College of Agricultural Sciences

Department of Animal Science

Lecture Note for the course

Animal Production and Management (AnSc 261)
3 (2+1)

Instructor : Yilkal Tadele(PhD)

October, 2024
Course objectives
Course Objectives
 The course aimed to introduce students with the basic concepts,
potentials and contribution of livestock and poultry production
system and their management in Ethiopia.
 give details of the origin and domestication of cattle, sheep and goats
in Ethiopia;
 make clear purpose of keeping cattle, sheep, goat, beekeeping and
poultry with small holders and large scale producers in Ethiopia,
 explain managements of cattle, sheep, goat, beekeeping and
different age groups of poultry
contents
1. livestock production system; distribution of livestock and
growth in output from livestock; origin, distribution and
domestication of cattle, cattle production system and
purpose of keeping in Ethiopia
2. Origin and domestication of sheep and goats,
types of sheep and goats in Ethiopia, advantages of small
ruminants over large ruminants, sheep and goat husbandry
systems
3. poultry production and hatchery management, origin and
classification of poultry, poultry production systems in
Ethiopia, management of brooder, grower, layer and
broiler.
4. Honey Bee production and management
Introduction- Common Terminogies
 Livestock- domesticated animals for meat, milk egg and or
traction
• Poultry- all domestic birds kept for the production
of meat and eggs for human consumption.
• It includes domestic chickens, turkeys, ducks,
geese, quails, guinea fowl ostriches etc

Small ruminant- Sheep and goat

Honeybee- social insects used to produce honey for
human use
Production: - the process of growing or making
food, goods or materials
• Animal Productivity - is the total sum of products
and services from animals.
• Animal management – Taking cake of Animals
it requires a high degree of knowledge and skill.
Introduction- Role of livestock

 Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa, with

65 million cattle, 40 million sheep, 51 million
goats, 8 million camels and 57 million chickens

 Livestock has significant values/importance both at the

household and national levels

 Livestock contribute 15 to17 percent of GDP and 35 to 49

percent of Agricultural GDP, and 37 to 87 percent of the
household incomes
• Livestock have multiple uses aside from income generation
• Livestock is a major source of animal protein, power for crop
cultivation, means of transportation, export
commodities, manure for farmland and household energy,
security in times of crop failure, and means of wealth
accumulation.

• Major outputs of livestock as food are production of meat,

milk, eggs, fish, honey

• Though there are dozens of species of animals raised for

various purposes, the great majority of products are derived
from the primary livestock species: cattle, pigs, sheep, goats
and poultry.
• Livestock also plays an important role in providing export
commodities, such as live animals, hides, and skins to earn
foreign exchanges to the country

• The Ethiopian livestock population is almost entirely composed

of indigenous animals.

• Recent estimates showed that 97.8%, 1.9%, and 0.3% of cattle

are indigenous, hybrid, and exotic breeds, respectively.

• The estimates for sheep are 99.6% and 0.3% for local breeds
and hybrids, respectively
• for poultry 81.7%, 10.9%, and 7.4% are indigenous, hybrids and
exotic, respectively.

• Nearly all goats (99.9%) are indigenous breeds

Introduction- Livestock production constraints

• Despite the highest population, the productivity of

livestock is low and not market-oriented compared
to its potential, so the direct contribution to the
national economy is limited

• Low productivity occurred due to shortage of feed,

drought, disease occurrence and lack of improved
livestock technologies like artificial insemination,
health service and shortage of improved breed,
weak extension services
Feed shortage
• Inadequate supply of feed for the existing livestock
population and poor quality of the available feed
resources are the two main factors that contribute to
the low production and productivity of livestock in the
country.
• Quantity and Quality of feeds???
Disease
• The widespread prevalence of a wide range of diseases
and parasites in all agro ecological zones of the country
causes direct economic losses through high mortality of
animals and contributes to the poor productive and
reproductive performance of the animals.

• The annual mortality of livestock is estimated at 8-10%,

14-16% and 11-13%, for cattle, sheep and goat
respectively.
• Animal health problems that contribute to the low
productive and reproductive performance of
livestock include:

• Absence of proper disease control measure,

absence of proper livestock movement control,
inadequate veterinary service, budgetary
constraints and absence of full cost recovery.
Low genetic potential
• Basically there are no characterized breeds of
animals in the country.
• Conditions that contribute to this include:
 Lack of institution to improve the genetic makeup of
indigenous animals
 Animal breeding and development research not
adequate to satisfy the need of improved animals in the
country
 breeding is carried out in the same field without
selection or controlled breeding and lack of record
keeping which is the basis of livestock breeding and
improvement.
Shortage of trained manpower
• There is a chronic shortage of trained manpower in
the field of animal sciences.
• With few exceptions all disciplines in the proper
livestock development are not treated with proper
training requirement and are not adequately staffed
and lack updated knowledge in disseminating
appropriate technology.
• There is also frequent movement of staff due to
restructuring and looking for better job opportunity.
• Hence, this has created a negative impact on the
development of livestock
Weak extension services
 Lack of awareness among the farmers in improved
management of livestock (housing, feeding, health
care) is common

 The extension services to tackle this from the

government, livestock offices , NGOs etc are still
not enough
Shortage of capital

 Lack of credit services/capital is among the

problems for livestock development

 Farmers who are willing to involve beef/fattening,

dairying or poultry business constrained with initial
capital
2. Livestock Production systems
 Livestock production systems include
1. Mixed crop-livestock production
2. Agro-pastoral systems
3. Pastoral systems
4. Landless systems
 These classifications are based on level of
dependency on livestock, livestock numbers and
integration with crop cultivations
 Different classification systems also exist based on
the livestock commodity.
Dairy production systems
 There are four major dairy production systems in Ethiopia,
including the commercial, the urban/periurban, the mixed crop-
livestock, and the pastoral/agro-pastoral systems

1. Commercial dairy

 The specialized commercial dairy systems involving higher levels

of investment are concentrated in the central highland plateau.

 In terms of scale of operation, the farms are classified as large-,

small- or medium-scale.

 They are market oriented specifically targeting consumers in urban

areas.

 Producers tend to have a good understanding of dairy management.

• The commercial dairy system is labour and input intensive
relative to other systems.
• The animals do not provide draft power but their manure is
used as fertilizer
• Average herd size: >100 milking cows for large-scale; 30–
100 for medium-scale; and <30 for small-scale farms.
• Typical breeds: purebred exotic, high-grade or crossbreds
• Feed type: hay, concentrated dairy mix, industrial by-
products, mainly purchased, though some farms cultivate
own pasture.
• Animal health: vaccination/deworming is practiced.
• Common health problems include mastitis, infertility, and
bTB.
• Milk yield: 15–20 litres per day per cow.
2. Urban/Peri-urban dairy
 The urban/peri-urban production system is an
expanding production system, largely found in the
highlands and is concentrated in the Addis Ababa
milk shed area as well as around the regional capital
cities
 There are about 5200 dairy farms in Addis Ababa
alone with an average herd size of 5-10

 It is practiced by many landless urban and sub-

urban poor households..
• Typical breeds: high-grade or crossbred animals.
• Feed type: crop residues, hay, concentrated dairy
mix, industrial by-products, mainly purchased.

• Animal health: vaccination/deworming is practised.

Common health problems include mastitis,
infertility, and bTB.
• Water sources: tap, river, borehole, and rain water.

• Milk yield: 10–15 litres per day per cow with a

lactation period of ~200 days.
3. Mixed crop–livestock
 Mixed crop–livestock dairy production is a subsistence
oriented farming system concentrated in the midland
high-altitude agro-ecological zones where cereals and
cash crops are dominant farm activities.
 Cattle are primarily kept to supply draft power needed
for crop production.
 However, milk production is an integral part of the
production system.

 The bulk of the total milk produced nationally and

about three quarters of the liquid milk processed
commercially is generated here.
• Typical breeds: indigenous and 9.6m farms

• Feed type: natural pasture, crop residues, and weeds and

crop thinning.
•
• Management is mostly low-input, low-output traditional
extensive system.

• About 65 percent of the total milking cows are found in this

system and produce about 72 percent of the national annual
milk output

• Milk yield per cow is 1.9 litres per day, on average

• it is not market oriented and productivity per unit of

land and per head of animal is extremely low
4. Pastoral/agro-pastoral
 Pastoral/agro-pastoral production is the major
system of milk production practiced in the lowland
regions of Ethiopia where livelihoods are heavily
dependent on livestock.
 Cattle dominate the livestock population followed
by camel, goats, and sheep.
 Cows constitute about 40 percent of the herd.
 Major pastoral areas extend from the north-eastern
and eastern lowlands (Afar and Somali) to the
southern and south-western lowlands (Borana and
South Omo)
• Average herd size per household: usually in the range
of 10–20 heads of cattle but large herds of >200 heads
are common too particularly among the Borana
• Typical breeds: entirely indigenous breeds are kept.
• Population of milking cows in this system accounts for
~34 percent of the national milking cow population
• Feed type: predominantly communal rangeland
pastures
• Milk yield: ~1.5 litres per cow per day.

• Marketing: milk is produced for home consumption

but excess milk or milk products are sold to
nearby towns or highlanders.
Beef cattle production systems
 There are four types of beef production system in
Ethiopia: the commercial feedlot system, peri-urban
small-scale fattening, backyard fattening in the
mixed crop-livestock system, and the pastoral/agro-
pastoral livestock production system.
1. Commercial feedlot
 Many feedlot operations are concentrated in the central Rift
Valley particularly in East Shoa zone.

 Animals are entirely confined in a yard fitted with watering

and feeding facilities for a finishing duration of 3–6 months.

 Feedlot operators prefer the Borana cattle breed due to its

high market demand; highland Zebu originating from Arsi,
Bale and Hararghe highlands are also used to a limited
extent.

 Commonly, intact young males are fattened based on the

demand in the live animal export market.

 Crop residues such as teff and barley straw form the bulk of
basal diets while industrial by-products such as wheat bran,
oilseed cakes and molasses are used as supplementary
feeds
• Minimum and maximum number of animals kept on
feedlot per batch: 100 and 1500.
• Typical breed: Borana.
• Feed type: agro-industrial by-products (oilseed cakes,
milling by-products, and crop residues).
• Animal health: vaccination/deworming.
• Water source: borehole or tap.
• Housing: open shelter fitted with watering and feeding
troughs.

• Productivity: carcass yield per animal is 110 kg on

average with a dressing percent of 45–48
2.Small-scale cattle fattening in peri-urban areas

 Smallholder farmers and landless households

around urban areas fatten a few animals at a time.
 The animals are often tethered and stall-fed.
 The fattening exercise is mostly done after the
oxen have retired from farm work/ploughing in
order to replace them with younger animals.
 Crop residues (teff, wheat,and barley straws) are
used as basal feed whereas milling and oil industry
by-products and atela (a residue from traditional
distilling and brewing) are heavily used in fattening
diets
• Average number of animals fattened at a time: 5 (range
1–8).
• Typical breed: indigenous Zebu.
• Feed type: mainly crop residues supplemented with
traditional brewery by-products (atela) and
household leftovers.
• Housing: simple shelter or tethered in open area.
• Animal health: vaccination/deworming.
• Water source: tap or borehole.
• Yield and productivity: carcass yield per animal is 110
kg on average.

• Marketing: domestic consumers particularly during

Ethiopian holidays
3. Cattle fattening in mixed crop–livestock production system

 Traditional backyard cattle fattening is a deep-rooted and

widely practiced cattle enterprise in highland areas although
it is largely a seasonal undertaking.
 Old oxen that retire from ploughing are commonly
conditioned and finished.
 Usually, marketing of fattened animals is synchronized with
Ethiopian holidays.

