REPAIR AND RETROFITTING TECHNIQUES

Unit – I
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR STRATEGIES

Maintenance, repair and rehabilitation, Facets of Maintenance, importance of

Maintenance, various aspects Inspection, Assessment procedure for evaluating a damaged
structure, causes of deterioration.

1.0 Maintenance :
Maintenance is preventive in nature. Activities include inspection and works necessary to
fulfill the intended function or to sustain original standard of service. The maintenance of
structure is done to meet the following objective
Prevention of damages due to natural agencies and to keep them in good appearance
and working condition.
Repair of the defects occurred in the structure and strengthen them, if necessary.

1.0.1 The Maintenance work is broadly classifying as

a) Preventive Maintenance
b) Remedial Maintenance
c) Routine Maintenance
d) Special Maintenance
a) Preventive Maintenance
The maintenance work done before the defects occurred or damage developed in
the structure is called preventive maintenance.
It includes thorough inspection, planning the programs of maintenance and
executing the work
It depends upon the specifications, condition and use of structure.
b) Remedial Maintenance
It is the maintenance done after the defects or damage occurs in the structure. It
involves the following basic steps.
- Finding the deterioration
- Determining the causes
 - Evaluating the strength of the existing structure
- Evaluating the need of the structure
- Selecting and implementing the repair procedure
c) Routine Maintenance
It is the service maintenance attended to the structure periodically.
The nature of work done and interval of time at which it is done depends upon
specifications and materials of structure, purpose, intensity and condition of use.
It includes white washing, parch repair to plaster, replacement of fittings and
fixtures, binding of road surface.
e) Special Maintenance
It is the work done under special condition and requires sanction and performed to
rectify heavy damage.
It may be done for strengthening and updating of the structure to meet the new
condition of usage or to increase its serviceability.
It may include particular or complete renewal occurring at long interval, such as
floors, roofs etc.
1.0.2 Necessity of maintenance
The causes which necessitate the maintenance effects the service and durability of the
structure as follows:
a) Atmospheric agencies
b) Normal wear and tear
c) Failure of structure
a) Atmospheric agencies
Rain: It is the important source of water, which affects the structure in the following ways;
Physical:
Dissolving and carrying away minerals as it is universal solvent.
Expansion and contraction – The materials is subjected to repetitive expansion
and contraction while they become wet and dry and develops the stresses.
Expansion of water – The variation of temperature causes the expansion and
contraction absorbed water and affects the micro-structures of the materials.
 Erosion – Transportation, attrition and abrasion of the materials is quite evident
effect of the water.
Chemical: The water available in nature contains acids and alkaline and other compound in
dissolve form acts over the material to give rise, which is known as chemical weathering.
Wind: It is the agent, which transports the abrasive material and assists the
physical weathering Its action is aggravated during rains and, When it is moving
with high speed, it may contains acidic gases like CO2 fumes which may act over
the material and penetrates quite deeply in materials and structure.
Temperature: The seasonal and annual variation of the temperature, difference
in temperature in two parts of the materials and the surface of material causes
expansion and contraction, this movement of the material bond and adhesion
between them is lost when it is repeated. This responsible for the development of
cracks and the rocks may break away into small units.
Exploitation or peeling off the shell takes place if exterior layer are heated externally with
respect to internal layers. The temperature variation may also cause change in the structure and
chemical composition of the material.
b) Normal Wear and tear
During the use of structure it is subjected to abrasion and thereby it looses appearance an
serviceability.
c) Failure of structure
Failure is defined as the behavior of structure not in agreement with expected condition
of stability or lacking freedom from necessary repair or non-compliance with desired use of and
occupancy of the completed structure. In field it may result in visual collapse of the structure or
even suspension of the services e.g. the collapse of towers, sliding or over turning of dam,
settlement of foundation, crushing of columns etc.
The causes of failure may be broadly grouped as:
Improper Design: Due to incorrect, insufficient data regarding use, loading and
environmental conditions, selection of material and poor detailing.
Defective Construction: Poor materials, poor workmanship, lack of quality
control and supervision.
 Improper use of structure: Overloading, selecting the structure for the use for
which they are not designed such as deteriorating environment due to impurities
from industrial fuel burning, sea water minerals, chemicals, storage of chemicals
etc.
Lack of maintenance: Lack of upkeep, proper protection, precaution and
preservation, deteriorated the structure, which may result in the failure.
1.0.3 Facets of maintenance:
Maintenance operations have many facets such as
a) Emergency maintenance: Necessitated by unforeseen breakdown drainage or damage
caused by natural calamity like fire, floods, cyclone earthquake etc.
b) Condition Based maintenance: Work initiated after due inspection
c) Fixed time maintenance: Activities repeated at predetermined intervals of time.
d) Preventive maintenance: This is intended to preserve by preventing failure and detecting
incipient faults (Work is done before failure takes place)
e) Opportunity maintenance: Work did as and when possible within the limits of operation
demand.
f) Day-to-Day care and maintenance
g) Shut down maintenance: Thorough overhaul and maintenance after closing a facility.
h) Improvement plans: This is essentially maintenance operation wherein the weak links in
the original construction are either replaced by new parts or strengthened.
1.0.4 Importance of Maintenance
Improves the life of structure
Improved life period gives better return on investment
Better appearance and aesthetically appealing
Better serviceability of elements and components
Leads to quicker detection of defects and hence remedial measures
Prevents major deterioration and leading to collapse
Ensures safety to occupants
Ensures feeling of confidence on the user
Maintenance is a continuous cycle involves every element of building science
namely
 Structural
Electrical wiring
Plumbing-water-supply-sanitation
Finishes in floors and walls
Roof terrace
Service platform/verandah
Lifts
Doors windows and other elements
1.1 Various aspects Inspection:
The following are the various maintenance aspects,
a) Daily Routine Maintenance
b) Weekly Routine Maintenance
c) Monthly Routine Maintenance
d) Yearly Routine Maintenance
a) Daily Routine Maintenance
Basically an inspection oriented and may not contain action to be taken
Help in identifying major changes, development of cracks, identifying new cracks
etc
Inspection of all essential items by visual observation
Check on proper function of sewer, water lines, wash basins, sinks etc
Check on drain pipes from roof during rainy season.
b) Weekly Routing Maintenance
Electrical accessories
Cob webs cleaning
Flushing sewer line
Leakage of water ling
c) Monthly Routing Maintenance
Cleaning doors, windows‟ latches etc
Checking septic tank/ sewer
 Observation for cracks in the elements
Cleaning of overhead tanks
Peeling of plaster, dampness, floor cracks
d) Yearly Routing Maintenance
Attending to small repairs and white washing
Painting of steel components exposed to weather
Check of displacements and remedial measures
1.2 Repair
Repair is the technical aspect of rehabilitation. Refers to modification of a structure
partly or wholly which is damaged in appearance or serviceability
1.2.1 Stages of repair
Repair of concrete structure is carried out in the following stages:
a) Removal of damaged concrete
b) Pre treatment of surfaces and reinforcement
c) Application of repair materials
d) Restoring the integrity of individual sections and strengthening of structure as a whole.
a) Removal of damaged concrete
Prior to the execution of any repair, one essential and common requirement is that
the deteriorated or damaged concrete should be removed.
Removal of defective concrete can be carried out using tools and equipment the
types of which depend on the damage.
Normally, removal of concrete can be accomplished by hand tools, or when that is
impractical because of the extent of repair, it can be done with a light or medium
weight air hammer fitted with a spade shaped bit.
Care should be taken not to damage the unaffected concrete portions.
For cracks and other narrow defects, a saw-toothed bit will help achieve sharp
edges and a suitable under cut.
b) Pre treatment of surfaces and reinforcement
The preparation of a surface/pretreatment for repair involved the following steps:
Complete removal of unsound material.
Undercutting along with the formation of smooth edges.
 Removal of the cracks from the surface.
Formation of a well defined cavity geometry with rounded inside corners.
Providing, rough but uniform surface for repair.
The cleaning of all loose particles and oil and dirt out of the cavity should be carried out shortly
before the repair. This cleaning can be achieved by blowing with compressed air, hosing with
water, acid etching, wire brushing, scarifying or a combination. Brooms or brushes will also
help to remove loose material.
c) Application of repair materials
After the concrete surface has been prepared, a bonding coat should be applied to
the entire cleaned exposed surface.
It should be done with minimum delay.
The bonding coat may consist of bonding agents such ass cement slurry, cement
sand mortar, epoxy, epoxy mortar, resin materials etc.
Adequate preparation of surface and good workmanship are the ingredients of
efficient and economical repairs.
d) Repair procedure:
The repair of cracked or damaged structure is discussed under two distinct categories, namely,
ordinary or conventional procedures; and special procedures using the latest techniques and
newer materials such as polymers, epoxy resins etc.
A repair procedure may be selected to accomplish one or more of the following objective:
1. To increase strength or restore load carrying capacity.
2. To restore or increase stiffness.
3. To improve functional performance.
4. To provide water tightness.
5. To improve appearance of concrete surface.
6. To improve durability.
7. To prevent access of corrosive materials to reinforcement.
1.2.2 Durability of concrete Repair
The objective of any repair should be to produce rehabilitation – which means a repair
carried out relatively low cost, with a limited and predictable degree of change with time and
without premature deterioration and/or distress throughout its intended life and purpose. To
achieve this goal, it is necessary to consider the factors affecting the durability of a repaired
structural system as part of a whole, or a component of composite system. Summarized some of
the findings and recommendations may be grouped into three categories:
1. Durable Repair Design
2. Durable repair application and
3. Evaluation of the repairs
1. Durable Repair Design
Modulus of elasticity and strength of repair material:
The modulus of elasticity of the repair material not only affects the resultant flexural
stiffness of the repair members, but also the tensile stress present within the repair material and
the debonding stress at the interface when differential movement occurs between the repair
material and substance. A higher difference in modulus of elasticity between the repair material
and substrate may adversely affect the stress distribution within the repaired composite materials
cross section and may lead to considerable stress concentration. Therefore, the repair material
selected should have as similar modulus of elasticity as the substrate as possible. Thus
considering the strength of material alone seems less fact, an overemphasis on strength may
cause repairs to experience cracking arising from drying shrinkage, creep and heat of hydration.

