, = 2 + 4 + 4
=2 −
2 = 2 (2 + 4 + 4 ) = 4 + 8 + 8
3 = 3 (2 − ) = 6 − 3
2 +3 =4 +8 +8 +6 −3
= 4 + 14 + 5
|2 + 3 | = 4 + 14 + 5 = √16 + 196 + 25 = 237
IP4). Using vectors, Show that ( , − , − ), ( , , − ), and ( , − , − )
are vertices of a right angled triangle.
Solution:
= (1, −3, −2)
= (2,0, −4)
= (6, −2, −5)
⃗= ⃗− ⃗
= (2 − 4 ) − ( − 3 − 2 ) = ( + 3 − 2 )
⃗ = √1 + 9 + 4 = √14
⃗ = (6 − 2) + (−2 − 0) + (−5 + 4) = 4 − 2 −
⃗ = √16 + 4 + 1 = √21
⃗ = (6 − 1) + (−2 + 3) + (−5 + 2) = 5 + − 3
⃗ = √25 + 1 + 9 = √35
Notice that ⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗
∴ is a right angled triangle.
P4)
Is the sides of the triangle formed by the vectors
+ + , − − and − − +
equilateral triangle?
Solution: Let = 3 + 5 + 2 , = 2 − 3 − 5 and = −5 − 2 + 3
| | = √9 + 25 + 4 = √38
| | = √4 + 9 + 25 = √38
| | = √25 + 4 + 9 = √38
∴| |=| |=| |
Thus, the given triangle is an equilateral triangle.
Exercises
1. Find vectors ⃗ and ⃗ if the points
i) (1,2,2), (4,0, −3)
ii) (−3,4,0), (2, −1,3)
2. Find + and − when
I) = 3 +4 +5 , = −2 −
II) = − +2 , = −3 − 9 + 6
3. Find |2 + 3 |, | − 2 | when
( ) = + 2 − 3 , = −2 − + 5
( ) = 2 −4 +4 , = 2 −
4. If ⃗ = + + , ⃗ = 3 − 2 + , ⃗ = + 2 − 2 and ⃗ = 2 + + 3 then
find the vector ⃗

6.6. Unit Vectors, Distance and Midpoints

Learning objectives:
 To express a vector as a product of its magnitude and direction.
 To define the distance between two given points in space and to find the midpoint of
the line segment joining two given points.
 To derive the standard equation of a sphere with a given center and radius.
AND
 To practice the related problems.

The zero Vector

The zero vector in space is the vector 0  0i  0 j  0k . As in the plane, 0 has zero
length, and no direction.
Unit Vectors
A unit vector in space is a vector of length 1. The basic vectors are unit vectors because

i  1i  0 j  0 k  12  0 2  0 2  1

j  0i  1 j  0k  0 2  12  0 2  1

k  0 i  0 j  1k  0 2  0 2  12  1
Magnitude and Direction
If A  0 , then
(i) A / A is a unit vector in the direction of A and
(ii) A is expressed as a product of its magnitude and direction
A
A A
A
Example 1
Express A  i  2 j  3k as a product of its magnitude and direction.
Solution
A
A  A 
A
i  2 j  3k
 14 
14
 1 2 3 
 14  i j k 
 14 14 14 
  le n g th o f A    d ir e c tio n o f A 
Example 2
Find a unit vectoru in the
direction of the vector from
 (1,0,1) to (3, 2,0).
Solution: We divide P1 P2 by its length, where
 
P1 P2   3  1  i   2  0  j   0  1  k  2 i  2 j  k
  2
P1 P 2  2 2  2 2    1   4  4  1  9  3
  
P1 P 2 2i  2 j  k 2 2 1
u       i j k
P1 P 2 3 3 3 3
Example 3
Find a vector of length 6 units in the direction of A  2i  2 j  k
Solution
The vector we want is
A 2i  2 j  k 2i  2 j  k
6  6  6  4i  4 j  2k
A 2 2  2 2    1
2 3
Distance in Space
The distance between two points and in space is the length of ⃗.
The distance between P1  x1 , y1, z1  and P2  x2 , y2 , z2  is
 
P1P2   x2  x1 2   y2  y1 2   z2  z1 2 ...... (1)
Example 4
The distance between P1  2,1,5 and P2  2,3,0  is
 2 2 2
P1 P2   2  2   3  1   0  5 

 16  4  25  45  3 5
Midpoints
The coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment are found by averaging.
The midpoint of the line segment joining points P1  x1 , y1, z1  and
P2  x2 , y2 , z2  is the point
 x1  x2 y1  y2 z1  z 2 
 2 , 2 , 2 .
 
We can see this from the following. From the figure below

  1 

O M  O P1  P1 P2
2
 1   1  
 OP1 
2

OP2  OP1 
2

OP1  O P2  
x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
 1 i 1 j 1 k
2 2 2
Example 5
The midpoint of the segment joining (3, −2,0) and (7,4,4) is
 3  7 2  4 0  4 
 2 , 2 , 2    5,1, 2  .
 