 Cattle fattening in this system almost entirely relies on locally

available resources to minimize finishing costs

 In areas like Hararghe, farmers buy young oxen from the

adjacent lowland pastoralists and use them for ploughing for
few years after which they fatten and sell them before they
become old and emaciated
• Average herd size: small number of animals (1 to 4) are stall-
fed per cycle.
• Duration of fattening period and cycles/year range from 2–12
months and 1–3 times, respectively
• Typical breed: indigenous Zebu.
• Feed type: crop residues, green grass, agro-industrial by-
products (a very recent practice), and household leftovers.
• Animal health: vaccinations against major diseases (anthrax,
lumpy skin disease, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia,
pasteurellosis, and blackleg)
• Water source: mainly river and rain water.
• Yield and productivity: 110 kg carcass per slaughtered animal
on average.
• Marketing: domestic consumers particularly during
Ethiopian holidays.
4. Pastoral/agro-pastoral

 The pastoral/agro-pastoral cattle production system is a

rangeland based livestock production system aimed at
exploitation of the natural or semi-natural vegetation via
domestic animals, in particular ruminants.

 The main product is milk and the main function of livestock is

subsistence, although social and cultural functions are also
important.
 Excess young males are sold off to highlanders, where they
are used as draught oxen, or to feedlot operators.

 Herd size is maximized (depending on labour for herding,

water drawing etc.) to ensure the highest chance of being left
with a viable core herd after drought.
• Average herd size: 10–20; large herds of >200 heads are
common too.
• Cattle population accounts for ~25 percent of the
national herd.
• Typical Breeds: indigenous breeds.

• Feed type: predominantly communal rangeland

pastures; crop residues are used to a limited
extent in agro-pastoral areas.
• Animal health: vaccinations against major diseases
(anthrax, lumpy skin disease, contagious
bovine pleuropneumonia, pasteurellosis, and blackleg)

• Households do not usually slaughter for home

consumption
3. Dairy and Beef cattle Production
3.1. Dairy Cattle production
Dairy- is a place /building where milk is kept and milk
products are made.
- is a shop /place where milk and milk products are
sold .
Dairy farm: is a farm that produces milk and milk
products
Dairying /dairy farming: is the business of a dairy
farm

Dairy cattle: cattle that is raised primarily to produce

milk
• Productivity: - The state of being productive, fertile or
efficient
• Management: - the act of running and controlling a
business or similar organization
• Milk –white liquid produced by the mammary glands of
female mammals.

Features of The Dairying

• Specific property of milk as a raw material
- Milk consists of 87% water.
- It is bulky and heavy commodity
• The milk is produced in a daily basis, so it needs
regular sanitations
- It needs high cost of transportation to get market
- It is highly perishable; milk will only keep for few days
- It is subject to adulteration

• Milk is Valuable and expensive raw materials

- Used to make a wide rang of products
• The milk is produced in a daily basis, so it needs
regular sanitations
- It needs high cost of transportation to get market
- It is highly perishable; milk will only keep for few days
- It is subject to adulteration

• Milk is Valuable and expensive raw materials

- Used to make a wide rang of products
Comparative advantage of dairy farming
Better efficiency
• Dairy cows have high efficiency in converting feed protein
into milk protein. Milk 100% edible compared to other
items.
E.g egg – the egg shell is not edible
Beef – 60% edible.
• Highly intensive (Intensity); - the dairy farm high labor
intensive(job opportunities).
• Permanency or sustainability: - no milk substitution in the
diet of the infants. Because of this vital nature the
enterprise will continue for the coming unknown years.
• Stability of the dairy industry: - the industry less subject
to price fluctuations, The sector provide a regular income
Disadvantage of the dairy farming
- High water content and perishable nature of milk, these
natures of milk has a negative impact for transportation
and storage of milk.

- Milk and milk products can only be stored for short period
of time, need sophisticated equipment /facilities.

-High labor requirement

- Considerable capital is required
- Seasonal nature of milk price
Major Dairy Cattle Breeds
 Breed: Breed is a group of animals having a
common origin and possessing certain well fixed
and distinctive characteristics not common to other
members of the same Species
• These variation is due to environmental and
genetic variation.
• Dairy type: Cattle of this type are usually not large,
and are of some what lean build or are
characterised by a lean, angular form and a well-
developed mammary system.
• Distinctive/unique characteristics Making animals differ
from one another Include:
a -- Body conformation
b -- Fitness characteristic
c-- Production characteristics
-Based on the above characteristic breeds can be classified into
two.
• These are
1) Local breed (Bos Indicus)—Zebu breeds or Tropical
breeds;
- They are humped.
2) Exotic breed (Bos Taurus) —temperate breed, they are
humpless
 Comparative differences-comformation

Local breeds Temperate breeds

• have much narrower • Have large body size
body • No hump
• have long legs and well
developed hump.
 Comparative differences-Fitness characteristics
Local breeds Temperate breeds
• they generate less heat or • They generate high heat
low metabolic rate or high metabolic rate
• sweating more rapidly • Sweating less rapidly
• Can‘t exist under poor
• can exist under poor quality feed
quality feed • high feed intake
• low feed intake
 Comparative differences-Productivity
Local breeds Temperate breeds

• slow to reach sexual maturity • fast to reach sexual

• long calving interval maturity
• slow growth rate
• short calving interval
• short lactation period
• fast growth rate
• low milk yield
• long lactation period
• high milk yield
Dairy cattle breeds in the world
Boss Taurus (Temperate breeds)
- Holstein, Jersey, Milking Devon, Canadienne ,
Shorthorns , Ayrshire , Guransey, Norwegian red, Brown
Swiss
Dairy cattle breeds in tropics( Boss Indicus)
- Sahiwal, Australian Friesian , Australian milking zebu
 Other dairy animals
- Dairy goats -Buffalo - Dairy camel
- Friesian sheep -Yaks
Most known Dairy cattle breeds

HOLSTIEIN FRIESIAN
 HF (Holstein Friesian)
 Origin: Holland.
 Black and white or red and white in coloring.
 Large size and exceptional milk production.- the breed is
large animal, therefore, can be used for beef
weight of cow = 650- 700 kg
weight of bulls = > 1000 kg
 Average milk yield = 6500 - 7500 kg
 Butter fat content of 3.7%
 Has the best disposition/temperament than any other breed
of cattle
 Are adapted to high level of management.
 Do not respond to adverse environmental conditions
Ayrshire

AYRSHIRE
 Ayrshire
• Origin: Scotland.
• Coat color: light or dark red and white in varying
proportions.
• the breed is noted for its style and animation, good feet
and legs, and grazing ability
• average cow weight varies between 450 and 550 kg
• average bull weight varies between 700 and 800 kg
• average milk yield is estimated to be 4500 kg; with milk
fat content of 4 %
• relatively adaptable to adverse conditions
Jersey

JERSEY
 JERSEY (“cheese breed”)
• Origin: Island of Jersey in Great Britain
• Fawn-colored.
• small breed
- weight of cows is 350 kg
- bulls weigh upto 700 kg
- birth weight of calves is about 20 kg
• average milk yield in original environment is about
4000 kg
• butter fat content of milk is very high , about 6.5%
• good pasture animals in harsh environments.
• highest fat and protein content of all dairy cattle
breeds
GURENSY
 GURENSEY
 Origin: The British island of Guernsey
 Golden yellow skin pigmentation
 Calves are relatively small at birth
 Similar to Jersey but slightly larger cows weigh 450- 500
kg and bull 750-850kg
 Milk yield in original environment varies between 4000-
5000 kg
Brown Swiss
 Brown swiss
Origin – Switzerland
-Color- solid brown, varying from very light to dark.
Distinctive characteristics
-Nose and tongue are black, Medium length horn
-Strong heavy muscle, Calm and unexcitable
- Height at wither is 132cm, Milk yield 3860, fat content
3.86.
- The muzzle and a strip along the back of bone are light in
color.
- Cow weight 540kg – 630kg, bull weight 747 kg-
1080kg.calves weight 40.5- 45 kg.
 Ethiopian cattle types
1. Barca type
• Habitat is medium to high altitude
• Originated in west part of Eritrea, but abundant in Tigray
and Gondar
• Coat colour is variable, but black pied is common
• multipurpose type: milk, meat and draft
• considered to be good milk cattle
• weight at maturity = 290-310 kg for male
230-250 kg for females
• selected produce about 647 litre milk per lactation
 2. Arsi type
 Dominate the highlands of Arsi and Bale
 small in body size
 selected Arsi produce upto 500-kg/ lactation
- butter fat percentage = 5.4 - 5.8 %
3. Fogera
 found in the North western part of the country (Fogera)
- produce about 281 kg of milk / lactation
- average weight = 232 kg
- butter fat percentage = 5.8 %
 4. Boran
- is a famous Ethiopian breed
- today is also found in Somalia and Kenya
- colour is normally white or grey but also red
- average weight vary from 318- 680 kg for male and 259 -
454 kg for female
- milk yield is 440 kg /lactation
- butter fat percentage is 6.0 %
- average birth weight is 23.5 kg
- average weaning weight is 170 kg ( 8-month basis )

- average daily body weight gain is 540 gm

 5. Horro type
- originated from the western part of the country,
Wollega
- are medium sized
- mainly raised for meat and draft power
- selected Horro produce up to 543 litre/lactation -
poor temperament
6. Ogden type
- originated in the Eastern part of the country around
Ogden .
- characterised by coat colour which vary from
white to Grey
 7. Sheko type
found in the south western part of the country around Keffa
do not possess hump
not much work done compared to others
8. Senga type
- dominate the central part of the country.
- have a cervico - thoracic hump (neck humped)
- Mixed type not identified yet.
Special characteristics of Ethiopian local cattle breeds/ type
 They have ability to undergo a slow reduction in body weight
during feed shortage and put on above average during abundant
feed availability
 Tolerant to disease and quite resistant to the local area diseases
 Can very well adapt to the environment in terms of temperature,
humidity etc.
 Well manage on the local quality pastures without sacrificing the
beef quality output. Pure breeds in contrast will have problems to
adjust with above conditions.
 They take the name from the locality
 They are breed type but not breed
 They are diversified type
They have small body size to cope up with poor
quality and quantity feed
They have large surface area
Ability with stand long period of water deprivation
Efficient utilization of high fiber feed
Good mothering ability
Major constraints in dairy production/farming
A-Technical constraints
B - Non –technical constraints
Technical Constraints Are
a -Genotype,
b - Feed supply,
c -Animal disease,
d- Farming systems and animal management.
Non –Technical Constraints
A, In adequate infrastructure
B, Institutional issues
C, extent of attention given in relation to Policy
Establishing a dairy cattle Herd

The objectives of establishing a dairy herd are:

1. Profit
2. Personal satisfaction and enjoyment

Challenges of establishing a dairy herd

Personal challenges
Resource challenges
 Personnel challenges
1. Acquiring thorough, update knowledge of all aspects of
dairying and cattle herd management .
2. Gaining practical experience in dairying farming
3. Possessing interest, motivation, and willingness to work
hard both physically and mentally and to make personal
sacrifices, especially during beginning years.