As the substrate as possible. Thus considering the strength of material alone seems less infact, an
overemphasis on strength may cause repairs to experience cracking arising from drying
shrinkage, creep and heat of hydration.
Coefficient of thermal expansion of repair material:
Tensile stresses in the repair material caused by changes in the temperature of the surround
environment are proportional to the differences in the coefficient of thermal expansion and the
change temperature. Therefore, the repair material selected should have as similar as coefficient
of then expansion as the substrate as possible.
Thickness of Repair:
The internal stresses within the repair material and substrate are affected not only by
differential movements, but also by the relative thickness. A thinner repair layer is more easily
cracks or debonded by the higher tensile stress which occurs in the repair material. For most
available repair materials, there seemed to be an optimum thickness of repair material which
results in the lowest tensile stress occurring within the repair material for a given amount
of differential movement between the repair material and substrate. This optimum value is
affected by the ratio of the modulus of elasticity the repair material to substrate and thickness of
repair material to substrate.
Shrinkage and creep of repair material:
Differential shrinkage of the repair material and substrate is another important
consideration a durable repair. The most common damages in concrete between substrate and
repair materials and it proportional to the differential shrinkage. Therefore, the repair material
selected should have shrinkage properties that are as low as possible. For the repair material
under tension, creep mamitigate against the tensile stresses caused by differential shrinkage.
However, for the repair material under compression, creep may decrease the compressive stress
within the repair material and aggrava the compressive stress in the substrate caused by the
different shrinkage. The creep of the repair material should be controlled based on the state of
stress that the repair material will be subjected to service.
2. Durable Repair Application:
Preparation of the repaired surface
The most important surface characteristics of the receiving substrate are its roughness
soundness, cleanliness and moisture condition prior to application of the repair material. The first
step in the repair to be carried out is the removal of the damaged concrete. It is very important to
select a method most appropriate for the specific in-situ condition. Any method that weakness
the sound concrete and create micro cracking should be avoided. Otherwise, the durability and
bond will be decreased by these defects. Commonly used methods in-situ include: sand blasting,
chipping with jack hammers, and hydro demolition among which, the last is highly
recommended. A sound surface if adequate roughness can be created by this method.
Higher plastic shrinkage of the repair material near the interface should be avoided. This
requires that the substrate be pre wetted for atleast 7 hours prior to the application of the repair
material in order to decrease the absorption and expansion of substrate caused by the uptake of
moisture from the repair material. Otherwise, the higher uptake of moisture by the substrate after
the repair material is cast may lead to higher plastic shrinkage of the repair material near the
interface and higher expansion of the substrate, and there by resulting in the possible debonding
of the repair material at an early age.
 The application method and surface preparation are equally important considerations
with regards to the performance of the repaired structures. The repair method adopted not only
affects the resultant quality of the repair material, but also the quality of the interfacial transition
zone, shotcrete seems to be an ideal method because it has good compatibility with the substrate
concrete. Further ore, good compaction with a relatively lower water/cement ratio of the repair
material can be achieved using the shotcreting process. This ensures good/high mechanical
properties of the component parts and durability of the repair structure.
Bonding agents:
Use of polymer bonding agents is not recommended as their modulus of elasticity is
substantially different from that of the substrate. However, use of a cementitious bonding agent
with a low water/cement ratio may be considered. This type of bonding agents not only has good
compatibility with the substrate and repair material, but can also alleviate the effects of
differential shrinkage and thermal movement between the repair material and concrete substrate
thus enhancing the bond strength and durability.
Curing of Repair Material:
Excessive loss of water may result in higher shrinkage (Plastic and drying) and
cause debonding failure of therepair material at an earlier age. Therefore, specification of proper
curing after completion of the repair is very important. Curing time should be atleast the same as
that adopted for usual concrete practice or in accordance to manufacturers recommendations if a
commercially available material is used due to the restraint afforded by the substrate.
3. Evaluation of the Repairs
Behavior of the interfacial transition phase
The formation of the interfacial transition phase is affected by many
factors. Defects such as micro-cracks and pores may be formed within this phase caused by the
differential movements between the substrate and repair material and a lack of aggregate
interlock action between the two materials. Its mechanical behavior and durability affects
directly the performance of the repaired members in service. Thus the mechanical properties and
durability of this phase should be evaluated after the completion of the repair work.
Behavior of the repaired structure:
Differential movements between the repair material and the may result in the cracking
of the repair material and thereby decrease the flexural stiffness and durability of the repaired
members. The degradation in flexural stiffness of the required beams under static and cyclic
loading was related to the appearances and development of cracks. However, the presence of
steel fibres within the repair materials may improve resistance against cracking and fatigue
resistance. Therefore, the flexural stiffness can be enhanced and the deflection of the repaired
members reduced. At the same time, the fatigue resistance of the interface between the repair
material and substrate may also be evaluated by cyclic loading test of representative samples.
The test results can also form a database for the formulation of guidelines for use in practice.
1.3 Assessment Procedure for Evaluating Damages in Structure and Repair techniques:
For assessment of damage of a structure the following general considerations have to be take
accout.
1) Physical inspection of damaged structure.
2) Presentation and documenting the damage.
3) Collection of samples and carrying out tests both in situ and in lab.
4) Studying the documents including structural aspects.
5) Estimation of loads acting on the structure.
6) Estimate of environmental effects including soil structure interaction.
7) Diagnosis.
 Physical Inspection
Material Tests