Spheres
We use the distance formula (1) to write equations for spheres in space. A point ( , , )
lies on the sphere of radius centered at ( , , ) precisely when ⃗ = or
2 2 2
 x  x0  y  y0  z  z0  a 2
    

The standard equation for the sphere of radius and center ( , , ) is

2 2 2
 x  x0  y  y0  z  z0  a 2 ........ (2)
    
Example 6
Find the center and radius of the sphere
2 2 2
x  y  z  3x  4z  1  0
Solution
We find the center and radius of a sphere the way we find the center and radius of a circle:
Complete the squares on the - - and -terms as necessary and write each quadratic
as a squared linear expression. Then, from the equation in standard form, read off the
center and radius. For the sphere here, we have
x 2  y 2  z 2  3x  4 z  1  0
 2 2 2 2 2
3  2
 2  4    3   4 
 x  3 x      y   z  4 z      1      
  2     2   2  2 
 
2
 3 2 2 21
 x    y   z  2  
 2 4
This is equation (2) with =− , = 0, = 0, and
= √21/2. The center is (−3/2,0, 2). The radius is √21/2.
Example 7
Set bounded by spheres or portions of spheres
Defining equations and Description
inequalities
The interior of the sphere
x2  y2  z2  4
x2  y2  z2  4 .
The solid ball bounded by the sphere
x2  y2  z2  4
x 2  y 2  z 2  4 . Alternatively, the sphere
x 2  y 2  z 2  4 together with its
interior.
The exterior of the sphere
x2  y 2  z 2  4
x2  y2  z2  4 .
x 2  y 2  z 2  4, z  0 The2 lower hemisphere cut from the sphere
x  y 2  z 2  4 by the -plane (the plane =
0).

PROBLEM SET
IP1. Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector from ( , ,− )
to (− , − , ).
Solution:
Given (1, 2, −3) and (−1, −2, 1).
Now, ⃗ = (−1 − 1) + (−2 − 2) + (1 + 3)
= −2 − 4 + 4
⃗ = (−2) + (−4) + (4) = √36 = 6
Therefore, the unit vector in the direction of ⃗ is
⃗
= ⃗
= =− − +
P1. Find a vector in the direction of a vector = + + that has a magnitude 7.
Solution:
The given vector is = 2 + 3 + .
Now, | | = √2 + 3 + 1 = √14
The unit vector in the direction of the given vector is
| |
= = + +
√ √ √ √
The vector having magnitude equal to 7 and in the direction of is
7| | = 7 + +
√ √ √
= + +
√ √ √

= √14 + +
√
IP2. The position vectors of the points , and are + + , − + − and
− + respectively, then show that the points , and are the vertices of a
right angled isosceles triangle.
Solution: We have
⃗ = (−1 − 2) + (5 − 3) + (−1 − 5) = −3 + 2 − 6
⃗ = (4 + 1) + (−3 − 5) + (2 + 1) = 5 − 8 + 3
⃗ = (2 − 4) + (3 + 3) + (5 − 2) = −2 + 6 + 3
Now,
⃗ = (−3) +(2) + (−6) = √9 + 4 + 36 = 7
⃗ = (5) +(−8) + (3) = √25 + 64 + 9 = √98
⃗ = (−2) +(6) + (3) = √4 + 36 + 9 = 7
Here ⃗ = ⃗ , two sides are equal and
⃗ + ⃗ = ⃗
Thus, ∆ is a right angled isosceles triangle.
P2. The position vectors of the points , and are – + , − − ,
− – respectively then show that the points , and are the vertices of a
right angled triangle.
Solution: We have
⃗ = (1 − 2) + (−3 + 1) + (−5 − 1) = − − 2 − 6
⃗ = (3 − 1) + (−4 + 3) + (−4 + 5) = 2 − +
⃗ = (2 − 3) + (−1 + 4) + (1 + 4) = − + 3 + 5
Now,
⃗ = (−1) +(−2) + (−6) = √1 + 4 + 36 = √41
⃗ = (2) +(−1) + (1) = √4 + 1 + 1 = √6
⃗ = (−1) +(3) + (5) = √1 + 9 + 25 = √35
∴ ⃗ + ⃗ = √6 + √35 = 6 + 35 = 41 = ⃗
Hence, ∆ is a right angled triangle.
IP3.
i. Find the equation of the sphere with center ( , , ) and radius √ .
Solution:
We know that the equation of the sphere with center ( , , ) and radius is
( − ) +( − ) +( − ) =( )
Therefore, the equation of the sphere with center at (1, 2, 3) and radius √14 is
( − 1) + ( − 2) + ( − 3) = √14
i.e., −2 +1+ − 4 + 4 + − 6 + 9 = 14
i.e., + + −2 −4 −6 =0
ii. Describe the sets of points in space whose coordinates satisfy the combination of
the equation and inequality + + ≤ , ≥
Solution: The given combination of the equation and inequality + + ≤ 1, ≥0
denotes the solid upper hemisphere of radius 1 centered at origin, cut by the −plane
(i.e., = 0).
P3. Find the center and radius of the sphere
+ + + + + =
Solution:
The equation of the sphere is
2 +2 +2 + + + = 9
⟹ + + + + + =
⟹ + + + + + =

⟹ + 2. . + + + 2. . + +

+ 2. . + = + + +

⟹ + + + + + =
√
⟹ − − + − − + − − =
√
Therefore, the center is − , − , − and radius is
iii. Describe the sets of points in space whose coordinates satisfy the combination of the
equation and inequality
+ + = , ≥
Solution: The given combination of the equation and inequality
+ + = 1, ≥0 denotes a closed upper hemisphere
of radius 1 centered at origin, cut by the −plane (i.e., = 0)
IP4. Find the midpoint of the line segment joining points ( , , ) and ( , , ).
Solution: The midpoint of the line segment joining points (3, 4, 5) and
(2, 3, 4) is , , = , ,
P4. Find the midpoint of the line segment joining points (− , , ) and ( , , ).
Solution: The midpoint of the line segment joining points (−1, 1, 5) and
(2, 5, 0) is
, , = , , = , 3,
EXERCISES
1. Express each vector as a product of its length and direction
a. 2 + − 2
b. 9 − 2 + 6
c. 5
d. − −
√ √ √
e. +