Resource Challenges
Availability and /or cost of needed resources or
capital to purchase these resources may be a major
challenge in establishing a dairy herd.
Major resources needed that require major capital
outlay include:
Dairy cattle
Facilities and equipment to house and handle the
cattle
 Land for growing all or part of the forage for the
cattle
 Marketing privileges (marketing base)
 Factors to consider in establishing herd
1. Dairy or dual purpose type
2. Grades or pure-breds
3. Choice of a breed
Availability
Adaptability
productivity
4. Marketing of milk ,milk products, meat and meat animal
5. Feed: availability and quality of feed have to be taken in to
considerations.
6. Size of herd
In general, larger herds require a greater capital
investment and a higher degree of management skill
than smaller ones.
 7. Disease problem
Endemic diseases of the area,
• Tuberculosis, brucellosis and mastitis.
Isolation for a period of 30 to 60
8. Buying cows, heifers or calves
 In starting a herd, three methods are available :
i. buying cows
ii. buying heifers
iii. buying calves
 The choice between the alternatives should be determined
primarily by :
a. the time when it is desired to be in production
b. available capital, and
c. experience
 In buying cows one has to consider
1. productive years of the dairy cow
2. health and condition of the cow
 heifers,
1.since they do not have production record, one has to rely
on the performance of parents to select them ( calibre of
parents)
2. their phenotypic appearance
 calves,
1. the production performance of their parents
2. Environmental conditions under which record was made
(70% of the variability in production is attributed to
environment
 9. Site selection
 health service
 feed is available at a cheaper price
 good market outlet
 near to power line ( electric power source )
 near to a highway weather road
 permanent clean water
 environmental temperature is favourable.
 gentle slope for drainage purpose
 Land for farmstead construction
 Skilled man power
Housing of Cattle
 Housing of Cattle
 Housing is the method of creating conducive micro
environment for the animals and safety mechanism.
The purpose of housing is

i. to provide some environmental control

ii. to reduce waste of purchased feed

iii. to control of disease and parasite

iv. to safeguard against predators and theft

v. to produce clean milk and to save labour

 Requirements for Housing

Due consideration must be given to:

 Environmental requirements

 Space requirement

 Sanitation

 Building and equipment arrangements for efficient use of

labor and feed (efficient communication)

 1. Environmental requirements:
• Many elements comprise the environment parameter in
dairy herd. The most obvious ones are:
temperature
relative humidity (moisture content)
movement of the ambient air
the intensity and character of light (direct sun radiation)
2. Space requirement
• Due consideration should also be made for space
requirement, including for the entire housing, feeding,
caring for the herd, storage of feed, handling milk and
manure, storage for equipment, residence for barn
workers/attendants.

• Enough space for the animals, for efficient work (sufficient

workspace), and for sanitary purpose is important.

• Space requirement for housing depends on the housing

system.
3. Sanitation

• A major objective in planning dairy structure is producing

clean milk.

• This calls for equipment space for sterilizing milk utensils

and storage containers and facilities for quick cooling and
low temperature storage of the milk.
 Designing cattle houses:

• The type and extent of housing partially depend on the

purpose for which the animals are being reared.

• There are three basic types of housing commonly used;

.
1.The loose type of housing system
2.The stanchion type of housing system
3.Loose house with free stall
4. tie stalls /not common
 1. The Loose Type of Housing System
 In fact both type of housing system have their own merits
and demerits.
 However, the advantages of loose housing system are that -
enlargement or expansion of the house is very easy and less
expensive;
 they are labour saving, benefit of exercise due to
movement;- efficiency and profitability is more since they
are less cost.
 Disadvantages of loose housing system:
Cows tend to remain less clean/ identified since they are
not so confined;
all animals confined must be dehorned to avoid injury and
disease transmission is easy.
 competition for feed
 1. The Loose Type of Housing System
 In fact both type of housing system have their own merits
and demerits.
 However, the advantages of loose housing system are that -
enlargement or expansion of the house is very easy and less
expensive;
 they are labour saving, benefit of exercise due to
movement;- efficiency and profitability is more since they
are less cost.
 Disadvantages of loose housing system:
Cows tend to remain less clean/ identified since they are
not so confined;
all animals confined must be dehorned to avoid injury and
disease transmission is easy.
 competition for feed
 Disadvantages of loose housing system:
Cows tend to remain less clean/ identified since they are
not so confined;
all animals confined must be dehorned to avoid injury and
disease transmission is easy.
 competition for feed
 Disadvantages of loose housing system:
Cows tend to remain less clean/ identified since they are
not so confined;

All animals confined must be dehorned to avoid injury and

disease transmission is easy.

competition for feed

 2. Stanchion/conventional Type of Housing:
It is a system of confining animals at a place.
 Advantages
-Animals tend to remain clean
-No contact among animals
-More sophisticated
 Disadvantages – less comfort to animals
- Difficult and more expensive to be expanded and
enlarged; more costly.
 The arrangement of animals in stanchion type of house
should be:
 face to face or
 tail to tail
• Facilities within the house includes
 Feederer
 waterer
Feed /central passage
Standing/resting area
Gutter- for waste disposal.
Advantages of face to face system

• Cows make a better showing for visitors when heads are

together

• The cows feel easier to get into their stalls.

• Sun rays shine in the gutter where they are needed most.

• Feeding of cows is easier, both rows can be fed without

back tracking.
Advantages of tail to tail system
• In cleaning and milking the cows, the wide middle
alley is of great advantage.
• Lesser danger of spread of diseases from animal to
animal.
• Cows can always get more fresh air from outside.
• The attendant can inspect a greater number of
milkmen while milking.

• Any sort of minor disease or any change in the hind

quarters of the animals can be detected quickly and
even automatically.
3. Loose House With Free Stall

 Freestalls are typically used to house dairy cattle for

extended periods and include a bedding area for cattle to
ruminate and rest.

 The term 'free stall' refers to the bedding area where

cattle are provided cubicles (stalls), where they may lie
down

 Separate area for eating, drinking, resting and milking

 3. Loose House With Free Stall ..
 In this system more protection is provided for the animal (in
terms of sanitation and injury) than loose house.

 The animals are given access to the feeding area(grazing), a

resting area, and an adjoining open lot/feedlot.

 Stalls must be of the right size so as to keep the animal

clean and reduce injury to a minimum.
 4. Tie stalls
• Tie stalls are a form of housing where cows are
tethered at the neck to their stall, restricting their
movement, their ability to socialize, graze and
groom, and perform other natural behaviours
 Recommendations in designing Dairy cattle housing in
tropical environmental conditions.
 Best Barn type- Loose Housing system/ with free stall
 Topography- Leveled area with gentle slope
 Orientation- perpendicular to dominant wind
 Roof Height – 4.6m – 5m

Barns for calves & Heifers for Replacements

Calf Raising (From Birth to 2-3 months)
 Young calves up to two to three months of age may be
housed in individual portable hutches or in confinement calf
barns.
Calf hutches are best to be used in tropical areas. Calf hutch
consists of two sections:
• A cell (covered area) bedded with wood shavings, sawdust
or straw, the cell could be covered with canvas or plastic
sheet.
• Open (exercise) yard provided in front of the cell. The calf
is provided food & water on bucket. Keep the calf hutch
clean dry well ventilated & free from direct drafts.
• Length = 1.2 m (cell) +1.2m (open yard)
• Width and Height = 1.2m each
Advantages of calf Hutch
Low cost & easy to design & build
Easy to clean & disinfect , Fewer disease problems
Easy to move from contaminated areas
Gets the calf used to existing weather.
Adequate natural ventilation
Aids To Manage a Dairy Herd
A. Feeders and water supplying system.
B. The drainage system / channel/gutter - a system where
by excreta / Cow dung and Urine produced by the
animal in the house is removed.
C. Milk store –a room / place where milk is stored
temporarily.
D. Maternity pen—a pen where pregnant animals are kept.
E. Hay barn / store – where hay is stored for future use.
F. Feed store – where mostly concentrates and
supplementary feeds are kept.
G. Silage Pits – a place where silage preparation takes
place.
H. Isolation pen –where sick animals are separately kept
away from healthy animals.
I. Cattle Crush – structure used for vaccination and
treatment of animals.
J. Fence –to keep animals protected from wild animals and
theft.
THE DAIRY FARM EQUIPMENTS:
Different types of equipments are used in dairy farm such as:
1. Fixed weighing scale –to take the weight of animals.
2. Heart girth meter – it is used to estimate the weight of
animals where there is no weighing scale available in that
area.
3. Milk collection and storing cans – are used to transport
and store milk.
4. Hoof trimmer – is used to trim the long hoof of animals.
5. Dehorner – is used to remove the horns of the animals.
6. Castrator – is used to castrate / crush the spermatozoa
chords in the testicles of the male animals.
7. Veterinary equipments –all types of equipments that the
veterinarian uses to give medical treatment such as drugs to
treat sick animals.
8. Milk processing equipments – are used to process
milk(Cooling / Chilling / Cream Separation / Pasteurization
etc) and to convert one form of milk to another or into
different products.
9. Hand gloves –is hand wear to prevent contamination.
10. Ear tags and it’s applicator –used for the identification
of animals and Punching of ears for fixing of tags.
11. Restraining materials –used to restrain animal eg. - Rope.
12. Brushes and cleaning materials.
Feeds and nutrition of dairy cattle
• Proper nutrition is imperative for achieving high and
sustained livestock productivity.

• Proper feeding is essential to ensure that the animal: is alive;

healthy; good body condition;

• Have enough energy to move; Produce enough

milk/meat/egg

• Feed Accounts 55-75% of the total expenses

Feed Nutrients
Recommended Feeding

For high yielding animals, the optimum concentrate

roughage ratio on dry matter basis should
be 60:40.

For non milking, less productive animals the

reverse may be used

Roughage to concentrate ratio of 40:60

Classification of feedstuffs-Different classifications exist
1. Roughages/bulky –dry forage
-succulent forage/pasture
-silage
2. Concentrates -energy feeds
-protein feeds
3. Mineral supplements
4. Vitamin supplements
Roughage feeds
Being low in nutritional value
• As roughages are feedstuffs that contain greater than 18%
CF,
• Contain low energy and crude protein
• Protein content varies by roughage; from 2% up to 30%
on a dry matter basis.
• These feeds are less nutritious and are more appropriate to
the feeding of ruminants as compared to monogastric.
• But for ruminants they play a physiological role besides
supplying nutrients.
• As roughages are generally bulky feeds, their intake is
limited.
Roughage feeds
 The intake of roughages by ruminants depends on two
factors.
 Body weight of the animal
 Quality of the roughage
• If we have an excellent quality roughage the animal may
consume about 3% of its body weight.
• If the quality is good intake is about 2.5% of the body
weight of the animal.

• For average quality roughage intake is 2% of the body

weight and for poor quality roughage intake is about
1.5% of the body weight of the animal.
Roughage sources available to livestock
1. Pasture
• These are the most important feed sources for
grazing animals.
• Pastures and other forages have outstanding
importance in livestock production.

• Good pasture supply the most economic feed for

livestock.
 May be natural or
cultivated-Permanent
-Temporal
2. Crop residues- are other roughage sources for livestock
feeding
-Straws stems and leaves of crops (wheat, barley, oat) after threshing
the grains
-Stovers are straws but different because these are meant to imply crop
residues of maize after the ear is removed or sorghum without head
or cobs(ear = cobs + grain).

• Crop residues have low crude protein content in the range

of 2–13% of the dry matter.

• Most residues are deficient in fermentable energy and

minerals.

• Crop residues have low palatability and digestibility that leads

to poor intake, particularly when fed as the sole roughage.
• Crop residues have low nutritional value but high in
lignin and crude fiber and hence low digestibility.

•But there nutritional value can bee improved Some

of the ways devised to improve the nutritive
value of crop residues are:
1. Supplementation
2. Chemical treatment
3. Biological treatment
4. Physical treatment
5. Breeding
Concentrates
• Roughages will not be enough to supply all the nutrients
needed for production(productive animals).
• So should be supplemented with energy and or protein rich
concentrates
Energy sources- grains and grain by products
-molasses
Protein sources- animal origin protein supplements
-plant origin protein supplements
Energy rich feeds/energy sources
Feeds that are high in energy and low in fiber (under
18% ), and that generally contain less than 20%
protein.
• Roughages will not be enough to supply all the
nutrients needed for production.