Study of
Documents

Estimation of Load
Acting

Estimation of
Environmental
Effects

Diagnosis

Retrospective
Analysis

If Diagnosis
Estimation of Load Tests
Confirmed
Future use

Assessing of
Structural
Adequacy

Choice of Courses
of action

Fig. 1.1 Assessment Procedure of Damage

 8) Taking preventive steps not to cause further damage.
9) Retrospective analysis to get the diagnosis confirmed.
10) Assessment of structural adequacy.
11) Estimation of future use.
12) Remedial measures necessary to strengthen and repairing the structure.
13) Post repair evaluation through tests.
14) Load test to study the behavior.
15) Choice of course of action for the restoration of structure.
A simple flow chart incorporating the above points is presented in fig 1.1.
1.3.1. Testing Techniques
A number of non-destructive, partially destructive and destructive
techniques for assessment of concrete structure and to predict the cause of deterioration of the
concrete in the existing structures are available. Interest in the field of Non-Destructive Testing
(NDT) of structure is increasing worldwide. These NDT techniques can be broadly classified
into following four groups:
1.3.1.1. Strength Tests
Schmidt Hammer Test
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Pull out and Pull off Tests
Break off
Core Test
Windsor Probe
Pulse Eco Technique

1.3.1.2 Durability Tests

Corrosion Tests
Absorption and Permeability
Test for Alkali Aggregate Reaction
Abrasion Resistance Tests
Rebar Locator Test
 1.3.1.3 Performance and Integrity Tests
Infrared Thermography Test
Radar Test
Radiography and Radiometry Tests
Acoustic Emission
Optical Fibre Test
Impact Echo Tests
Load Testing test
Dynamic Response
X-Ray Diffraction
1.3.1.4 Chemical Tests
Carbonation test
Suphate Determination Test
Chloride Determination Test
Thermoluminescence Test
Thermo gravimetric analysis Test
Differential Thermal analysis
Dilatometric Test

With these tests it would be possible to know in-situ strength/quality of concrete to

precise identify the damage and causes of the deterioration of the structure, to predict the
residual life measures to enhance the life of the structure.
Details of few of the tests, which are commonly used in practice, are described below,
1. Schmidt Hammer Test
Schmidt Hammer Test is a quick method for assessing the quality of concrete based on
hardness indicated by the rebound number. If the strength of concrete is high, then the rebound
number is also high.
The principal of this test is that when the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against surface
of the concrete the spring controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends upon
the surface hardness of the concrete. The surface hardness and therefore the rebound number is
taken to be related to compressive strength of the concrete. Rebound number values also depend on
angle of measurement.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (USPV) method is being extensively used to assess the quality
concrete. This test is generally used for measurement of concrete uniformity, determination of
cracking and honeycombing, and assessment of concrete deterioration. Strength estimation is
qulititative assessed.
The principal of USPV measurement involves sending electro-acoustic pulse through a
concrete path and measuring the transit time taken, for a known distance. Pulse velocity is then,
computed. Tn pulse velocity depends mainly on elastic modulus of concrete. Any factor, which
influences the modulus of elasticity of concrete, will also affect its pulse velocity. The direct
method of testing is the more reliable from the point of view of transmittance measurement, as
maximum pulse energy is transmit at right angles to the face of transmitter.
2. Carbonation Test
Concrete is having micro-pores and these pores are filled with liquid, having PH –value as
high 12.5. Thus, concrete is alkaline in nature. This alkaline of the concrete is due to (OH) ions in
pore water, which are produced by the dissolution of Ca(OH)2 from the solid phase of the cement
gel into pore water and from the caustic alkalis present namely potassium and sodium oxides.
Carbonation of the concrete is the reaction of Ca(OH)2 with the atmospheric CO2, and its
conversion into CaCO3. The reaction lowers the pH-value of the pore water to about 8.3. The outer
zone of concrete is affected first out due to the passage of time, carbonation proceeds deeper into
the mass as carbon dioxide diffuses inwards from the surface. If carbonation depth becomes equal
to cover of concrete, steel reinforcement is then prone to corrosion damage.
By carbonation test, we measure the carbonated depth of concrete. To determine the depth of
carbonation drilling of a hole is done in stages and the phenolphalein solution is sprayed in it after
every stage. As soon as the color of the concrete becomes pink, drilling is stopped and the depth of
the hole measured.
3. Core Test
Core test is one of the best methods to assess the strength of the concrete in reinforced
concrete construction. Compression testing and petrographic examination of cores, cut from
hardened concrete, is a well established and most reliable method enabling visual inspection of the
interior regions and direct estimation of the strength. The results obtained from the other
nondestructive tests are generally verified using core test.
Rebar Locator Test
By this test, bar diameter, cover to reinforcement, spacing of reinforcement, number of
reinforcing bars and any discontinuity in the reinforcing bars can be detected. This test is performed
using cover meter which is based on electro-magnetic theory.
Chloride Determination Test
Small amount of chlorides will normally be present in the concrete. Higher amount of
chlorides may give rise to potential of corrosion risk. Quantity of chlorides in the concrete is
generally determined chemically and is expressed in terms of percentage of chlorides by weight of
concretes.
Thermo gravimetric and Dilatometric test, differential thermal analysis tests,
Thermolumine scene test etc are some of the sophisticated tests for assessment of the residual
concrete strength.
Thermo gravimetric and Dilatometric Tests
Thermo gravimetric and Dilatometry may be used to assess temperature attained by
concrete. As the concrete undergoes irreversible chemical changes during fire there would be
weight loss at about 5000C. Using thermogravity curces the temperature attained during fire can be
obtained. In dilatometric test, shrinkage of concrete due to process of dehydratrion is detected. By
compaction expansion with temperature lines that represents dialometric curves for fire damaged
concrete and unaffected concrete, the probable temperature to which concrete was subjected can be
established.
Thermoluminescene Test
Thermoluminescene test was proposed by placid and elaborated by chew. This method is
useful in finding out the temperature history of concrete exposed to a temperature range from 3000C
to 500 0C. This method utilizes the concept that the intensity of emission of visible light on heating
versus temperature curve for a particular material depends on its thermal and radiation history.
Temperature versus thermoluminescence curve of the fire affected sample may be compared with
that of unaffected sample for comparison of exposures to the given temperature.
Differential thermal Analysis Tests
Differential thermal Analysis test is based on measurement of temperature curve of the
concrete samples accompanying the irreversible physic, chemical transformation at a temperature,
heated in surface. This method consists of heatng of sample in platinum crucible with a thermocol
embedded in it. The time temperature curve of sample is compared with that of crucible containing
in material or without my samples. The differential thermal analysis of concrete samples are
conducted pulverized sample of mortar obtained from sound and unsound concrete with granular
size of the concrete passing a sieve of 150 microns and retained on 75 microns sieve.
1.4 Causes of Deterioration:
The following are the causes of failure of structure:
a) Occurrences incidental to construction stage. This could be attributed to
1. Local settlement of sub grade.
2. Movement of formwork.
3. Vibrations.
4. Internal settlement of concrete suspension.
5. Setting Shrinkage.
6. Premature removal forms.