2. Find the vector whose length and directions are given below
Length Direction
a. +
b. 7 − +
c. √3 −
 d. 2
e. > 0 + −
√ √ √
f. 7 12 − 5
g. 3 − −
3. Find the distance between the points , given below.
a. (1, 1, 1) ; (3, 3, 0)
b. (0, 0, 0) ; (2, −2, −2)
c. (5, 3, −2) ; (0, 0, 0)
d. (3, 1, 0) ; (3, 3, 3)
4. Find the midpoint of line segment ,
a. (1, 4, 5) ; (4, −2, 7)
b. (0, 0, 0) ; (3, 3, 0)
5. Find the equation of the sphere whose centers and radii are given below.
a. (0, −1, 5) ; 2
b. (−2, 0, 0) ; √3
c. (0, −7, 0) ; 7
6. Find the center and radius of the following spheres.
a. + + +4 −4 =0
b. 3 + 3 + 3 + 2 − 2 = 0
c. + + −6 +8 = 0
7. Describe the set of points in space whose coordinates satisfy the given inequalities.
a. + + ≤1
b. + + >1

6.7. Dot Product

Learning Objectives:
 To define the dot(scalar) product of two vectors
 To derive a formula for the angle between two nonzero vectors
 To study the properties of dot product
 To define the orthogonality of two nonzero vectors
AND
 To solve related problems

In this module, we learn the dot product, a method of multiplying two vectors.
When two nonzero vectors and are placed so that their initial points coincide, they
form an angle of measure 0 ≤ ≤ . This angle is called the angle between and .
Definition
The dot product (scalar product) ∙ of vectors and is the number
∙ = | || | cos -------- (1)
where is the angle between and .
In words, ∙ is the length of times the length of times the cosine of the angle
between and .
Dot product is also called a scalar product because the multiplication results in a scalar.
Example 1 If = 3 and = √2 + √2 , then
√
∙ = | || | cos = (3)(2) cos = 6 ∙ = 3√2

Since the sign of ∙ is determined by cos , the scalar product is positive if the angle
between the vectors is acute, negative if the angle is obtuse.
Since the angle a vector makes with itself is zero, and cos 0 = 1,
∙ = | || | cos = | || |(1) = | |
⇒| |=√ . ------------------- (2)
Calculation
In a Cartesian coordinate system with unit vectors , and , we let
= + +
= + +
and
= − = ( − ) +( − ) +( − )

The law of cosines for the triangle whose sides represent , and is
| | = | | + | | − 2| || | cos
 | | | | | |
⇒ | || | cos =
The left side of this equation is ∙ and the above equation becomes,
( ) [( ) ( ) ( ) ]
∙ =
= + +
Therefore, ∙ = + + ------------- (3)
Thus, to find the scalar product of two given vectors we multiply their corresponding
, and -components and add the results.
Solving equation (1) for , we get a formula for finding angles between vectors.
The angle between two nonzero vectors and is
∙
= cos | || |
--------- (4)
Since the values of the arc cosine lie in [0, ], equation (4) automatically gives the angle
made by and .
Example 2 Find the angles between = − 2 − 2 and = 6 + 3 + 2
Solution We use equation (4):
∙ = (1)(6) + (−2)(3) + (−2)(2) = 6 − 6 − 4 = −4
| | = 1 + (−2) + (−2) = √9 = 3
| | = √6 + 3 + 2 = √49 = 7
∙
= cos | || |
= cos ( )( )

= cos − (≈ 1.76 rad )

Laws of the Dot Product
From the equation ∙ = + + , we can see that
∙ = ∙ ------------- (5)
In other words, the dot product is commutative. We can also see that if is any number,
then
( ) ∙ = ∙ ( ) = ( ∙ ) ------------- (6)
If = + + is any third vector, then
∙( + )= ( + )+ ( + )+ ( + )
=( + + )+( + + )
= ∙ + ∙
Hence, dot products obey the distributive law:
∙ ( + ) = ∙ + ∙ ------------- (7)
If we combine this with commutative law, it is also evident that
( + ) ∙ = ∙ + ∙ ------------- (8)
Equations (7) and (8) together permit us to multiply sums of vectors by the familiar laws of
algebra. For example,
( + ) ∙ ( + ) = ∙ + ∙ + ∙ + ∙ ------ (9)
Perpendicular (Orthogonal) Vectors
Two nonzero vectors and are perpendicular or orthogonal if the angle between them is
. For such vectors, we automatically have ∙ = 0 because cos = 0. The converse is
also true. If and are nonzero vectors with ∙ = | || | cos = 0 , then cos = 0
and = cos 0 = /2.
Nonzero vectors and are orthogonal (perpendicular) if and only if ∙ = 0.
Example 3 = 3 − 2 + and = 2 + 4 are orthogonal because
∙ = (3)(0) + (−2)(2) + (1)(4) = 0