• So one should consider with supplementation of

other nutrient sources such as energy concentrates to
supply enough energy for such high producing
animals
Grain and grain byproducts
• The most common feedstuffs used to supply energy are
grain and grain byproducts which are left over during
processing of grain or flour for human consumption.

• Grains as sources of energy are characterized by high in

DM content. On average they contain 80 – 90% DM.

• They contain a lot of energy in terms of TDN, so can be

used as a supplement to high producing animals.
• They contain low fiber, so can be used for both
ruminants and monogastrics.

• Protein level in such feeds is generally low. Under

normal condition grains contain 8-12% CP

• Low protein quality

• One of the problem of using grains as animal
feed is the competition between man and animals
for grains.
• This is a series problem specially in countries like
ours where grain production is not even sufficient
for human consumption.

• Therefore, grain by-products or grain milling by-

products are mostly utilized.

• One such example common in our country is grain

milling by-products of wheat Processing.
Wheat bran (‘Furshika’)
• This is the most coarse by-product of wheat milling.

• When the seed is milled, the first portion that is

separated is the outer portion which would result in
the production of the first by-product called wheat
bran.

• Contain a high level of fiber on average about 10%

(8.5-12% CF), higher than the kernel.
• It is the outer portion, so is rich in protein. In terms
of CP it contains about 16.4% (16-18% CP).

• Since wheat bran is fibrous type of feed, it is more

suitable for the feeding of ruminants.
Wheat shorts (‘Furshikelo’)
• This is the other product obtained from milling of
wheat.
• Contains lower fiber content mostly less than 8.5%
• Since has the germ, the product is expected to have
higher CP content (greater than 18% CP or is around
21-22% CP).

• The product has also a better energy content

Molasses
• This is another source of energy for the feeding of
animals.
• This is a steepy by-product that comes out as a by-
product during the processing of sugar cane or sugar
beet for the purpose of sugar production.

• It is black syrup sweet solution containing at

least 46% sugar.

• Molasses is a very good source of energy which is

made up of soluble sugars
• However, the inclusion of molasses to ruminant diet
is limited

• This is due to the fact that during processing of

sugar cane or sugar beet a lot of chemicals are
utilized.
Protein sources

Fish meal
• Highly variable 35 to 70% CP.
• Fish meal is best in terms of quality even from animal
origin protein concentrates.

• This is due to the good assortment of amino acids

in fish meal.

• It is rich in lysine, methionine, tryptophan which

makes it a valuable supplement to cereal based diets
Meat meal
• Meat meal could be cooked at high temperature and
pressure to decrease the fat level.
• After treating with appropriate temperature and pressure, it
will be dried and ground to meal form which could be used
as protein supplement for both ruminants and monogastrics.
• Meat meal contains 60-70% CP. The protein quality varies
depending on the proportion of the particular by-products in
meat meal.

• Carcass trimming, condemned carcasses and liver, inedible

offal (like lungs, gut), tendons, ligaments, hair, hides, horn,
wool and blood can be processed and used as animal feed.
Soybean meal or soybean oil meal
• Soybean meal is the major protein supplement used for non
ruminant animals in most areas of the world with intensive
livestock and poultry production.
• Swine and poultry are fed corn-soy diets with corn as an
energy source and soybean meal as protein supplement.
• Corn is the standard in which other feed grains are
compared and soybean meal is the standard for protein
supplements.
• Soybean meal is highly palatable and has a high
digestibility.

• It has a high protein content about 44-50 % CP.

• Soybean meal can be included in rations for
highly productive ruminants because of its rumen
bypass potential.

• There are different deleterious factors in soybean

meal, which include:

• A variety of toxins including protease inhibitors,

lectins, phytoestrogens, saponins, goiterogens,
and several others.

• Row soybeans are toxic to most animals.

• Non conventional feeds- manure- cattle manure
-pig manure
-poultry manure
-rumen contents
-hatchery by products
-feed additives
Feeding management of Dairy Animals

 Dairy cows (and all other ruminants) have the capacity to

convert roughages and other by- products from the human
food industry, otherwise useless waste products, into
valuable products like milk and meat.

 In virtually all commercial livestock farming systems the

purchase of feed and/or the cost of growing fodder is the
most expensive item of the production costs.

 It is very important that one has excellent knowledge and

skills with regard to feeding management.
• Nutrient/feed Requirement
• Nutritional requirements vary with the stage of lactation. For
feeding practices, we define 5 distinct phases during this
365-day period

 Phase 1: Early lactation: 0 to 70 (peak milk

Production)
 Phase 2: Mid lactation: 70 to 200 (peak DM feed
intake)
 Phase 3: Late lactation: 200 to 305(restoration
phase)
 Phase 4: Dry period: 60 to 14 days before the next
lactation
 Phase 5: Transition or close-up period: 14 days
before to calving
• Components of dairy cow
feeds
Hay and Silage making
Storage of hay
Silage
 Concentrates provide the additional Energy and Protein
needed
 Concentrates are:
High in Protein and Energy
Low in fiber
Rapid fermentation and fast digestion
 The amount of concentrate needed should be calculated
based on:
Body weight, The milk production, CP and ME content in
forages, The forage and concentrate ratio
3.2. Beef cattle Production
• Beef Cattle: - are cattle’s which are reared for the
purpose of beef production
• Veal: - meat from a calf
• Beef Carcass: - the dead body of an animal that is
ready for cutting up as meat
• Meat: - the flesh of an animal or a bird eaten as
food
• Meat ball: - a small ball of finely chopped meat

• Production: - the process of growing or making

food, goods or materials.
• Product: - a thing that is grown or produced
• Producer: - a person or a company or a county that
grows or makes food, goods or materials.

• Productivity: - the rate at which animals grow and

or produce.
Role /importance /Advantages of Beef cattle production in the
world and Ethiopian economy
Because of large number of population and diversity of product
cattle’s contribute more to the countries economy than other
livestock species.
Used as a Source of food: (meat (basic), milk)
• Beef cattle ensure nutritional security by providing valuable high
quality nutrients and also providing employment to large number
of small and marginal farmers
Used as Source of income
• The demand of beef depends on: the number of people, Income
per person (per capita), Changes in people’s meat preference
(attitude) and related goods.
• Used for traction power
Disadvantages Beef cattle production
• They are not efficient converters of concentrated feeds into meat
• Takes longer to develop a cattle herd
• The capital investment in modern and efficient feeding operation
can be high
Comparative advantage of beef cattle production
• Beef cattle are a non-perishable product
• High efficiency of beef cattle to change low quality feed to
high quality products.
• divisibility of beef into deferent phases
• Comparative disease resistance ability of beef cattle
• Their ability to withstand harsh climatic conditions
• Beef cattle can use most of the roughages
• Death losses are usually low
• Beef are adapted for use in small operations as well as in
large scale
Opportunities that will enhance the cattle
production system in ethiopia are
• High demand of animals by the local abattoirs
• increasing official exports and
• increasing domestic meat consumption
• positve attitude and consideration of the
government and non governmental organizations to
wards the beef sector.
• Beef cattle breeds
Hereford • Originated in England
• Red with white points
• Horned usually
• Known for pink eye

Bos Taurus / British Breed

Red Angus

• Originated in the British Isles

• Same as Black Angus
• Barred from Angus herdbook
• Recognized as separate breed
Black Angus
• Native to Angus (near Scotland)
• Most popular beef breed in the US
• Always black in color
• Can produce Red Angus
• Known for Marbling Ability

Bos Taurus / British Breed

Classification
• FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED TO ESTABLISH BEEF
FARM
– Identifying the importance and potential of the area for
beef cattle production in general
– Deciding upon the type and source of appropriate
breed to the specific area
– Critical consideration should be given for site selection
– House designing and beef cattle farm stead structure
– Full furnishing of the beef farm with equipment
– General factors which should be considered for animal
productivity
– Great consideration should be given for Beef cattle
production programs and choice
EVALUATING THE PRODUCTION FACTORS
 Assessment / survey needs to be conducted in every aspect
in order to evaluate the production factors of beef cattle
production.
 Production factors for beef cattle are:
 Weather condition
 Access to feed sources for animals,
 Availability of grazing area,
 Veterinary services
 Market conditions for the animal & their products
 farm structure , Electric power supply
• Enough place for the construction
Deciding Upon the type and source of appropriate Breed
to the specific area
• Criteria to select beef cattle for specific area, whether it is
local or exotic breed include:
a). Body conformation - refers to the appearance of the
animals: Long, trim, deep-sided body, no excess fat on the
brisket, flank or hind flank, no extra hide around the throat,
dewlap, or sheath
b) Performance record - basis in relation to the important
economic traits.
c) Pedigree – is the record of the ancestors of an animal
D) Fitness to the environment: Local breeds are quite
resistant to the local area diseases and can very
Critical consideration should be given for site selection
• The following points/ factors must be considered during
site selection to attain the objective of the farm
• Access to roads to ensure year round transports of cattle
feed to and from the feedlot
• Availability of adequate and good quality water supply
• Good naturally drained soil type that drains well to reduce
mud problems
• Proximity to cattle source, feed source
• market for the product, availability of veterinary services

• maintenance service ,power or electric and water supply

House designing and beef cattle farm stead structure
The farmstead structure of beef cattle should include the
following major parts
 Feed lot lay out
 Group size and space allowance
 Ventilation
 Animal handling facilities
• The following points may be used as guidelines when
designing cattle facilities
 Locate the faculty in a well drained area
 Build all components strongly and solidly enough to hold
the animals
 Use decay resistant materials
• Avoid constructing any corners or projections
• Locate head gate at the highest elevation
• General requirements/considerations in beef
production
Types of beef production programs
• Cow-calf program
• Stocker program (yearling)
• Feeder program
• Pure bred breeder program
• Veal production program
COW-CALF PROGRAM
• Involves keeping of herd of beef cows that are bred each year
to produce calf
• One calf/year/cow, this is the principles of the systems.
• Highly productive performance of cow is highly essential
• Keeping calf up to weaning
• Feed resource- mostly roughage, Little or no grain needed
• Low labor requirement
• Low investment on facilities and equipments compare to
feeder and stocker program
• Large investment on land, need extensive land b/c crop
residue and need grazing
• It is difficult to expand or reduce the size of operation quickly
• Usually very limited profits sometimes loss
• Vertical integration of cow-calf program with stocker program
partially solve the problem or further integration
• Market alternative for cow calf program or income
source are
_ Sell calves at weaning
_ Sell breed heifers
_ Sell culled cow retaining ownership
STOCKER (YEARLING) PROGRAM
• Stocker operation handles cattle that are fed and managed
for growth prior to going to a feed lot for finishing.
• Why stocker cattle not fattens B/c early fattening have
disadvantage
• Duration is important for large frame development(wide
frame)
• The stage is very short