b) Drying Shrinkage
c) Temperature stresses – This may be due to
1. Difference in temperatures between the inside of the building with its
environment.
2. Variation in internal temperature of the building or structure.
d) Absorption of moisture by concrete
e) Corrosion of reinforcement – This could be caused by
1. Entry of moisture through cracks or pores.
2. Electrolytic action
f) Aggressive action of chemical
g) Weathering action
h) Action of shock waves
i) Erosion
j) Poor design details at
 1. Re-entrant corners
2. Changes in cross section
3. Rigid joints in precast elements
4. Deflections
This lead to
1. Leakage through joints
2. Inadequate drainage
3. Inefficient drainage slopes
4. Unanticipated shear stresses in piers, columns and abutments etc
5. Incompatibility of materials of sections
6. Neglect in design
k) Errors in design
l) Errors in earlier repairs
m)Overloading
n) External influences such as
1. Earthquake
2. Wind
3. Fire
4. Cyclones etc.
Some of the major causes of deterioration of concrete structure are discussed in detail here.
1.4.1 Design and construction flows
Design of the concrete structures governs the performance of concrete structures. Well
designed and detailed concrete structure will show less deterioration in comparison with poorly
designed and detailed concrete, in the similar condition. The beam-column joints are particularly
prone to defective concrete, if detailing and placing of reinforcement is not done properly.
Inadequate concrete cover may lead to carbonation depth reaching upto the reinforcement, thus
increasing the risk of corrosion of reinforcement.
1.4.2 Environmental Effects
Micro-cracks present in the concrete are the source of ingress of moisture and
atmospheric carbon diozide into the concrete which attack reinforcement and react with various
ingredients of concrete. In aggressive environment concrete structures will deteriorate faster and
strength life of concrete structure will be severely reduced.
1.4.3 Poor Quality material used
Quality of material to be used in construction, should be ensured by means of various tests
as specified by the IS codes. Alkali-aggregate reaction and sulphate attack results in early
deterioration. Clayey materials in the fine aggregate may weaken the mortar aggregate bond and
reduce the strength. Salinity causes corrosion of reinforcement bars as well as deterioration of
concrete.
1.4.4 Quality of supervision
Construction work should be carried out as per the l aid sown specification. Adherence to
specified water/cement ratio controls strength, permeability and durability of concrete.
Insufficient vibration may result in porous and honey combed concrete, whereas excess vibration
may cause segregation.
1.4.5 Deterioration due to corrosion
Spalling of concrete cover
Cracks parallel to the reinforcement
Spalling at edges
Swelling of concrete
Dislocation
Internal cracking and reduction in area of steel of reinforcement
1.5 Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation consists of restoring the structure to service level; it once had and now
lost. Strengthening consists in endowing the structure with a service level higher than that
initially planned by modifying the structure not necessarily damaged.
Unit – II
SERVICEBILITY AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Quality assurance for concrete construction – concrete proberties – strength,
permeability, thermal properties and cracking. – Effects due to climate, temperature, chemicals,
corrosion – design and construction errors – Effects of cover thickness and cracking
2.1 Quality assurances for concrete construction
Quality management ensures that every component of the structure keeps
performing throughout its life span. In fact, quality is a measure of the degree of excellence and
is indeed related to fulfillment enjoyed by the user. In concrete construction, even if rigid quality
is not followed, the material performs for a short while without loss of strength. On account of
this forgiving property of concrete, many in the construction industry have been operating under
the illusion that rigid quality management, which is essential for mechanical industries, is not so
important for concrete manufacture. This is not correct. The quality management in the current
day context is based on the fact that the probability of failure of structure must be as low as
possible and definitely lower than a prefixed accepted limit. Hence, quality management in
essence is the management of uncertainties inherent in the construction industry.
Need for Quality Assurance
All involved with the construction and use of a concrete structure are concerned that the
quality is necessary to give good performance and appearance throughout its intended
life.
The client requires it in promoting his next engineering scheme.
The designer depends on it for his reputation and professional satisfaction.
The material producer is influenced by the quality of work in his future sales.
The building contractor also relies on it to promote his organization in procuring future
contracts, but his task is often considerably complicated by the problems of time
scheduling and costs.
Finally the user is rewarded by a functionally efficient structure of good appearance. It
would seem to follow therefore that since all responsible parties gain by quality it should
be automatically achieved.
Yet this is not so, and a considerable positive effort must be employed to achieve it.
 This effort can best be expanded by instituting a quality assurances scheme which
involves each of the above parties.
The quality management system in a true sense should have the following three
components
1) Quality assurance plan(QAP)
2) Quality control process(QC)
3) Quality Audit(QA)
2.1.1 Quality assurance plan
The following aspects should be addressed by any QAP:
- Organizational Set-up
- Responsibilities of personnel
- Coordinating personnel
- Quality control measure
- Control norms and limit
- Acceptance/rejection criteria
- Inspection program
- Sampling, testing and documentation
- Material specification and qualification
- Corrective measure for noncompliance
- Resolution of disputed/difficulties
- Preparation of maintenance record
The quality assurance plan starts right from the planning and design stage
itself, and it can be defined as a procedure for selecting a level of quality required for a
project.
2.1.2 Quality Control Plan

It is a system of procedures and standards by which the contractor, the product

manufacture and the engineer monitor the properties of the product.
Generally, the contracting agency is responsible for the QC process
 A contractor responsible for quality control incurs a cost for it, which is less than the
uncontrolled cost for correcting the defective workmanship or replacing the defective
material.
Hence it is prudent to introduce effective quality control.