PROBLEM SET
IP1: If = 2 + + √5 , = −2 + 4 − √5 and
∙ = −25, then find .
Solution:
We have, = 2 + + √5 , = −2 + 4 − √5 .
and ∙ = −25
⇒ 2 + + √5 ∙ −2 + 4 − √5 = −25
⇒ (2). (−2) + ( ). (4) + √5 −√5 = −25
⇒ −4 + 4 − 5 = −25
⇒ 4 = −16
⇒ = −4
P1: If = + , = √2 + √3 + 2 and ∙ = √3 − √2 , then find the value of .
Solution:
We have, = + , = √2 + √3 + 2 .
and ∙ = √3 − √2
⇒ √2 + √3 + 2 ∙ ( + ) = √3 − √2
⇒ √2 . ( ) + √3 . (1) + (2)(0) = √3 − √2
⇒ √2 + √3 = √3 − √2
⇒ √2 = −√2
⇒ = −1
IP2: Find the angle between the vectors
= + and = 5 + 12 .
Solution:
We have, = + and = 5 + 12 .
∙ = + ∙ (5 + 12 )
= . (5) + (0). (12 ) + (0) = 3

| |= +0+ = + =1
| | = (5) + (12 ) + 0 = √25 + 144 = 13
Therefore, the angle between and is
∙
cos | || |
= cos ( ).( )
= cos
P2: Find the angle between the vectors
= 2 + 10 − 11 and = 2 + 2 + .
Solution:
We have, = 2 + 10 − 11 and = 2 + 2 + .
∙ = (2 + 10 − 11 ) ∙ (2 + 2 + )
= (2). (2) + (10 ). (2) + (−11)(1)
 = 4 + 20 − 11 = 13
| | = (2) + (10) + (−11 ) = √4 + 100 + 121 = 15
| | = (2) + (2) + (1) = √4 + 4 + 1 = 3
Therefore, the angle between and is
∙
cos | || |
= cos ( ).( )
= cos
IP3: If the vectors + − and − + are orthogonal, then find .
Solution:
Let = 2 + − and = 4 − 2 + 2
If and are orthogonal, then ∙ = 0
⇒ (2 + − ) ∙ (4 − 2 + 2 ) = 0
⇒ (2)(4) + ( )(−2) + (−1)(2) = 0
⇒ 8−2 −2 =0
⇒2 =6
⇒ =3
P3: If the vectors − + and − − are perpendicular to each other,
then find .
Solution:
Let = − 3 + 5 and = 2 − −
If and are perpendicular to each other, then ∙ = 0
⇒ ( − 3 + 5 ) ∙ (2 − − ) = 0
⇒ ( )(2 ) + (−3)(− ) + (5)(−1) = 0
⇒2 +3 −5= 0
⇒ (2 + 5)( − 1) = 0
⇒ = − or 1
IP4: If | | = 11 , | | = 23 and | − | = 30 , then
(i) find the angle between the vectors , .
(ii) find | + |.
Solution:
Let be the angle between and .
We have, | | = 11 , | | = 23 and | − | = 30
(i) Now, | − | = 30 ⇒ | − | = 900
⇒ ( − ) ∙ ( − ) = 900 ⇒ . − 2( . ) + . = 900
⇒ | | − 2| |. | | cos + | | = 900
⇒ 121 − 2 × 11 × 23 × cos + 529 = 900
⇒ 650 − 506 cos = 900 ⇒ cos = −
⇒ = cos −
∴ = − cos
(ii) | + | = ( + ) ∙ ( + ) = . + 2( . ) + .
= | | + 2| |. | | cos + | |
= 121 + 2 × 11 × 23 × − + 529 = 400
∴ | + | = 20
P4:
If = + − , = − + , then find the angle between + and + .
Solution:
We have, = 2 + 2 − 3 , = 3 − + 2
2 + = 2 (2 + 2 − 3 ) + (3 − + 2 ) = 7 + 3 − 4
+ 2 = (2 + 2 − 3 ) + 2(3 − + 2 ) = 8 +
(2 + ) ∙ ( + 2 ) = (7 + 3 − 4 ) ∙ (8 + )
= 56 − 4 = 52
|2 + | = |7 + 3 − 4 | = √49 + 9 + 16 = √74
| + 2 | = |8 + | = √64 + 1 = √65
Let be the angle between (2 + ) and ( + 2 ).
( )∙( )
⇒ = cos | || |
= cos
√ √
∴ = cos
√ √
Exercises:
1. Find the dot product and angle between the vectors given below in each problem.
a. = + 2 + 3 , =3 − +2
b. = 2 − 4 + √5 , = −2 + 4 − √5
c. = 10 + 11 − 2 , = 3 +4
d. = 2 + 10 − 11 , = 2 +2 +
e. = 5 − 3 , = + +
f. =5 + , = 2 + √17
g. = 2 + , = +2 −
h. = 2 − 2 + , =3 +4
i. = √3 − 7 , = √3 + − 2
j. = + √2 − √2 , =− + +

2. If = + 2 − 3 and = 3 − + 2 , then show that + and − are

perpendicular to each other.
3. For what values of , the vectors − + 2 and 8 + 6 − are at right angles?

6.8. Vector Projections

Learning objectives:
1) To define the vector projection of a vector onto another vector and to derive a
formulae for it.
2) To express a given vector as a sum of orthogonal vector
3) To define the work done by a constant force during a displacement
And
4) To practice related the related problems
The vector projection of = ⃗ onto a nonzero vector = ⃗ is the vector ⃗
determined by dropping a perpendicular from to the line .
The notation for this vector is projAB (the vector projection of B onto A)
If represents a force then projAB represents the effective force in the direction of A.

If the angle between is acute, projAB has length | | and direction .

| |

If is obtuse, cos < 0 and has length – | | and direction − | |. In any case,

= (| | )
| |
.
= | | | |
= .| | | |
.
= .| | | |
= .
(1)
The number | | is called the scalar component of in the direction of . Since
| | = .| | (2)
we can find the scalar component by “dotting” with the direction of . Equation (1) says
that the vector projection of onto is the scalar component of in the direction of
times the direction of .
While the first part of equation (1) describes the effect of in the direction of , the
second part is better for calculation because it avoids square roots.
Example 1
Find the vector projection of = 6 + 3 + 2 onto = − 2 − 2 and the scalar
component of in the direction of .
Solution:
 We find from equation (1):
.
= .
= ( −2 −2 )
= − ( −2 −2 )=− + +
We find the scalar component of in the direction of from equation (2):
| | = .
| |

= (6 + 3 + 2 ) ∙ − −
= 2−2− =−
Writing a Vector as a Sum of Orthogonal Vectors

In mechanics, we often need to express a vector as a sum of a vector parallel to a vector

and a vector orthogonal to . We can accomplish this with the equation
= +( − ) (3)
shown in figure below.