• Mostly the program use steers, Heifers, Sometimes thin

cow, Replacement heifer and old cow and un productive
cow.
Opportunities of the programme
• Weaned calves are usually to young and too light in weight to be
placed on finishing ration
• Stocker can efficiently utilized corn stub and other roughage feeds
• Quality of purebred animals usually brings premium prices.
• Mostly the credit for the genetic improvement of the beef cattle
goes to this program.
Disadvantages
• A short venture
• Involves more buying and selling
• Requires better quality forage
• More health problem
• More skill, knowledge, testing and patience are required for
success.
• More capital is needed per animal than any other phase of the
beef cattle production
• Foundation stock is usually high in price
CATTLE FINISHING (FATTENING) PROGRAM:
• Cattle feeders (weaners and yearlings) are bought at the end
of the grass season and harvest of grain fed (managed)
purposely for profit
• Cattle finishing is preparing animal for slaughter
(butchering)
• Fattening cattle for slaughter market
• The program is the last stage
• Need ration with high energy feed for rapid weight gain
• The animals normally feed until they reach their maximum
muscle growth plus certain amount of fat
• Over finishing should be avoided as the laying down of fat
is very expensive and less efficient compare with increase
muscle (b/c muscle contain 50-70% water), weight gain
sharply drop as cattle become fat
cattle feeding is dependent on three primary factors
• Resource of feeder cattle
• Market out let for fed cattle
• Source of high energy feed
Types of finishing:
• Depending upon the types of the animals, feed, duration of
the finishing and market finishing is divided into two;
1. Finishing immediately
2. Deferred finishing system
A) Finishing immediately:
- Animals are fed until they are ready for market
- More grain than roughage is used
- High quality and heavier animals are suited to this system.
- Older animals are fed more roughages than calves.
B) Deferred finishing system
- More roughage are used
-Calves are bought in the fall and wintered on the roughages
and pastured for 90-120 days the next summer (high
temperature) with smaller or not at all gain.
Advantages of fattening (finishing) program:
• Affords an opportunity to market at a profit large
quantities of both roughages and grains
• A large volume of manure high in fertility is produced
• It is relatively short time program
• There is flexibility with respect to number, weight and
grade of feeding period and type of ration fed
• Death losses are relatively low as compared with some
of the other program such as the cow –calf program
• Afford the profitable use of agro - industrial by –
product
• Possibility to turn many 2 or 3 times a year
Disadvantages:
• Skilled buying and selling of beef is required (well bought
is half sold)
• Relatively large amount of capital or credit must be readily
available
• Specialized feed lots and feed preparation equipment
requires constant attention
• Skill and knowledge of feeding principles is very necessary
in the finishing program
• Require more grain (feed lot)
• Feeding is more expensive than those required for cow calf
program.
• Feed cost, labour and transportation costs are higher; a high
risk program /enterprise because of the fairly large
fluctuations in the price of finished cattle.
Cattle fattening/feeding
• The feeding program should be designed to gradually
increase the amount of energy in the diet to achieve desired
average daily gains, while still meeting other nutrient
requirements.
• Consistent intake at or near the maximum intake potential
is crucial in a successful finishing program.
• The growing diet is commonly a 60:40 concentrate (i.e.,
grain/grain byproducts, protein supplement, liquid feeds
such as molasses, vitamins and minerals) to roughage diet
on an as-fed basis, and

• The finishing diet typically consists of up to 90 percent

concentrate and 10 percent roughage, as-fed.
4. Poultry Production
Definition
• The word poultry refer to all domestic birds kept for the
production of meat and eggs for human consumption.
• It includes domestic chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, quails,
guinea fowl, ostriches etc.
• At present all except chickens are not economically
important in Ethiopia and contribute very little (if any) to
the nutritional requirement and family income of the
Ethiopian population.
• Therefore under the present Ethiopian condition, the word
poultry is equivalent to domestic chicken and is
synonymously used with the word chicken.
 Rhode island red(RIR)
Leghorn

Plymouth rock
New Hampshire
Some general points/facts about poultry
• Poultry live in most areas of the world
• There are fewer religious or social taboos associate with
poultry
• Have a low economic value
• Have rapid generation time
• A high rate of productivity
• Poultry are food converters rather than food
producers(About 70% of both energy and protein is lost in
the conversion)
• Most sensitive animals to stress
Poultry production- is the application of scientific
breeding, nutrition, and disease control practices/techniques
in the rearing of the birds to get maximum profit form
poultry keeping.
Terminologies:
• Avian- birds
• Aviculture- the science of raising avian species
• Layer- a bird kept for egg production( > 22 wks of age)
• Hen- is female adult chicken above the age of 22 wks of
age
• Chicks- refers to very young birds from 0-8 wks of age
and the management practice is brooding
• Pullet- a female chicken that has not yet started to lay
eggs(young birds from 8 to 20 wks of age)
• Cockerel- a male chicken from 8 to 20 wks of age
• Cocks- a male chicken over 1 year of age
• Grower(cockerel & pullet)- refers to young birds(8-
20 wks of age)
• Capon- a fixed male chicken/ A capon is a rooster
that has been castrated to improve the quality of its
flesh for food.
• Rooster- a male chicken usually kept for breeding
• Roaster- heavy young chickens less than 12 wks of
age with live weight heavier than 7lb ready to cook.
Economic importance of poultry production
Poultry play a significant role in the livelihood of the
rural and urban population of Ethiopia.
• Besides being a valuable source of income it has the
following advantages.
 Small investment such as feed cost, space requirement, low cost
of the animal etc. make poultry rearing a suitable farming
activity for the poor.
 Stock numbers can easily be increased as needed due to their
fast reproduction rate.
 Poultry can easily be sold off at time of economic difficulty
 Although chickens and humans compete for the scare
carbohydrate sources chickens could be maintained on a limited
amount of feed during feed scarcity.
• Poultry farming do not cause land degradation i.e. erosion.
• Poultry production is more suitable to areas where there is land
scarcity for grazing than other livestock.
• Poultry rearing creates rural employment (for women, children and
men), improves nutritional status of the people, generate family
income and plays a significant role in the social ,cultural economic
and religious lives of the society.
The most useful aspects of poultry keeping is
- The food they produce in terms of high quality meat and eggs.
- Poultry liter :- it is mainly used as fertilizer and as animal
feed & also used for fattening of pig.
- For research :- because it has very fast metabolic rate, short life
cycle, highly prolific(producing so many offspring)
Poultry production systems can be classified into
1. Extensive system
- free range extensive
- back yard extensive
2. Semi intensive system
3. Intensive system
1. Extensive system
• 80% of African farmers practice
1.1 Free-range extensive systems
- birds scavenge a wide area
- rudimentary shelters may be provided
- flock contains birds of different ages
1.2 Back yard extensive systems
- poultry housed at night but allowed free range during the
day
- usually supplemented grain in the morning & evening to
supplement scavenging
Advantages
• enables birds to become hardy and strong
• during excess grass, surplus cockerels can be fattened (table
birds)
Disadvantages
• Useful only with plenty of grass
• Not suitable for commercial egg production
• Loss of energy during wandering
• Egg collection is difficult
• Requires large amount of land
• Exposure of birds to extremes of weather conditions
• Economic loss by diseases, predators, thieves, lost eggs
2. Semi Intensive systems
• The semi-intensive poultry housing system is a
system that is common among small-scale poultry
farmers.
• This system of poultry rearing is partly free-range
and partly intensive type.
• In this system, there is a poultry house followed by
a run.
• Birds are provided with a pen and run.
• Pen is an enclosed house and run is an enclosed
grass area with fence.
3. Intensive system
• Used by medium to large scale commercial enterprises
• Birds (usually, commercial breeds) fully confined either in
the house or cage.
• Capital outlay higher and birds totally dependent on
owners for all their requirements.
• There are two basic types of intensive systems
1. Deep litter system
2. cage or battery system
The deep litter principle
• The floor is covered with litter to a suitable depth(5 – 10
cm)
• Does not become too damp, decomposition of material by
bacteria takes place
•The heat produced in the decomposition process dries up the
birds‘ urine
• Bacterial Decomposition
- Keeps litter dry
- Dehydrates droppings and reduces them to dust

The deep litter house

• Consists of a fixed building having suitable litter material
spread on the floor
• overcomes the shortage of labour for the regular removal of
litter
Advantages of deep litter
• litter material is easier to remove and the frequency of
removing is reduced
• the litter is useful for in controlling disease infections,
largely because the system reduces the concentration of
pathogens (due to production of heat and ammonia)
• production is higher because birds are kept under hygienic
conditions
Qualities of good liter material
• It should readily absorb moisture
• should not cause injury to birds.
• Moisture level should be less than 15%
• Should get decomposed and form good manure.
• Should spread evenly
• Should be non-toxic.
• Should not cause dust pollution.
Advantages:
• 1. Land requirement is minimum 2. Easy and economic
management 3. Scientific feeding and management 4.
High degree of supervision. 5. Minimum Labour. 6.
Automation is possible. 7. Manural value is increased
Disadvantages of deep litter
• very large amount of litter must be available at
once to start a deep litter
• as with other intensive systems, birds have to be
regularly supplied with fresh green feed
The cage or battery system
• the birds are housed in individual compartments
• a basic component unit essentially laying nest with a
sloping floor, feed, and water troughs
• the sloping floor extends forward from which the eggs are
collected
• food and water containers are attached outside the wire
front of the cage
• The cages are designed to take 1-4 birds.
Advantages
• Very high standard of hygiene
- Droppings pass immediately through the floor cage
- Infestation by parasites is rare
• Production under this system is high and efficient
- gives freedom of access to food and water
- Competition in single bird cages is eliminated
• The actual egg production from each bird is recorded and
unproductive birds culled
• Losses from egg eating are minimized because egg rolls away out
of the reach of the hen
Disadvantages
• A considerable high cost of battery cages
• Dependable electric power and competent mechanic
Poultry production systems in Ethiopia
• Three production systems can be seen in Ethiopia.
• These production systems are characterised mainly by the
- objectives of the producer,
- the input used and
- number and types of birds kept on the farm,
• these systems are
(1) Traditional (backyard) production system
(2) Commercial production system
(3) Small scale intensive production system.
Traditional (backyard) type of production system
• The traditional production system is practised almost by every family
in the rural, urban and pre -urban dwellers.
• It is estimated that an average of six indigenous birds are kept by
every family.
• This system is characterised by minimum input with birds scavenging
for most of their food and no investment other than the cost of the
birds and for simple night time shelter.
• Almost all birds kept under this system are non descript indigenous
breeds of low performance.
• Broodiness is highly pronounced, egg production is estimated at
40-60 per bird per year. Egg weight is low ranging from 39 to 42
gm. The weight of male to an age of 12 months is about 1.52 kg
and for female it is much less than this.
Production objectives in Traditional (backyard) type of production
system
• Sale /egg and meat/
• Home consumption /egg and meat/
• Hatching
• Sacrifice (for ceremonies)
• Gifts /live birds/
• Invitation of honourable guests
Commercial poultry production system
• Currently, this sector that involves both private and government enterprises
is still in its early development stage.
• It contributes only about 1% of the country's poultry production.
Small scale intensive production system
• This is a newly emerging system in urban and pre-urban areas particularly
along the roads from Addis Ababa – Debrezeit – Nazareth and Addis Ababa
-Sebeta roads.
• It is characterised by small flock size (usually 50-500 birds). It is organised
along commercial line.
 Major problems (constraints) of the sub-sector.
 Poor knowledge of farming and production system
• Information on the role of poultry in the mixed farming in relation to other
farming activities, wealth, gender and socio-economic aspects, price/ season
interaction and the marketability of poultry and poultry products are lacking.
 Poor utilisation (quantity and quality) of poultry feed
• availability, quality and cost of feed is one of the major problems to
increase poultry production in Ethiopia.
 Lack of suitable genetic material
• The indigenous birds need genetic improvement while exotic breeds used
in small scale and commercial system showed lower productivity both
require genetic and feeding improvement.
 Husbandry and management constraints
• Proper housing and proper feeding equipment are main problem.
 Disease problem
• Some of the major killer diseases like New castle disease, coccidiosis,
salmonellosis, respiratory infections and parasitic diseases limit poultry
production in Ethiopia.
 Institutional and socio-economic constraints
• Lack of institutional support.
• Lake of health services.
• Shortage of necessary inputs.
• Lack of trained extension service.
Poultry Feeding
Raising and Managing Chicks

 Baby chicks are sensitive to environmental stress

and diseases

 Good poultry husbandry and management are

essential for profitable egg and meat production,
growth rate, egg weight, feed intake proportion of
second class eggs, egg shell quality
Before receiving chicks
Cleaning of the house and equipment
• Soon after the birds are removed the house should be
cleaned, disinfected and made ready for the next batch.
• After cleaning the house must be left empty for at least 15
days.
Cleaning procedure
 Remove all old litter from the house and haul it away from
the house.
 Clean the house and disinfect it.
 Clean the equipments, areas around the house
 Place good litter material on the floor at 5 -10 cm depth.
 Check light
 Check water (200c)
Check brooder temperature that

1st day 33-340c

2nd day 32 0c
1st week 30 0c
2nd week 30-25 0c
3rd week 28-25 0c
4th week 25-20 0c

 Every time check the temperature under the brooder

• It is the most critical period in the life of the birds
and there can be more deaths
Artificial brooding
• In this case use is made of equipment and facilities
which provide conditions similar to those of the
broody hens like adequate warmth, protection
against harsh conditions and predators.
• Proper feeding, watering and veterinary care are
provided.
• This chick brooding method use different
brooders/heaters to brood the chicks like electric
(60-100watt), kerosene, charcoal and hay box.