2.1.2 Quality Audit

This is the system of tracing and documentation of quality assurance and quality control
program.
It is the responsibility of the process owner.
Both design and construction processes comes under this process.
The concept of QA encompasses the project as a whole.
Each element of the project comes under the preview of quality audit.

2.2 Concrete Properties

2.2.1 Strength
Strength of concrete is one of the most important factors. Concrete is used as a
structural element, and all structural uses are associated with its compressive strength. Strength
of concrete is defined as the resistance that concrete provides against load so as to avoid failure.
It depends on the water-cement ratio, quality of aggregates, compaction, curing etc. The primary
factor that affects the strength of concrete is the quality of cement paste, which in turn, depends
on the quality of water and cement used.

Sometimes it is economical to add pozzolana or use Portland pozzolana cement

instead of ordinary cement concrete. Pozzolanas are materials that have little cementing value
but rich with calcium hydroxide to form compounds that are cementitious. This reaction
contributes to the ultimate strength and water tightness of concrete. Pozzolanas also increases
the plasticity and workability of concrete. Excessive addition of pozzolanas affects durability. So
it should be used along with cement as a partial replacement or in small percentage.

Generally, construction industry needs faster development of strength in concrete so

that the projects can be completed in time or before time. This demand is catered by high early
strength cement, use of very low W/C ratio through the use of increased cement concrete and
reduced water content. But this result in higher thermal shrinkage, drying shrinkage, modulus of
elasticity and lower creep coefficients. With higher quantity of cement content, the concrete
exhibits greater cracking tendencies because of increase in thermal and during shrinkage. As the
creep coefficient is low in such concrete there will not be much slope for relaxation of stresses.
Therefore, high early strength concretes are more prone to cracking than moderate or low
strengthconcrete.

Of course, the structural cracks in high strength concrete can be controlled by use of
sufficient steel reinforcement. But this practice does not help the concrete durability, as provision
of more steel reinforcement; will only results in conversion of the bigger cracks to smaller
cracks. And these smaller cracks are sufficient to allow oxygen, carbon dioxide and moisture get
into the concrete to affect the long-term durability of concrete.

Field experience have also corroborated that high early strength concrete are more
cracks-prone. According to a recent report, the cracks in pier caps have been attributed to use of
high cement content in concrete. Contractors apparently thought that a higher than the desired
strength would speed up the construction time, and therefore used high cement content.

Similarly, report submitted by National Cooperative Highway Research Programme

(NCHRP) of USA during 1995, based on their survey showed that more than, 100000 concrete
bridge decks in USA showed full depth transverse cracks even before structures were less than
one month old. The reasons given are that combination of thermal shrinkage and dryingshrinkage
caused most of the cracks. It is to be noted that deck concrete is made of high strength concrete.
These concrete have a high elastic modulus at an early age. Therefore, they develop high stresses
for a given temperature change or amount of drying shrinkage. The most important point is that
such concrete creeps little to relieve the stresses.
It is interesting to see that the above point of view is not fully convincing when seen
from many other consideration.
Firstly, the high strength concrete has high cement content and low water content. On
account of low water content, only surface hydration of cement particle will have taken place
leaving considerable amount of unhydrated core of cement grains. This unhydrated core of
cement grains has strength in reserve. When micro cracks have developed, the unhydrated core
gets hydrated, getting moisture through micro cracks. The hydration products so generated seal
the cracks and restore the integrity of concrete for long term durability.
Secondly, as per aiticin, the quality of products of hydration formed in the case of low W/C
ratio is superior to the quality of gel formed in the case of high W/C ratio.
Thirdly, the micro structure of concrete with low W/C ratio is much stronger and less
permeable. The interconnected networks of capillaries are so fine that water cannot flow any
more through them. It is reported that when tested for chloride ion permeability, it showed 10-50
times slower penetration than low strength concrete.
2.2.2 Permeability
Concrete is a permeable and a porous material. The rates at which liquids and gases can
move in the concrete are determined by its permeability. Permeability affects the way in which
concrete resists external attack and the extent to which a concrete structure can be free of leaks.
The permeability is much affected by the nature of the pores, both their size and the extent to
which they are interconnected. There can therefore be no one measure of porosity which fully
describes the way in which the properties of concrete or of hardened cement paste are affected.
If a material were judged, the decision would rest primarily on the choice of medium used
for testing.
For (ex) Vulcanized rubber would be found impervious and nonporous if tested with
mercury, but if tested with hydrogen it would be found to be highly porous. Early work on the
permeability of concrete was generally related to its use in dam construction.
In 1946 Powers and Brownyard examined the permeability of cement pastes and came to
the conclusion that well-cured neat paste of low w/c ratio is practically impermeable and that the
permeability of cement pastes depends almost entirely on the amount of capillary water present,
since the gel pores are extremely small. Earlier work of Ruettgers resulted that the permeability
of concrete is generally much higher than the theoretical permeability owing to the fissures under
the aggregate that permit the flow partially to bypass the paste and owing to the capillaries in the
paste that permit the flow in the paste to bypass the gel. Numerical values for permeability of
concrete need to be examined with care.
The coefficient of permeability K1 is obtained from applying Darcy‟s law for low velocity
flow,
(dr/dt).(1/A)=K1.(^h/L)
dr/dt= The rate of volume flow (m3s-1)
A= Area of porous medium normal to the direction of flow (M2)
^h= Drop in hydraulic head across the thickness of the medium (m).
L= Thickness of the medium (m).
K1=Coefficient of permeability depending on the properties of the medium and of fluid (ms-1)
For any set of tests, the value of K1 depends on both the medium and the fluid and
therefore represents the permeability of the medium to a specified fluid at specified temperature.
As pointed out by the concrete society working party, a number of factors can account for
widespread of permeability results for a specific w/c ratio concrete, due primarily to aspects of
the test method for eg:
a) Varying and continuing hydration of the specimen.
b) Incomplete and variable initial saturation.
c) Lack of absolute water cleanliness.
d) Chemical reaction of specimen with the test fluid
e) Effect of dissolved gases where high pressure air is used to pressurize the water.
f) Silting due to movement of fines.
g) Micro structural collapse and macroscopic instability when very high flow
pressures are used.
h) Lack of attainment of steady state condition.
The composition of the water and the presence of dissolved materials can also have a
substantial effect. The drying was found to increase the permeability and for the particular
specimens examined, drying at 79% relative humidity increased the permeability about 70-told.
The flow tests are appropriate for testing material which has a high permeability but for concrete
of low permeability a method in which the depth of penetration is measured is usually a core
practical proposition. The water tightness of a concrete structure is not determined by the
permeability of the hardened cement paste or even by the measured permeability of laboratory
specimens of the concrete. The permeability of concrete, both to moisture and to gas is important
in relation to the protection afforded to embedded steel. The initial surface absorption test
measures the rate at which water is absorbed in to the surface of the concrete for a brief period
under a head of 200mm. The Figg test subsequent modifications of its measure the permeability
of the concrete at the bottom of a fine hole drilled to some depth below the concrete surface. The
depth to which water which is absorbed into concrete under little head has been shown to be
initially a linear function of the square-root of time. The slope of this function is called
Sorptivity. The sorptivity is a measure for assessing the protection that will be a afforded to
embedded reinforcing steel, particularly after it has become activated.
Penetration of concrete by materials in solution may adversely affect its durability. For
instance, when Ca(OH)2 is being leaching out or an attack by aggressive liquids takes place. This
penetration depends on the permeability of the concrete. Since permeability determines the
relative ease, with which concrete can become saturated with water, permeability has an
important bearing on the vulnerability of concrete to frost. Furthermore, in case of reinforced
concrete, the ingress of moisture and of air will result in the corrosion of steel. Since this leads to
an increase in the volume of the steel, cracking and spalling of the concrete cover may well
follow.
The high permeability of concrete in actual structures is due to the following
reasons:
The large microcracks with generated time in the transition zone.
Cracks generated through higher structural stresses.
Due to volume change and cracks produced on account of various minor reasons.
Existence of entrapped air due to insufficient compaction.
2.2.3 Thermal Properties
Concrete is a material used in all climatic regions for all kinds of structures. Thermal
properties are important in structures in which temperature differentials occur including those
due to solar radiation during casting and the inherent heat of hydration. Knowledge of thermal
expansion is required in long span bridge girders, high rise buildings subjected to variation of
temperatures, in calculating thermal strains in chimneys, blast furnace and pressure vessels, in
dealing with pavements and construction joints, in dealing with design of concrete dams and in
host of other structures where concrete will be subjected to higher temperatures such as fire,
subsequent cooling, resulting in cracks, loss of serviceability and durability.
The thermal properties of concrete are more complex than those of most other materials
because these are affect ted by moisture content and porosity.
 Threee types of tests are commonly used to study the effect of transient high temperature
on the stress-strain properties of concrete under compression. These are the following,
(a) Unstreesed Tests: Where specimens are heated under no initial stress and then loaded until
the point of failure.
(b) Stressed Tests: Where a fraction of the compressive strength capacity at room temperature is
applied and sustained during heating. When the target temperature is reached, the load is
increased until the point of failure.
(c) Residual Unstressed Tests: Where the specimens are heated without any load, cooled to room
temperature, and then loaded until the point of failure.
To study about the thermal properties of concrete the following properties needs to
be known,