The vector is written as a vector parallel to plus a vector orthogonal to :

= +( − )
. .
= + − (4)
. .
Parallel to A orthogonal to A
Example 2
Express = 2 + − 3 as the sum of a vector parallel to = 3 − and a vector
orthogonal to .
Solution:
We use equation (4). With
. =6−1= 5 . = 9 + 1 = 10
equation (4) gives
. .
= + −
. .

= (3 − ) + 2 + − 3 − (3 − )

= − + + −3
Check: The first vector in the sum is parallel to because it is . The second vector in
the sum is orthogonal to because + −3 ∙ (3 − ) = − =0
Work
In an earlier module, we calculated the work done by a constant force of magnitude in
moving an object through a distance as = . That formula holds only if the force is
directed along the line of motion. If a force moving an object through a displacement
= ⃗ has some other direction, the work is performed by the component of in the
direction of .

If is the angle between and , then

Work=(scalar component of F in the direction of d)(length of d)
= (| | )| |
= .
Definition
The work done by a constant force acting through a displacement = ⃗ is
= . = | || | (5)
where is the angle between and
Example 3 If | | = 40 , | | = 3 , = 60 ∘, the work done by in acting from
to is
= | || |
= (40)(3) 60∘
= 120 × (1/2)
= 60
PROBLEM SET
IP1) . Find the vector projection and scalar projection of
= − − onto = − −
Solution:
∙
Vector projection of b onto a : = ∙
(2 − − ) ∙ (3 − 2 − )
= (3 − 2 − )
(3 − 2 − ) ∙ (3 − 2 − )
6+2+1
= (3 − 2 − )
9+4+1
= − −
Scalar component of b in the direction of a
( )
| | = ∙ = (2 − − ) ∙ =
| | √ √
P1). Find the vector projection and scalar component of
= + + onto = − + +
Solution:
∙
Vector projection of b onto a = ∙
( + + ) ∙ (−2 + 3 + )
= (−2 + 3 + )
(−2 + 3 + ) ∙ (−2 + 3 + )
 −2 + 3 + 1
= (−2 + 3 + )
4+9+1
=− + +
Scalar component of b in the direction of a
( )
| | = ∙| |=( + + )∙ = =
√ √ √
IP2). Find the vector projection and scalar projection of
= + + onto = −
Solution:
∙
Vector projection of a onto b: = ∙
( + + ) ∙ (5 − 3 )
= (5 − 3 )
(5 − 3 ) ∙ (5 − 3 )
5−3
= (5 − 3 )
25 + 9
= −
Scalar component of a in the direction of b
( )
| | = ∙ =( + + )∙ = =
| | √ √ √
P2). Find the vector projection and scalar projection of
= + onto = + −
Solution:
∙
Vector projection of a onto b: =
∙
(3 + 4 ) ∙ (10 + 11 − 2 )
= (10 + 11 − 2 )
(10 + 11 − 2 ) ∙ (10 + 11 − 2 )
33 − 8
= (10 + 11 − 2 )
100 + 121 + 4
=( + − )
Scalar component of a in the direction of b
( )
| | = ∙ | | = (3 + 4 ) ∙ = =
√
IP3). Express = + as the sum of a vector parallel to = + and a vector orthogonal
to .
Solution:
We know that, we can express A as a vector parallel to plus a vector orthogonal to :
= +( − )
∙ ∙
= + −
∙ ∙
We have, ∙ =1 ∙ =2
= ( + )+ + − ( + )
= + + − + +
P3). Express = + as the sum of a vector parallel to = + and a vector
orthogonal to .
Solution: We know that, we can express B as a vector parallel to plus a vector
orthogonal to :
= +( − )
∙ ∙
= ∙
+ − ∙
We have, ∙ =3 ∙ =2
= ( + )+ 3 +4 − ( + )
= + + − +
IP4) . How much work does it take to slide a crate 20m along a loading dock by pulling on
it with a 200 N force at an angle of 30° from the horizontal?
Solution:
We have, | | = 200 , | | = 20 , = 30 ∘
= | || |
= (200)(20) 30∘
√
= 4000 × ( )
= 2000√3 J
P4). If | | = ,| | = , = ∘,Find the work done by F in acting from
to ?
Solution: We have, | | = 30 , | | = 2 , = 30 ∘
= | || |
= (30 )(2) 30∘
√
= 60 × ( )
= 30 √3 J
Exercises:
I. Find the scalar and vector projections of
i) onto
ii) a onto b

1) = 3 −4 , =5
2) = +2 , = −4 +
3) = 3 +6 −2 , = +2 +3
4) = −2 + 3 − 6 , =5 − +4
5) =2 − +4 , = +
6) = + + , = − +
7) = 2 − 4 + √5 , = −2 + 4 − √5
8) = + , = 5 + 12
9) = 2 + 10 − 11 , =2 +2 +
10) = − + , = √2 + √3 + 2
II. If = 8 + 4 − 12 and = + 2 −
 1) Write a as the sum of a vector parallel to b and a
vector orthogonal to b.
2) Write b as the sum of a vector parallel to a and a
vector orthogonal to a.
III.
1. Find the work done by a force = 5 (magnitude 5
N) in moving an object along the line from the origin
to the point (1, 1) (distance in meters).
2. The wind passing over a boat’s sail exerted a
1000-lb magnitude force F as shown here. How much work did the wind perform
in moving the boat forward 1 mi? Answer in foot-pounds.