• It is practiced in wide chicken production stations.

Hay box brooder
When the temperature is too high we see that:
• The chicks sit with spread out wings and open beaks
• The chicks sit as far as possible away from the heat
source
• There is less feed intake: the chicks drink more water
and this often cause wet litter.
When the temperature is too low we see that the
chicks:
• Come close together and are less active
• will raise their feather cover
• will stay close to the heat source
Light: The chicks will eat when there is light.

1st week: 23 hours light (including day light)

– 2nd weeks: 20 hours
– 3rd week: 16 hours
from 4 weeks onward a constant day length of 14
hrs. is advisable
Grower management
Housing
• Feeds and feeding
2. Grain and mash method
it involves feeding of grain mixture along with
balanced mash.

By this, one can increase or decrease the

protein level as desired.

This method is slightly better

3. All mash method

 This method of feeding, all the feed ingredients

are ground, mixed in required proportion
and feed as a single balanced mixture.

 This method is desirable/popular for all types of

poultry grown
4. Pellet feeding (saving of 15-20%)

Pelleting the dry mash under high pressure

Little wastage in feeding
 Lack of dustiness

10% more expensive

Feeding
Poultry Waste Management
Biogas Production
 Poultry droppings could serve as a suitable substrate for
biogas production
 A total of 5 kg of poultry litter is required to produce 1
m3 of bio-gas.

 A total of 80 m3 of biogas can be produced from ton of

poultry manure.

 The utilization of this substrate for biogas production

could eliminate its disposal problems and create another
abundant source of sustainable energy.
Utilization of poultry waste as livestock feed

Economic considerations
Environmental considerations
1. In view of the fact that feed usually represents 60-70% of total costs on animal
production, its replacement to some extent by the processed wastes may significantly
help reduce feeding expenses. The potentiality of poultry wastes as a feedstuff
especially for ruminants has been well documented.

2. poultry wastes have been successfully employed in many countries for beef, dairy and
sheep production.
Approximate chemical composition and nutritive value of poultry manure and litter

Constituent (% DM) Poultry manure Poultry litter

Crude protein 30-40 21-30
True protein 8-13 13-22
Uric acid 3-10 2-8
Crude fibre 13-15 17-20
N-free extract 29-35 30-35
Cell wall Contents 38.0 58.0

Ether extract 2-3 1-3

Total ash 21-28 15-25
Calcium 6-9 2-6
Phosphorus 1.6-2.5 1-3
Copper 0.015 0.01
TDN (Sheep) 52.0 72.5

High ash and fibre contents in poultry manure are also responsible in part for its low
metabolisable energy (800 - 1000 kacl/kg)
Average contents of certain amino acids in poultry manure and litter

Amino acid (%DM) Poultry manure Poultry litter

Alanine 0.93 0.84
Arginine 0.45 0.47
Aspartic acid 1.07 1.18
Cystine 0.55 0.12
Glutamic acid 1.42 0.20
Glycine 1.57 2.34
Histidine 0.19 0.22
Isoleucine 0.49 0.61
Leucine 0.75 0.96
Lycine 0.47 0.53
Methionine 0.18 0.13
Phenylalanine 0.42 0.52
Proline 0.59 0.93
Serine 0.52 0.55
Threonine 0.48 0.54
Tryptophan 0.53 0.49
Tyrosine 0.30 0.33
Valine 0.68 0.78
Small Ruminant Production
• Terminologies
Advantages of Small Ruminant Production
 Sheep and goats are widely adapted to different
climates
 They also have lower feed requirements compared
to cattle because of their small body size.

 Requires less land/housing, forage production/

 Short generation intervals
 Fast growth
 Sheep and goat types in Ethiopia
Sheep
• Ethiopia has diverse and huge population of sheep
and goats
• There are different sheep types in the country
Tools to identify and classify breeds/types
 Physical characteristics
 Differences at the DNA level
Physical characteristics
• The physical characteristics include body color, size
and shape of body parts, and presence or
absence of body parts.

• Few physical features can be used to identify major

groups of breeds.

• Many physical features have to be collected and

analyzed to identify specific breeds within
major groups
Difference at DNA level
 Identification and classification of breeds based on
physical characteristics can be supported by
advanced tools.
 Advanced classification is based on differences
between breeds in their genetic make-up.

 For this purpose, analysis of the genetic material

called DNA is required.
 Such classification results in identification of
genetically distinct breeds.
Sheep breeds of Ethiopia
 There are about 14 traditionally recognized sheep
populations in Ethiopia.

 These populations are called sheep types in some

literatures.
 The sheep types are named after their geographic
location and/or the ethnic communities keeping them.

 The sheep types in Ethiopia are classified into four major

groups based on their physical characteristics: short fat-tailed,
long fat-tailed, thin-tailed and fat-rumped sheep.

 Based on DNA differences, Ethiopian sheep types have been

classified into nine genetically
distinct breeds
Goat Breeds/types
• Based on differences in physical characteristics and
genetic differences at the DNA level, four families
and 12 breeds of goats have been identified in
Ethiopia
• A family is a group of breeds that are genetically
more related and physically more similar than
breeds outside the group.
• The families and breeds are named after their
geographical location, the ethnic communities
maintaining them, or based on some identifying
physical features
Goat families and breeds in Ethiopia
Feeds and feeding of sheep and goat
• Recommended methods of feeding management
Improving feed utilization efficiency:
 If sheep and goats are to make the best use of feed,
they must be healthy and correctly handled. Routine
control of epizootic diseases and internal and external
parasites is important to achieve efficient use of
feedstuffs
 Feed animals based on their requirements. Both
overfeeding and underfeeding result in feed wastage;
Separate feeding and/or grazing
 It is common for all classes of sheep and goats to graze
together on communal land.
 This does not allow for feeding different classes of
animals differently.

 For example, pregnant or lactating females should be

fed differently than breeding males that should receive
a maintenance diet.
 Individual animals within groups of sheep or goats
differ in their nutritional needs.
 When feed resources are limited, animals with highest
requirements should be targeted.
Presentation of feed
• Little attention is given to the method of presentation
of feed in improving feed intake and feed utilization.

• It has a crucial role in terms of its effect on the amount

of feed eaten as well as the amount wasted.
• Sheep like to graze while goats like to browse.

• Raising the feed offered to goats high over the ground

and simulating a browsing situation may stimulate
feeding behaviour.
 Feeding based on palatability

 If a feed has high nutritive value, but low palatability, its dry
matter intake will be low.

 Where farmers cut and carry forage of different species, it

is important to know the ranking of forage palatability.

 Some farmers are aware of this fact and make use of forage
ranking effectively.

 They do this by offering the forage of the lowest palatability

first and that with highest palatability last.
Provide fresh feed
 Supplying fresh feed at smaller quantities more often will
help to stimulate consumption compared with offering larger
amounts at one time.
 Minimize wastage
 Under confined or tethered feeding situations, a clean
and dry floor will result in less wastage.
 Feed that falls to a clean floor is more likely to be
acceptable if offered again than feed contaminated by
mud and faces.
 Sheep and goats are selective feeders and easily refuse
to eat dirty or smelly feed
 Provide appropriate feeders:
 Feeding on the ground results in considerable feed wastage and
contributes greatly to the spread of disease, especially internal
parasites.
 If sheep and goats are able to stand in their feed or in their
feeders, they will inevitably defecate and urinate in the feed.

 Feeders need to be raised off the ground and constructed in such

a way to keep the animals out as much as possible.
 Provision of appropriate feeders also reduces competition.

 There must be enough space at the feeder for all sheep and
goats to be fed easily without fighting
Housing management of sheep and goat
• Sheep and goats are raised in all climatic zones of Ethiopia.
• These climatic zones are very diverse with some being dry
and others wet.

• Extreme heat is a major characteristic of some zones while

others experience cold temperatures.

• Each situation has its own requirements for the design and
construction of optimum animal housing.
Housing management of sheep and goat
• The basic requirement of good animal housing is that it should
alter or modify the environment for
the benefit of animals and also protect them from predation
and theft.

• Animal housing should buffer the animal from climate

extremes to reduce stress allowing optimal animal
performance in terms of growth, health and reproduction.

• The main climatic factors from which protection is needed are

high and low ambient temperatures, environmental humidity,
solar radiation, wind and rain.

• Additionally, houses are important in protecting feed and

equipment from damage, in saving labor, and in aiding
effective management, including breeding.
Small ruminant housing need to:
Be strong enough to last a long time;
Be large enough for the number of animals
Allow freedom of movement for all animals;
 Be well-drained or have well-maintained dry
bedding and easy to clean.
 Sheep and goats do not tolerate mud well; therefore,
yards and shelters should be built only on well-drained
ground;
 Receive morning sunshine evenly;
 Be well lighted and ventilated.
Air circulation, dust levels, temperature, relative
air humidity and gas concentrations should be
at levels that will not harm animals;

 Have suitable isolation pens for sick or injured

animals as far away from the main house as
possible
Types of traditional housing
 Traditional sheep and goat housing is made of
varying designs and construction materials
depending upon local custom and availability.
 Some main types of housing include:
Housing at one corner of the main family house;
 An overhang attached to the roof of a house;
Open yards with no roof (Figure 1);
In a basement under the family home such as seen
in north Shoa;
Separate houses of thatched roofs (Figure 1).
Improved housing types
 The location of the house/shed is important for animal
comfort and safety. Sheep and goat housing should
be built:
 On a well-drained area.
 Downwind from the owner’s house.
 Near to the family house to keep an eye on the
animals but far enough to minimize smell (at
least 10 meters).
 On a floor 1-1.5 m above the ground should the area
be waterlogged or prone to flooding.
Breeding management of small ruminants
1.Selection
 is usually done within cohorts within a flock
 The selection programs, depending on the objective, the
focus could be on a single trait or on multiple traits.
 Selection for a single trait permits faster progress as
compared with selection for more than one trait.

 Therefore, selection for more than one trait should be

avoided unless it is very important (e.g., in case of negative
correlation between traits).

 Genetic progress through selection depends on heritability,

selection differential and generation
interval.
Breeding management of small ruminants
2. Crossbreeding (indigenous with indigenous; exotic with
indigenous)
Crossbreeding aims to:
 combine all desirable characteristics of two or more
breeds in one progeny type, and
 exploit the hybrid vigor or heterosis that occurs in
crossbreeding.