Thermal conductivity
Thermal diffusivity
Specific heat
Coefficient of thermal expansion
Thermal Conductivity:
This measures the ability of material to conduct heat. Thermal conductivity is measured in
joules per second per square meter of area of body when the temperature deference is 10C per
meter thickness of the body.
The conductivity of concrete depends on type of aggregate, moisture content, density and
temperature of concrete. When the concrete is saturated, the conductivity ranges generally
between about 1.4 and 3.4j/m2s 0c/m.
Thermal Diffusivity:
Diffusivity represents the rate at which temperature changes within the concrete mass.
Diffusivity is simply related to the conductivity by the following equation.
Conductivity
Diffusivity = ---------------
CP
Where C is the specified heat and P is the density of concrete. The range of diffusivity of
concrete is between 0.002 to 0.006 m2/h.
Specific Heat:
It is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
material by one degree centigrade. The common range of values for concrete is between 840 and
1170 j/kg per 0C.
Coefficient of thermal expansion:
Coefficient of thermal expansion is defined as the change in length per degree change
of temperature. In concrete it depends upon the mix proportions. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of hydrated cement paste varies between 11*10-6 and 20*10-6 per 0C. Coefficient of
thermal expansion of aggregate varies between 5*10-6 and 12*10-6 per 0C. Limestone and
gabbors will have low values and quartzite will have high values of coefficient of thermal
expansion. Therefore the kind of aggregate and content of aggregate influences the coefficients
of thermal expansion of concrete.
2.2.4 Cracking
Plastic shrinkage cracks
Water from fresh concrete can be lost by evaporation, absorption of sub grade,
formwork and in hydration process. When the loss of water from the surface of concrete is faster
than the migration of water from interior to the surface dries up. This creates moisture gradient
which results n surface cracking while concrete is still in plastic condition. The magnitude of
plastic shrinkage and plastic shrinkage cracks are depending upon ambient temperature, relative
humidity and wind velocity.
Rate of evaporation of water in excess of 1 kg/m2 per hour is considered critical. In
such a situation the following measures could be taken to reduce or eliminate plastic shrinkage
cracks.
Moisten the sub grade and formwork
Erect temporary wind breakers to reduce the wind velocity over concrete.
Erect temporary roof to protect concrete from hot sun.
 Plastic Shrinkage

Settlement Shrinkage

Drying Bleeding

Delayed Curing

Form work movement

Excess Vibration

Before Constructional Sub grade settlement

Hardening Finishing

Early frost damage

Cracks Cement
In Unsound Aggregates
Concrete Materials Excess silt.
Mud and dust
Long term drying shrinkage

Thermal Heat of Hydration

After External temperature
Hardening Joints in Concrete
Elevated Temperature
Freezing and thawing
Moisture movements
Tansition Zone
Biological
Structural design Sulphate attack
deficiencies Alkali-aggregate reaction

Acid attack
Chemical Sea water
Correction of Carbonation
reinforcement Chloride attack

Fig 2.1 Various Types and Causes of cracks in Concrete

 After hardening

1. Primary Drying Chemical action Temperature Structural

Classification Shrinkage Failure

Concrete Steel
2. Secondary
Classification Internal External

Loss of Expansion of Differential Climatic Frost and

3. Cause Excessive
water internal mass expansion Changes ice action Tensile
resulting in and
stresses
cracking of contraction
due to
external skin loads

Cracking Reactive Corrosion Heat Large Spalling Building

4. Example or
of aggregates of of slabs or Of Settlement,
Contributing building hydratio walls excessive
reinforcement surface
Condition slabs n of without loads,
and cemment adequate vibrations,
walls joints earthquakes,
and
insufficient
Low-heat reinforcement
Cement and
Dense Low alkali Thick and control of Adequate
mixes with cement and dense temperature expansion Air
5. Remedy rise; Correct
low cemen nonreactive layer of contractio entrainment
t and water aggregates protection Aggregates n joints and sound design
content; concrete of normal concrete structure
adequate thermal
curing expansion