6.9. Cross Product

Learning Objectives:
 To define the cross product (vector product) of two vectors in space
 To derive the properties of cross product of vectors
 To define Torque
AND
 To solve related problems
In this module, we learn the cross product, a second method of multiplying two vectors.
Cross product is also called a vector product because the multiplication results in a vector.
Cross products are widely used to describe the effects of forces in studies of electricity,
magnetism, fluid flows, and orbital mechanics.
The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space
If two vectors and in space are not parallel, they determine a plane. We select a unit
vector perpendicular to the plane by right-hand rule. This means we choose to be the
unit (normal) vector that points the way your right thumb points when your fingers curl
through an angle from to .

We then define the cross product × ( read as cross ) to be a vector as follows:

Definition
× = (| || | ) ---------- (1)
The vector × is orthogonal to both and because it is a scalar multiple of .
Since the sines of 0 and are both zero in equation (1), it makes sense to define the cross
product of two parallel nonzero vectors to be .
If one or both of and are zero, we also define × to be zero. This way, the cross
product of two vectors and is zero if and only if and are parallel or one or both of
them are zero.
Parallel Vectors:
Nonzero vectors and are parallel if and only if × = .
Reversing the order of the factors in a nonzero cross product reverses the direction of the
product. When the fingers of our right hand curl through the angle from to , our
thumb points the opposite way and the unit vector we choose in forming × is the
negative of the one we choose in forming × .

Thus, for all vectors and ,

× = −( × ) ------------ (2)
Unlike the dot product, the cross product is not commutative.
When we apply the definition to calculate the pairwise cross products of , and , we find

× = −( × ) =
× = −( × ) = ------------- (3)
× = −( × ) =
and
× = × = × =
Because is a unit vector, the magnitude of × is
| × | = | || ||sin || | = | || | sin ----------- (4)
This is the area of the parallelogram determined by and , | | being the base of the
parallelogram and | ||sin | the height.

Torque
When we turn a bolt by applying a force to a wrench, the torque we produce acts along
the axis of the bolt to drive the bolt forward.

The magnitude of the torque depends on how far out on the wrench the force is applied
and on how much of the force is perpendicular to the wrench at the point of application.
The number we use to measure the torque’s magnitude is the product of the length of the
lever arm and the scalar component of perpendicular to .
Magnitude of torque vector = | || | sin or | × |.
If we let be a unit vector along the axis of the bolt in the direction of the torque, then a
complete description of the torque vector is × , or
Torque vector = (| || | sin )
We defined × to be when and are parallel. This is consistent with the torque
interpretation as well. If the force is parallel to the wrench, meaning that we are trying to
turn the bolt by pushing or pulling along the line of wrench’s handle, the torque produced is
zero.
Example The magnitude of the torque exerted by the force at the pivot point in
figure below is

⃗× = ⃗ | | sin 70 ≈ (3)(20)(0.94) ≈ 56.4

The Associative and Distributive Laws
As a rule, cross-product multiplication is not associative because ( × ) × lies in the
plane of and whereas × ( × ) lies in the plane of and . However, the following
laws do hold.
Scalar Distributive Law
( ) × ( ) = ( )( × ) ----------- (5)
Vector Distributive Laws
× ( + ) = × + × -------------- (6)
( + ) × = × + × -------------- (7)
As a special case of equation (5), we also have
(− ) × = × (− ) = −( × ) ----------- (8)
The Scalar Distributive Law can be verified by applying equation (1) to the products on both
sides of equation (5) and comparing the results. The proof for the Vector Distributive Law in
equation (6) is involved. Equation (7) follows from equation (6): Multiply both sides of
equation (6) by −1 and reverse the orders of the products.

PROBLEM SET
IP1: Let , and be such that ≠ , × = , × = . Show that , , are pair
wise orthogonal vectors and | | = , | | = | |.
Solution:
× = ⇒ is perpendicular to both and
× = ⇒ is perpendicular to both and
∴ , , are mutually orthogonal vectors
∴ | | = | × | = | || | sin 90 = | || | ------ (1)
| | = | × | = | || | sin 90 = | || | ------ (2)
From (1) and (2) | || | = | || || | ⇒ | | =
∴ | | = 1 and from (1), | | = | |.
P1: Let is a non-zero vector and , are two vectors such that, × = × and
∙ = ∙ , then prove that = .
Solution:
× = × ⇒ ×( − ) =
⇒ either = or − is parallel to
Again ∙ = ∙ ⇒ ∙ ( − ) =
⇒ = or − is perpendicular to
∴ If ≠ , then − is parallel to and is perpendicular to which is impossible.
∴ = .
IP2: In ∆ , if ⃗ = , ⃗ = and ⃗ = then show that
× = × = ×
Solution: We have ⃗ = , ⃗ = and ⃗ =
+ + = ⃗+ ⃗+ ⃗ = ⃗ =
∴ + =−
∴ × ( + ) = × (− )
∴ × = −( × ) = × [ since × = ]
Also ( + ) × = (− ) ×
 ∴ × = −( × ) = × [ since × = ]
∴ × = × = ×
P2: Compute × ( + ) + × ( + ) + × ( + ).
Solution:
×( + )+ ×( + )+ ×( + )
= × + × + × + × + × + ×
[ Distributive Law ]
= × + × + × − × − × − ×
=
IP3: If , , and are vectors such that × = × and × = × , then show
that the vectors − and − are parallel.
Solution:
We have × = × ------- (1)
and × = × ------- (2)
(1) – (2) ⇒ ( × ) − ( × ) = ( × ) − ( × )
⇒ × ( − ) = ( − ) × [Vector Distributive Law]
⇒ ×( − ) = ×( − )
⇒ ×( − )− ×( − ) =
⇒( − )×( − ) =
Therefore, − and − are parallel vectors.
P3: If | | = , | | = and the angle between , then find | × | .
Solution:
We have | | = 2 , | | = 3 and =
Since × = (| || | )
⇒ | × | = | || | | |
⇒ | × | = | || | ( is a unit vector)
⇒| × | =| | | | = (2 )(3 )
= (4)(9) =9
IP4: The magnitude of the torque exerted by the force on the bolt at if ⃗ = in.
and | | = lb. Answer in foot-pounds.