 Heterosis or hybrid vigor refers to the superiority in the

performance of a crossbred individual above the average
performance of the two parents
Breeding management of small ruminants
Disease and Parasites of Livestock
Bacterial diseases
1. Anthrax
Viral Disease
Honey bee production
Beekeeping:- is an art of keeping honeybees for the
economic benefit of the beekeepers.
• It is the techniques involving taking care for bees
& supervision of bees.
• It is the subsequent producing & harvesting of
bees‘ product.
• Honey bees-group of social insects which build their
nest by wax.
• Beekeeper/apiarist –the person who rears honey bees.
• Apiary/bee farm/bee yard- the place where honey
bees are kept.
• Hive – a man made structure in which colony of honey
bees are kept for rearing.
Honey Bee castes
Advantage of keeping Bees
 Beekeeping/ apiculture, is management of honey bee
colonies for pollination of crops and honey and other
products
 It is an environmentally friendly and non-farm business
activity undertaken by farmers and landless people.

 That means, it does not occupy cultivated land, requires

less investment and provides quick economic benefits,
besides, it being a nonpolluting intensive agricultural
practice
Advantage of keeping Bees
A. Valuable food
Honey:
• It is delicious and nutritious where man combat in one way
or another malnutrition.
• It is sweet, viscous juice collected from the beehive.
Pollen:
• it the male reproductive agent of flowering plants.
• In the developed countries it is used in some expensive
dietary supplements, since it is believed to have valuable
medicinal properties.
Royal jelly: or bees milk, it has been studied to have a
good source of vitamin B.
• Like pollen it is thought to have medicinal value and
therefore used in certain expensive preparation.
• Royal jelly can also be used to make chocolate candy and
wine, as well as lotions.
Bee bread= pollen+bee saliva+nectar (fermented in
combs)
• Bees make bee bread out of the pollen that they have
collected uses therapeutic effects like recommended for
anaemia, hepatitis, diabetes and
• Gastrointestinal problems such as colitis, constipation and
diarrhoea that is resistant to treatment with antibiotics.
B. Providing remunerative employment:
• Expansion of the bees industry absorbs more labor or in
other words it can be a means to create job opportunity.
C. Earning much foreign currency:
• Bees provide products for earning foreign currency.
D. Requiring no large initial investment
• Keeping bees in the tropics including that of Ethiopia is
cheap in that it doesn‘t involve much feeding of bees, as
they can provide their own food all year round.

• All the necessary inputs required for beekeeping can be

locally available.
E. Contributing to pollination and thus to crop production
• Pollination is an essential process in the production of seeds
and fruits of flowering plant.

• The two main pollinating agents are wind and insects.

• Wind pollinate cereals and other grasses, nut trees and a few
other crops whose pollen, light and dry, is easily carried by
air currents from one plant to another.

• Most other crops have heavier, sticky pollen, and insects

are the main pollinators.
Beekeeping in Ethiopia
 Ethiopia is known for its tremendous variation of agro-
climatic conditions and biodiversity that favored the
existence of diversified honeybee flora and huge number of
honeybee colonies

 Ethiopia hosts around 6 million managed honey bee

colonies and nearly 10 million feral colonies

 This made Ethiopia number one in natural honey production

in Africa and the tenth in the world.
• There are three techniques of honey production
system in Ethiopia namely, traditional, transitional
and modern beekeeping.

• The country is facing with many constraints of

beekeeping such as poor harvesting practice, honey
bee diseases, bee pests/predators and several
other technical problems.

• However, beekeepers tried to minimize challenges.

Beekeeping profile of Ethiopia
The Honey Bee Colony
• Colony: Always comprises the adult bees and brood, but
some authors don‘t include the combs and stores in them
where as others do.
• Nest site/hive: is a place where a colony lives. A beekeeper
provides a nest site for each of his colonies in the form of a
hive which has been made, to suit his own convenience in
managing the bees.
• Nest: In ‗nature‘ nest usually refers to what has been
constructed by the bees, i.e. the combs (whether it empty or
containing brood and stores) together with any construction
of wax or propolis in the cavity or at the flight entrance. If
the entire colony absconds or dies, the nest still remains
(until it is destroyed).
 Organization of honeybee colony
In the average typical colony ,there are
• -One fertile queen, mainly involved in egg laying

• 20, 000 to 80, 000 sterile female worker bees, which do

almost everything to maintain the well being of the colony

• 300 to 800 fertile males (drones)

• About 5000eggs and 25-30,000 immature bees in various

stages of their development, called the brood of which
about 10, 000 are the newly hatched larvae and the rest the
pupae, that are sealed in to their cells by the workers to
mature.
The three castes in a honey bee colony are: queens, worker
and drones.
The Queen
• Is a fully fertile female specialized for producing eggs
• The queen affects the colony by producing chemicals called
‗pheromones‘ that regulate the behaviors of other bees.

• Has sting only used to fight rival queen.

• Doesn’t feed herself, worker bee should feed her.

• Has no wax gland

• The queen produces the most eggs in the first year of her
life.
• There is only one queen in the hive.
• She is recognized by her long abdomen which extends far
beyond the tip of her wing in the resting position.
• Her thorax is larger than that of the worker.
• Viewed from the front, her head is round.
• She is longer than the drone.
• The queen has a sting but is only used to fight revival
queens.

• She has no collecting apparatus like pollen baskets, long

proboscis for drawing nectar or wax glands to secrete wax
to build comb cells.
The worker bees
• Are reproductively under developed females that do all the
work of the colony.
• A colony may have 10,000—80,000 worker bees

• The only difference b/n workers and queens is the quality of

the larvae diet. i.e. a special food called ‗royal jelly‘.

• Workers are the smallest and most numerous of the

colony’s population, constituting over 98%. One colony may
have as many as 80,000 workers.
Labor division of Worker honeybees
 The activities that worker honeybees perform are related
with their age and has three groups.

1. Nurse Bees ( House bees)

 Are those workers bees who spent most of their time by
performing activities inside the hive.
 This starts from the first day of emergency up to 21 days.
Major roles of nurse bees are
 Secretion of bees wax from their own gland
 Constructing comb /comb cells/cell capping
 Nectar reception
 pollen packing and preparing as edible diet
 Defending their nest
 Information dissemination
 Ripening honeys
 Sealing cracks & burying irremovable dead staff inside hive
 Control hive Temp & brood Temp.
 Prepare royal jelly /bee milk /
 Queen cell cup building
 Brood feeding /food sharing/
 Queen tending/taking attentions for the queen/
2. Guard bee/colony Defense
 This stage is transitional between nursing activity and field
activity.
 All nurse bees are not involved in the guarding activity,
because the number of involved bees is related with biology
of worker and number of enemies in the areas.

 Those who do guard the nest perform this activity most

frequently between the ages of 12 and 25 days, and they
usually guard for only a few hours or days before foraging
commences.
 More workers assume guarding duties when the colony has
been under attack or during periods of forage dearth, when
robbing is more likely.
 Guard workers can be recognized by their characteristics
posture at the entrance, where they stand on their four hind
legs with antennae held forward and forelegs lifted.
 Each guard patrols limited areas around the entrance,
inspecting incoming workers with the antennae and
determine their odor and behavior whether they are colony
members or not.
3. Forager bees(Field bees)
 are old worker bees whose age is beyond 3 weeks.
• Forager bees are those worker honeybees, which perform
their activities outside the hive. like
 Search and transport food such as pollen and nectar and
transport water, propolis /plant glue/
 Pollinate various plants in garden
 Communicate with the rest of the nest bees about food
discovery sites and distances
 Defending their nest
 Seal cracks, gap & narrow hive entrance
 Assist in honey ripening & ventilation
 Kill all possible enemies like wax moth, Ants &termites

 This high labor work has an effect on age of honeybee and

the age of worker honeybees is shorter than the age of queen
and drone.

 The maximum age of worker bees is 42 days. But they can

live up to 60-90 days even up to 10 months (these are
exceptions).
The Drones
• Are male honey bees, which are bigger than the workers but
not as big as the queen.

• At any time there may be between 200-300 drones in a

colony. But when there is a scarcity of resources there may
be no drone in the colony.

• The drone has no function except mating the queen

• They are the male bees developed from the unfertilized
eggs.
• Larvae developing from unfertilized eggs are fed on the
royal jelly by the worker bees for 2-3 days rise to drones.
Castes in a bee colony
Apiary establishment
Apiary site selection & preparation
• Apiary:- is the place where bees are kept in the hive to
forage nectar and Pollen grains to produce honey and other
hive products .

• A good apiary site enables the honey bee colony to

maximize its population in time for the main nectar flow.

• Good honey production begins with the right choice of site

for the apiary, and the correct use of this site.
Assessing the basic requirements
• Working equipment i.e. basic requirements like casting
mold, honey extractor, frame wire, queen excluder etc.
• Capital condition
• Skilled man power etc.
Factors (parameters) that should be considered in apiary
site selection are:
 Presence of vegetation and fresh water
 Presence of native honey bees
 Suitable weather condition
 Suitable altitude
 Disease, pests and predators
Beekeeping equipment and materials
Bee suit
 Consists of an overall and a head veil; the overall is made
of white or yellow khaki material with a head veil attached
to it.
 The net of the head veil is made out of strong black nylon
material in order to have good vision and ventilation.
Smoker. The bee smoker, used to calm bees, consists
of two principal units: a metal fire-pot with a funnel-
shaped cover, and a bellows.
• Some good models are equipped with a shield for
protection against the heat generated.
• A smoke-releasing fuel (e.g. dried leaves. grasses,
wood shavings, rice hulls, etc.) is burned in the fire-
pot, and air is injected into the pot by operating the
bellows; the smoke is then directed at the bees
through the funnel.
Tools
 Pollen Trap. As its name implies, the pollen trap is
used to scrape pollen pellets from the legs of
foragers as they return to the hive.
 When a pollen trap is set at the hive entrance
returning foragers have no way of entering the hive
but to pass through the trap.
Queen Excluder
• The purpose of the queen excluder is to confine
the queen to the brood box while allowing the
workers to have access to the super, in order to
ensure that the honey combs contain no brood.

• It is also used in producing royal jelly, in queen-

rearing and in forming multi-queen colonies.
Hive Tool. Honeybees use propolis to seal frames
and covers to hive bodies and supers.
• In order to separate these various pieces (e.g. to
open the hive or remove a frame for inspection)
the beekeeper prizes them apart with a hive tool,
which is also useful in scraping excess propolis or
wax from hive parts.
• It consists basically of a length of iron or or steel,
flattened at one end.
Hive tool set
 Beekeeping equipment
Frame wire- it is used to support the honey comb in the
frame

Honey extractor
A. Centrifugal- it can be hand drive or electrically operated.
Used to extract honey from framed combs by centrifugal
method/manually or electrically/ .
Honey presser- it is used to extract honey by hand
pressing of the honey combs which are not framed
E.g. honeycomb harvested from traditional and
Transitional hives.
Strainer
 Honey bee hives
• Honeybees that nest in the open produce far less honey than
those confined in enclosures.
• The main reasons are colonies in the open are exposed to
predators and therefore have to employ numerous workers
as guards to fight intruders.