Fig2.3 Other Properties, types and causes of concrete cracking

 Reduce the time between placing and finishing. If there is delay cover the concrete with
polyethylene sheets.
Minimize evaporation by covering concrete with burlap, fog spray and curing
compound.
Plastic shrinkage cracks are very common in hot weather conditions in pavements
floor and roof slab concrete.
Once they are forms it‟s difficult to rectify. In case of prefabricated units, they can be
heated by controlled revibration, if the concrete is in plastic condition. In roof and floor slab it is
difficult to repair. However, sometimes, thick sluury is poured over the cracks and well worked
by trowel after striking each side of the cracks to seal the same. The best way is to take all
precautions to prevent evaporation of water from the wet concrete, finish it fast, and cure it as
early as feasible.
In Mumbai – Pune express highway, the fresh concrete is protected by 100 meter long
low tenterected on wheel to break the wind and also to protect the green concrete from hot sun.
In addition curing compound is sprayed immediately after finishing operations.
Plastic shrinkage cracks, if care is not taken, will affect the durability of concrete in
many ways.
Settlement Cracks
If the concrete is free to settle uniformly, then there is no crack. If there is any obstruction
to uniform settlement by way of reinforcement or larger piece of aggregate, then it creates some
voids or cracks. This is called settlement cracks. This generally happens in a deep beam.
Concrete should be poured in layers and each layer should be properly compacted.
Building up of large quantity of concrete over a beam should be avoided.
Sometimes, the settlement cracks and voids are so severe it needs grouting operators to
seal them off. Revibration, if possible is an effective step. Otherwise they affect the structural
integrity of the beam or any other member and badly affect the durability.
Bleeding
Shrinkage of concrete is one of the important factors contributing to lack of durability
of concrete. Shrinkage is mainly responsible for causing cracks of larger magnitude or minor
micro cracks. The aspect of cracking in concrete is very complex, involving many factors such as
magnitude of shrinkage, degree of restraint, extensibility of concrete, extent of stress relaxation
by creep and at what age the shrinkage is appearing etc. Cracks can be avoided only if the stress
induced by shrinkage strain, after relaxation by creep, is at all time less than the tensile strength
of concrete. The above situation is not happening in most of the cases and as such generally
shrinkage causes cracks in concrete.
2.3 Durability:
Definition:
Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering
action, chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties.
Different concretes require different degrees of durability depending on the exposures
environment and properties desired.
For example, concrete exposed to tidal seawater will have different requirements than an
indoor concrete floor. Concrete ingredients, their proportioning, interactions between them,
placing and curing practices, and the service environment determine the ultimate durability and
life of concrete.
Some important degradation mechanisms in concrete structures include the following:
1. Freeze-thaw damage (physical effects, weathering).
2. Alkali-aggregate reactions (chemical effects).
3. Sulphate attack(chemical effects).
4. Microbiological induced attack(chemical effects).
5. Corrosion of reinforcing steel embedded in concrete (chemical effects).
a)carbonation of concrete
b) chloride induced.
6. Abrasion (physical effects).
7. Mechanical loads(physical effects).
2.3.1 Effect of freezing and thawing:
The most severe climate attack on concrete occurs when concrete containing moisture is
subjected to cycles of freezing and thawing.
The capillary pores in the cement are of such a size that water in them will freeze when
the ambient temperatures is below 00C.
 The gel pores are so small that water in them does not freeze at normal winter
temperatures.
As water when freezing expands by 9% of its volume, excess water in the capillaries has
to move.
Since the cement paste is relatively impermeable, high pressures are necessary to move
the excess water even over quite small distance.
For normal strength concrete it has been found that movement of the order of 0.2mm is
sufficient to require pressures which approach the tensile strength of the paste.
Concrete can be protected from freeze – thaw damage, by the entrainment of appropriate
quantities of air distributed through the cement paste with spacing between bubbles of
not more than about 0.4mm.
The air bubbles must remain partially empty so that they can accommodate the excess
water moved to them.
This will generally be the case since the bubbles constitute the coarsest pore system and
are therefore the first to lost moisture as the concrete dries.
Fully saturated concrete, if permanently submerged, will not need protection against
freezing, but concrete which as been saturated and is exposed to freezing, as for example
in the tidal range, may not be effectively protected by air-entrainment.
2.3.2 Effect of Temperature:
The temperature difference within a concrete structure, result in differential volume
change.
When the tensile strain due to differential volume change exceeds the tensile strain
capacity of concrete, it will crack.
The temperature differentials associated with the hydration of cement, affect the mass
concrete such as in large columns, piers, footings, dams etc. Whereas the temperature
differentials due to changes in the ambient temperature can affect the whole structure.
The liberation of the heat of hydration of cement causes the internal temperature of
concrete to rise during the initial curing period, so that is is usually slightly warmer than
its surroundings.
In thick sections and with rich mixes the temperature differential may be considerable. As
the concrete cools it will try to contract.
 Any restraint on the free contraction during cooling will result in tensile stresses which
are proportional to the temperature change, coefficient of thermal expansion, effective
modulus of elasticity and degree of restraint.
The more massive the structure, the greater is the potential for temperature differential
and degree of restraint.
Thermally induced cracking can be reduced by controlling the maximum internal
temperature, delaying the onset of cooling by insulating the formwork and exposed
surfaces, controlling the rate of cooling, and increasing the tensile strain capacity of the
concrete.
Special precautions need to be taken in the desing of structures in which some portions
are exposed to temperature changes while the other portions of structures are either
partially or completely protected.
A drop in temperature may result in the cracking of the exposed element while increase
in temperature may cause cracking in the protected portion of the structure.
Temperature gradients cause deflection and rotation in structural members; if these are
restrained serious stresses can result.
Allowing for movement by using properly designed contraction joints and correct
detailing will help alleviate these problems. If the cracks do form.
Remedial measures are similar to those for cracks that form after a structure in service.
2.3.3 Effect of chemical:
The most important constituent of concrete namely cement is alkaline; so it will react
with acids or acidic compounds in presence of moisture, and in consequence the matrix
becomes weakened and its constituents may be leached out. The concrete may crack, as a
result of expansive reactions between aggregate containing active silica and alkalies
derived from cement hydration, admixture or external sources(e.g. curing water, ground
water, alkaline solutions stored). The alkali – silica reaction results in the formation of a
swelling gel, which tends to draw water from other portions of concrete. This causes local
expansion and accompanying tensile stresses which if large may eventually result in the
complete deterioration of the structure. Control measures include proper selection of
aggregate, use of low-alkali cement and use of pozzolana. Typical symptoms in
 unreinforced and highly reinforced concrete are map cracking, usually in a rough
hexagonal mesh pattern and gel excluding from cracks.
The alkali-carbonate reactions occurs with certain limestone aggregate and usually results
in the formation of alkali-silica product between aggregate particles and the surrounding
cement paste. The problem may be minimized by avoiding reactive aggregate, use of
smaller size aggregate and use of low-alkali cement.
When the sulphate bearing waters come in contact with the concrete, the sulphate
penetrates the hydrated paste and reacts with hydrated calcium aluminate to form calcium
suphoaluminate with a subsequent large increase in volume, resulting in high tensile
stresses causing the deterioration of concrete. The blended or pozzolana cements impart
additional resistance to sulphate attacks.