Solution:
We have ⃗ = 8 in. = = foot, | | = 30 lb. and = 60 .
Torque = ⃗× = ⃗ | | sin 60
√
= (30 ) = 10√3 ft-lb.
P4:
The magnitude of the torque exerted by the force on the bolt at if ⃗ = in. and
| |= lb. Answer in foot-pounds.
Solution:
We have, ⃗ = 8 in. = = foot, | | = 30 lb.
and = 135 .
Torque = ⃗× = ⃗ | | sin 135
= (30 ) = 10√2 ft-lb.
√
Exercises:
1. If = + + , then find | × | .
2. Let = 2 + − 2 , = + . If is a vector such that . = | |, | − | = 2√2 ,
then find | |.

6.10. Calculation of Cross Products

Learning objectives:

 To derive a determinant formula for the cross product of two given vectors.
 To define the scalar triple product (box product) of three vectors.
AND

 To practice the related problems.

We develop a formula to calculate A  B from the components of A and B relative to
a Cartesian coordinate system.
Determinant formula for A  B
If A  a 1 i  a 2 j  a 3 k and B  b1 i  b 2 j  b 3 k , then
i j k
A  B  a1 a2 a3 ........ (1)
b1 b2 b3
i , j, and k we get,
By the distributive laws and the rules for multiplying
A  B   a1i  a2 j  a3k    b1i  b2 j  b3k 
 a1b1i  i  a1b2i  j  a1b3i  k
 a2b1 j  i  a2b2 j  j  a2b3 j  k
 a3b1k  i  a3b2 k  j  a3b3k  k
  a2b3  a3b2  i   a1b3  a3b1  j   a1b2  a2b1  k
The terms in the last line are the same as the terms in the expansion of the determinant
i j k
a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Example 1
Find A  B and B  A if A  2i  j  k , B  4i  3 j  k
Solution
i j k
A B  2 1 1
4 3 1
1 1 2 1 2 1
 i j k
3 1 4 1 4 3
 2i  6 j  10k
B  A    A  B   2i  6 j  10k
Example 2
Find a vector perpendicular to the plane of (1, −1,0), (2,1, −1), and (−1,1,2).
Solution
 
The vector PQ  PR is perpendicular to the plane because it is perpendicular to both
vectors. In terms of components,

PQ   2  1 i  1  1 j   1  0  k  i  2 j  k

PR   1  1 i  1  1 j   2  0  k  2i  2 j  2k
i j k
 
PQ  PR  1 2 1
2 2 2
2 1 1 1 1 2
 i j k
2 2 2 2 2 2
 6i  6k
Example 3
Find the area of the triangle with vertices (1, −1,0), (2,1, −1), and (−1,1,2).
Solution
The area of the parallelogram determined by , , and is
 
PQ  P R  6i  6k

 62  62  2  36  6 2
The triangle area is half of this i.e., 3√2.
Example 4
Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of (1, −1,0), (2,1, −1), and (−1,1,2).
Solution
 
Since PQ  PR is perpendicular to the plane, its direction n is a unit vector
perpendicular to the plane.
 Taking
  values from examples 2 and 3, we have
PQ  PR 6i  6k 1 1
n          i  k
PQ  PR 6 2 2 2
The Scalar Triple Product
The product ( A  B )  C is called the scalar triple product of A, B, and C (in that
order). We can see from the formula
( A  B )  C  A  B C cos ........ ( 2 )
that the absolute value of the product is the volume of the parallelepiped determined by
A, B, and C (from figure).
The number A B is the area of the base parallelogram. The number C cos is
the parallelepiped’s height. Because of this geometry, ( A  B)  C is also called the box
product of A, B, and C .
By treating the planes of B and C and of C and A as the base planes of the
parallelepiped determined by A, B, and C , we see that
( A  B )  C  ( B  C )  A  (C  A)  B ....... (3) Since the
dot product is commutative, equation (3) also gives
( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C ) ....... (4)
The dot and cross may be interchanged in a scalar triple product without altering its value.
The scalar triple product can be evaluated as a determinant.
 b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2 
A (B  C )  A  i j k
 c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2 
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
 a1  a2  a3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
a1 a2 a3
 b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
a1 a2 a3
Thus: A  ( B  C )  ( A  B )  C  b1 b2 b3 ........ (5)
c1 c2 c3
Example 5
Find the volume of the box (parallelepiped) determined by A  i 2j k,
B  2i  3k , and C  7 j  4k .
1 2 1
0 3 2 3 2 0
A  ( B  C )  2 0 3  2 
Solution 7 4 0 4 0 7
0 7 4
 21  16  14  23
The volume is A  ( B  C )  23  23 units cubied.
 PROBLEM SET
IP1. If = − + , = 2 + − 2 , then find ( × ) and ( × ).