• They have to consume large quantities of honey, which they

use as fuel, to enable them to cluster to stop the wind which
cools down their combs and to generate enough heat to
maintain the proper temperature for brood development.
• The hive used by a beekeeper must be appropriate to his
way of beekeeping.
• There is a large variety of hives, from relatively simple ones
to very complicated ones, the latter being quite expensive
• In general the following three types are most commonly
used:
 fixed comb hives (traditional)
 removable comb hives with top bars (transitional).
 removable comb hives with frames(modern).
Traditional hives
 Traditional hives were simple purpose- built containers for
the bees and their combs.
 They had no fittings such as frames, and the bees secured
the tops of their combs to the interior of the hive. These
hives are now a day referred to as Fixed comb hives.
Different hives that are made from different locally
available materials have bee used traditionally. These are
Bark hive:- it is mainly made up of woof of big trees,
eucalyptus, bamboo and other plants can be used, but
finally plastered with either straw or animal dung.
Bamboo hive:- the main material is bamboo, however
different climbers are used instead in some places. In
general the bamboo stripes webbed first and finally
plastered with either straw or animal dung.
Woven straw or grass hive:-made up of straw and webbed by
rope finally plastered with animal dung.
• Dry grasses are woven together in a basket or cylindrical form,
usually with entry points at booth ends. The hive is installed high in
tree-tops. It is not advisable to drop it carelessly during harvest time.
• Owing to the weakness of the material, such hives are usually less
than one years age, and they are used for seasonal beekeeping only.
Transitional /Top Bar Hive /
 Transitional (intermediate) beekeeping is one of the
improved methods of keeping bees using top bar hives.
 In this case the type of hive used are Kenya Top Bar hive
(KTBH) and Tanzania top bar hives(TTBH).

 A Top bar hive is a bee hive, of any size or design in which

bees build their comb from top bars, instead of attaching
comb to the ceiling of the hive (as in traditional fixed comb
hive).

• The bees build their combs hanging down from the center
of the bar. Since the combs are not supported in all the four
sides of the frame they can easily be broken.
Modern hives
• Movable frame hives
• The design of all modern beehives is based on the
discovery, by the father of modern beekeeping, Lorenzo
Lorraine Langstroth, that when bees build their combs they
always leave exactly the same amount of space (the bee
space) between them.

• On the basis of this finding, langstroth invented a hive with

frames separated by this bee space, in which the bees can
build their comb.
Honey Bee Management
• In beekeeping the purpose of colony management is to
ensure that the maximum strength of the colony coincides
with the maximum nectar flow, in order to obtain a
maximum honey production.
• Beekeeping can be started by:
Buying bees
Catching a swarm with a bait hive/Trapping swarms
Transfering Bee Colonies/traditional to modern hives/
 Uniting Colonies
• Uniting of colonies at dearth period colony management is
defined as joining of two and some times more colonies to
achieve what is desired for them by the beekeeper
• It is used to get one moderate sized colony during
unfavourable period rather than /against loosing two
colonies.
• To produce surplus honey in the next nectar flow season.
it may be desirable or necessary to unite two or more
colonies

• To combine small colonies in to one large colony

• To unite colony without a queen to one with queen

• To unite a swarm to an established colony

Reasons For Uniting bee colony
 The most common reason for uniting is to make one strong
colony from two weak colony just before the nectar flow.
 To produce a surplus of honey a colony must have a good
population of field bees.
A weak colony, which does not have the field force
because it will not produce a surplus of honey.
• On the other hand if the colony with sick or lost its queen
just before the nectar flow
 Before uniting the two groups , the beekeeper should smoke
to both, to calm them and make them more receptive.
 The best time to unite bees is in the evening, after they have
stopped flying.

 This prevents robbing and makes unification easier.

ways of uniting are:-

A. News paper method

B. Direct uniting method
C. Sprinkling method
 Hive Inspection
 The general rules for hive inspection are.
• Wear protective clothes, and cover the body thoroughly.
• Beekeepers should always work in pairs: Open operating
the smoker and the other working on the hives, frames and
the combs.
• Get a good smoker with a large bellows. The fuel container
must be large enough to carry enough fuel to last for the
entire operation.
• Never forget to take along a good knife or hive tool and
brush or quill.
• Puff some smoke gently around the hive. Then puff
continuously through the main entrance for at least three
minutes.
• Wait about for the same minutes for the bees to rush in and
gorge themselves with honey.
• Pry/forcely open the lid of the hive if it is propolized.
• Detach the frames from the side of the hives using hive
tools or knife.
• Remove the first comb and inspect it.
• If it is a brood comb, look at the cells to see whether the
cells are filled regularly and well sealed, and specially
whether the comb contains queen and the drone cells as well
as the worker cells; this is a sign that the colony is preparing
to swarm.
• If a honey comb are fully capped (containing ripe honey)
• or uncapped or partly capped (unripe honey)
• repeat it until all the combs have been inspected.

• If more than ten brood combs are found, remove the excess,
because if too much brood is allowed to emerge, the hive
will become overcrowded and the colony may abscond.

• These brood combs can be replaced in another hive to

strengthen its colony if necessary.
Considerations in internal hive inspection
– The presence of the queen: - the queen is mostly found
around the warm brood, nearer to the egg laid, more over,
could be recognized by the fresh eggs &newly hatched
out larvae
– Brood pattern – if the brood pattern is dense/ combs are
filled with eggs/ the queen is said to be young, good,
prolific or vigorous.
– if spotty brood pattern, many drones egg etc. are
observed, the queen is said non vigorous & the brood is
said poor pattern
 The arrangement of frames containing honey, pollen
and brood –
 frames of brood should be placed together in one area /at
the middle/ of the nest to optimise the proper brood
temperature. The honey will naturally be stored in the upper
portion of the brood comb
 Swarm preparation – when bees form numerous peanut
shaped wax cells which contain immature queen and the
hive is quite populous, it indicates swarm preparation.
 Starvation- when there is no stored food (pollen and
nectar) in need of supplementary food.
 Ripening of honey – is said to be ripened when at least ¾th
of the comb mass is sealed (capped) with a newly secreted
bees wax
 The enemies of honey bee /disease/ it is important to
observe the presence of any enemies of bees in the hive
such as wax moth, ants, lizards and Diseases.
 Seasonal management of honey bees
Reproductive swarming:
• Is sudden departure of a proportion of the adult worker bees
of a colony from its nest, with a queen and sometimes with
some drones.
Causes of reproductive swarming
• Genetic disposition
Species, races and strains of bees differ in their tendency to
swarm.
 Colonies with an older queen
 Over crowding in the brood nest
 Poor ventilation
Absconding:
• is the departure of all adult bees of a colony from their nest,
leaving behind whatever brood and stores in it.
• In this event, no queen cells have been built and it is
therefore not a case of social reproduction.
Reasons Are:
• Shortage of food ―hunger swarm‖, or reduction in the honey
flow.
• Disturbance of the colony, either by ants, wasps, termites or
even the beekeeper.
• Bad management by the beekeeper: especially in movable
comb hives, the beekeeper might provide unsuitable hives
(too big, too humid, bad smell),
• unsuitable places (too much shade, indoor hives, no shelter
from the rain or excessive heat, exposed all day to the sun).

• inappropriate comb space by positioning combs too widely

or too narrowly spaced.
 Supering
• is defined as the addition to the hive bodies in which the
bees can store surplus honey
• Super is the place where bees congregate when working
• It helps to distribute the populous colony not to be confined
in the brood area & prepare themselves for swarming

• If no Supering when needed often results in the substantial

loses because bees become diverted from honey storage to
swarm preparation and after swarming the working power
/worker bees/ number decline.
Rule and time of Supering
• As soon as the bees are filling their brood area
• As soon as the bees are working in the first super to the
extent of about ¾ of its capacity a second super should be
given
• Add just before (at the time) the top of the frames are
whitened with fresh bees wax.
Reducing supers
• This is the dearth period colony management which
depends on the strength of the colony.

• it is carried out when the honey has been removed and the
colony does not occupy the super i.e. because extra super
harbours pests and products
• During reducing supers combs with some food, new drawn
combs and having work spaces should remain with bees
• and the old combs (dark or broken) and dry (empty) combs
should be reduced.
Feeding of honey bee colony and managing weak colonies
• Honeybees do not need to be fed regularly as other livestock
does but there are occasions when supplementary feed is
required
The occasions are:-
• Bad weather, which prevent the bees from forage during
nectar flow.
• Dearth period both rainy season and complete dry season.
Newly established natural swarm for making comb and
brood rearing.
• Hive manipulation such as inspection, uniting &queen
• Colonies used for pollination on crops that do not provide
much nectar
• Price difference between honey and sugar
• Stimulation of brood rearing in order to increases the
population in anticipation of active season of nectar flow
Generally 3 basic purposes feed honeybees are:
• Stimulative feeding:- feeding a small colony will stimulate
the queen to lay more eggs e.g. to ensure much brood to be
reared.

• Manipulative feeding:- This is used when some particular

hive operation is carried out such as queen rearing, hive
inspection etc.. if the bees are fed either before or after the
operation they are guided to the special manipulation
 Supplementary/ emergency / feeding
• At certain time pollen shortage can retard colony
development during such time sugar syrup, honey and
supply of pollen should readily available to restore the
depletion of food in the hive.

The causes of deficiency of food in the hive

• A sudden change or stop of a nectar flow
• Due to the beekeepers/ when he removes the whole honey
• During chemical application
What to feed honeybees
The most important feeds for honeybees are honey,
sugar syrup, pollen substitute, pollen supplements,
dry sugar and home made candy

 Honey-is the first choice for honeybees, it is free

from disease spores. It is a natural & their own
product so the principal food stuffs of honeybees
• Sugar syrup – this is prepared by dissolving ordinary table
sugar (sucrose) in water, the ratio of sugar to water is
depend on the objective or type of feeding.
Precaution: - the warm dissolved sugar syrup has an aroma
that induces or attracts robber bees so, it should never be
given to honey bees, as it is warm i.e. cool and feed them

• Pollen: - is the male germ plasma of plant; the honeybees

obtain the whole of its requirement of amino acid, vitamins;
lipids and minerals from pollen, it can be fed either alone or
mixed with honey.
• Pollen substitute:- is any type that can be fed to bee
colonies to replace its need for natural pollen.
• Among the most commonly used protein source from which
pollen substitute can be prepared are soybean flour, pea and
bean flour, brewers yeast and dried skimmed milk.
• Pollen supplement- this is a pollen substitute that contains
about 10% of natural pollen

• Candy:-is a solid sugar used in bees feed at times when

they will not take sugar syrup.

 it is prepared by warm water dissolving of 3.2 kg of sugar in

one litter of water
 Hive products
• Apart from the importance of honeybees use as pollination
of seed, fruit, Vegetable and legume crops,
• They have also of immense importance to the beekeepers in
production of honey, beeswax, pollen, royal jelly, Propolis
and bee venom.
• What ever found in the hive, which have direct or indirect
contact with bees are called hive products.
• The aim of beekeeping is to harvest products from the hive
and to pollinate crops.
• Products such as honey and bee bread are harvested within
the beehive, but pollen loads and bee venom are collected
outside the hives with special traps.
Properties and composition of honey
• Honey originating from a single flower species is called
mono-floral honey, such as banana honey or coffee honey.
• If the nectar of more than one species is collected, then it is
called multi-floral or poly-floral honey.
 Honey is composed mainly from carbohydrates
(fructose, glucose, sucrose,) lesser amounts of water and
a great number of minor components (minerals,
proteins, acids, enzymes).

• Bees also gather honeydew. These are droplets that hang on

the flower in the morning, or extrafloral nectar from other
plant parts such as the calyx, stalk or leaf.
• Ripe honey is a strong supersaturated sugar solution that
usually contains less than 20% water and more than 80%
sugars.

• These sugars eventually crystallise and the product takes on

a more solid form.
• The sugars are mostly monosaccharides such as glucose and
fructose.

• A relative high concentration of glucose compared to

fructose will make the honey crystallise sooner.