Solution: ( × ) = 1 −1 1
2 1 −2
= (2 − 1) − (−2 − 2) + (1 + 2)
= +4 +3
( × ) = −( × ) = − − 4 − 3
P1. If = 2 + , = 2 − + then find ( × ) and ( × )

Solution: ( × ) = 2 1 0
2 −1 1
= (1 − 0) − (2 − 0) + (−2 − 2)
= −2 −4
× = −( × ) = − + 2 + 4
IP2. Find a vector perpendicular to the plane where ( , , ), (− , , − ) and
( , − , )?
Solution: Since the vector ⃗ × ⃗ is perpendicular to both ⃗ and ⃗ , it is perpendicular
to the plane through , and
Now,
⃗ = (−2 − 1) + (5 − 4) + (−1 − 6) = −3 + − 7
⃗ = (1 − 1) + (−1 − 4) + (1 − 6) = −5 − 5

⃗× ⃗ = −3 1 −7
0 −5 −5
= (−5 − 35) − (15 − 0) + (15 − 0)
= −40 − 15 + 15
Thus, the vector −40 − 15 + 15 is perpendicular to the given plane.
Any non-zero scalar multiple of this vector such as −8 − 3 + 3 is also perpendicular to the
plane.
P2. Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane where ( , − , ), ( , , − )
and ( , , ).
Solution: Since ⃗ × ⃗ is perpendicular to the plane, the unit vector perpendicular to
the plane is given by
⃗× ⃗
= ⃗× ⃗
Now,
⃗ = (2 − 1) + (0 + 1) + (−1 − 2) = + − 3
⃗ = (0 − 1 ) + (2 + 1 ) + (1 − 2 ) = − + 3 −

⃗× ⃗= 1 1 −3
−1 3 −1
= (−1 + 9) − (−1 − 3) + (3 + 1)
= 8 +4 +4
⃗× ⃗ = √8 + 4 + 4 = √64 + 16 + 16 = 4√6
 ⃗× ⃗
= ⃗× ⃗
= =
√ √
IP3. Find the area of the triangle with vertices ( , − , ),
( , − , ) and ( , − , ) ?
Solution: The given vertices of a triangle are (2, −2, 1), (3, −1, 2) and (3, −1, 1).
We know that the area A of the triangle formed by the vertices , and is
= ⃗× ⃗
Now,
⃗ = (3 − 2) + (−1 + 2) + (2 − 1) = + +
⃗ = (3 − 2) + (−1 + 2) + (1 − 1) = +

⃗× ⃗= 1 1 1
1 1 0
= (0 − 1) − (0 − 1) + (1 − 1)
=− +
⃗× ⃗ = (−1) + (1) = √2
√
Therefore, Area is = √2 =
P3. Find the area of the triangle with vertices ( , , ), ( , , ) and ( , , ) ?
Solution: The given vertices of a triangle are (1, 1, 1), (2, 1, 3) and (0, 2, 1).
We know that the area A of the triangle formed by the vertices , and is
= ⃗× ⃗
Now,
⃗ = (2 − 1 ) + (1 − 1 ) + (3 − 1 ) = + 2
⃗ = (0 − 1 ) + (2 − 1 ) + (1 − 1 ) = − +

⃗× ⃗= 1 0 2
−1 1 0
= (0 − 2) − (0 + 2) + (1 − 0)
= −2 − 2 +
⃗ × ⃗ = (−2) + (−2) + 1 = √4 + 4 + 1 = 3
Therefore, Area is = (3) =
IP4. Find the volume of the parallelepiped (box) whose coterminous edges are
represented by the vectors 2 − 3 , + − and 3 − ?
Solution: Let = 2 − 3 , = + − and = 3 −
Now,
2 −3 0
( × ). = 1 1 −1
3 0 −1
= 2(−1 − 0) + 3(−1 + 3) + 0 = −2 + 6 = 4
Therefore, the volume of the parallelepiped (box) is
|( × ). | = |4| = 4
P4. Find the volume of the parallelepiped (box) whose coterminous edges are
represented by the vectors 2 − 3 + , − + 2 and 2 + − ?
Solution: Let = 2 − 3 + , = − + 2 and = 2 + −
Now,
2 −3 1
( × ). = 1 −1 2
2 1 −1
= 2(1 − 2) + 3(−1 − 4) + 1(1 + 2)
= −2 − 15 + 3 = −14
Therefore, the volume of the parallelepiped (box) is
|( × ). | = |−14| = 14
EXERCISES
1. Find ( × ) and ( × )
i. = 2 −2 − and = −
ii. = 2 +3 and =− +
iii. = 2 − 2 + 4 and =− + −2
iv. = + − and =
v. = − + and = + +2

2. If =3 + +2 , = − + and = −4 the find ×( × ) and ( × ) × .

3. In I --- V problems
a. Find the area of the triangle determined by the points , and
b. Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane

I. (3, −1, 2) , (2, 0, −1) , (0, 2, 1)

II. (6, 2, 5) , (5, 4, 9) , (−3, 5, 4)
III. (−2, 4, 1) , (3, 1, −1) , (−1, 2, −2)
IV. (1, −1, 2) , (2, 0, −1) , (0, 2, 1)
V. (−2, 2, 0) , (0, 1, −1) , (−1, 2, −2)

4. In a ---- e problems verify that

( × ). = ( × ). = ( × ).
And find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the , and

a. 2 2 2
b. + − 2 − − 2 +4 −2
c. −2 + −9 4 +
d. −10 + 5 10 + − 2 11 + 12 + 13
e. −14 + 15 − 12 − 8 + 9 + 10