The calcium hydroxide in hydrated cement paste will combine with carbon dioxide in the
air to form calcium carbonate which occupies smaller volume tan the calcium hydroxide
resulting called carbonation shrinkage. This situation may result in significant surface
grazing and ay be especially serious on freshly placed concrete surface kept warm during
winter by improperly vented combustion heaters.
Factors which increase concrete vulnerability to external chemical attacks are,
1. High porosity
2. High permeability and absorption resulting from too high W/C ratio.
3. Unsatisfactory grading of aggregate.
4. Cement compaction.
5. Improper choice of cement type for condition of exposure.
6. Inadequate curing period.
7. Exposure to alternate cycles of wetting and drying and to the lesser extended of heating
and cooling.
8. Increased fluid velocity which may bring about both replenishment of the aggressive
species and increases in the rate of leaching.
9. Suction forces which may caused by drying on one or more faces of a section.
10. Unsatisfactory choice of shape and surface to volume ratio of concrete structure.
2.3.4 Effect of Corrosion:
2.3.4.1 Formation of white patches
CO2 reacts with Ca(OH)2 in the cement paste to form CaCO3. The free movement of water
carries the unstable CaCO3 towards the surface and forms white patches. It indicates the
occurrences of carbonation.
2.3.4.2 Brown patches along reinforcement
When reinforcement starts corroding, a layer a ferric oxide is formed. This brown product
resulting from corrosion may permeate along with moisture to the concrete surface without
cracking of the concrete.
2.3.4.3 Occurrence of cracks
The increase in volume exerts considerable bursting pressure on the surrounding concrete
resulting in cracking. The hair line crack in the concrete surface lying directly above the
reinforcement and running parallel to it is the positive visible indication that reinforcement is
corroding. These cracks indicate that the expanding rust had grown enough to split the concrete.
2.3.4.4 Formation of multiple cracks
As corrosion progresses, formation of multiple layers of rust on the reinforcement which in
turn exert considerable pressure on the surrounding concrete resulting in widening of hair cracks.
In addition, a number of new hair cracks are also formed. The bond between concrete and the
reinforcement is considerably reduced. There will be a hollow sound when the concrete is tapped
at the surface with a light hammer.
2.3.4.5 Snapping of bars
The continued reduction in the size of bars results in snapping of the bars. This will occur in
ties/stirrups first. At this stage, size of the main bars is reduced.
2.3.4.6 Buckling of bars and bulging of concrete
The spalling of the cover concrete and snapping of ties causes the main bars to buckle.
This results in bulging of concrete in that region. This follows collapse of the structure. When
corrosion of reinforcement starts, the deterioration is usually slow but advances in geometrical
progression. Corrosion can also cause structural failure due to reduced C/S and hence reduced
load carrying capacity. It is possible to arrest the process of corrosion at any stage by altering the
corrosive environment in the vicinity of the reinforcement.
2.4 Design Errors and Construction Errors:
2.4.1 Design Errors
Design errors may be divided into two general types:
1. Those resulting from inadequate structural design
2. Those resulting from lack of attention to relatively minor design details.
Each of the two types of design errors is discussed below.
(1) Inadequate structural design.
(a) Mechanism. The failure mechanism is simple – the concrete is exposed to greater stress than
it is capable of carrying or it sustains greater strain than its strain capacity.
(b) Symptoms. Visual examinations of failures resulting from inadequate structural design will
usually show one of two symptoms.
1. First, errors in design resulting in excessively high compressive stresses will result in
spalling. Similarly, high torsion or shear stresses may also result in spalling or cracking.
2. Second, high tensile stresses will result in cracking.
To identify inadequate design as a cause of damage, the locations of the damage should
be compared to the types of stresses that should be present in the concrete. For example, if spalls
are present on the underside of a simple-supported beam, high compressive stresses are not
present and inadequate design may be eliminated as a cause. However, if the type and location of
the damage and the probable stress are in agreement, a detailed stress analysis will be required to
determine whether inadequate design is the cause. Laboratory analysis is generally not applicable
in the case of suspected inadequate design. However, for rehabilitation projects, thorough petro
graphic analysis and strength testing of concrete from elements to be reused will be necessary.
(c) Prevention.
Inadequate design in prevented by thorough and careful review of all design
calculations. Any rehabilitation method that makes use of existing concrete structural members
must be carefully reviewed.
(2) Poor design details
A structure may be adequately designed to meet loadings and other overall requirements,
poor detailing may result in localized concentrations of high stresses in otherwise satisfactory
concrete. These high stresses may result in cracking that allows water or chemicals access to the
concrete. In other cases, poor design detailing may simply allow water to pond on a structure,
resulting in saturated concrete. In general, poor detailing does not lead directly to concrete
failure; rather, it contributes to the action of one of the other causes of concrete deterioration
described in this chapter. Several specific types of poor detailing and their possible effects on a
structure are described in the following paragraphs. In general, all of these problems can be
prevented by a thorough and careful review of plans and specifications for the project. In the
case of existing structures, problems resulting from poor detailing should be handled by
correcting the detailing and not by simply responding to the symptoms.
(a) Abrupt changes in section.
Abrupt changes n section may cause stress concentrations that may result in cracking. Typical
examples would include the use of relatively thin sections such as bridge decks rigidly tied into
massive abutments or patches and replacement concrete that are not uniform in plan dimensions.
(b) Insufficient reinforcement at reentrant corners and openings.
Reentrant corners and openings also tend to cause stress concentrations that may cause cracking.
In this case, the best prevention is to provide additional reinforcement in areas where stress
concentrations are expected to occur.
(c) Inadequate provision for deflection.
Deflection in excess of those anticipated may result in loading of members or sections beyond
the capacities for which they were designed. Typically, these loadings will be induced in walls or
partitions, resulting in cracking.
(d) Inadequate provision for drainage.
Poor attention to the details of draining a structure may result in the ponding of water. This
ponding may result in leakage or saturation of concrete. Leakage may result in damage to the
interior of the structure or in staining and encrustations on the structure. Saturation may result in
severely damaged concrete if the structure is in an area that is subjected to freezing and thawing.
(e) Insufficient travel in expansion joints.
Inadequately designed expansion joints may result in spalling of concrete adjacent to the joints.
The full range of possible temperature differentials that a concrete may be expected to
experience should be taken into account in the specification for expansion joints. There is no
single expansion joint that will work for all cases of temperature differential.
(f) Incompatibility of materials.
The use of materials with different properties (modulus of elasticity or coefficient of thermal
expansion) adjacent to one another may result in cracking or spalling as the structure is loaded or
as it is subjected to daily or annual temperature variations.
(g) Neglect of creep effect.
Neglect of creep may have similar effects as noted earlier for inadequate provision for
deflections. Additionally, neglect of creep in prestressed concrete members may lead to
excessive prestress loss that in turn results in cracking as loads are applied.
(h) Rigid joints between precast units.
Designs utilizing precast elements must provide for movement between adjacent precast
elements or between the precast elements and the supporting frame. Failure to provide for this
movement can result in cracking or spalling.
(i) Unanticipated shear stresses in piers, columns, or abutments.
Through lack of maintenance, expansion bearing assembles are allowed to become frozen,
horizon-tal loading may be transferred to the concrete elements supporting the bearings. The
result will be cracking in the concrete, usually compounded by other problems which will be
caused by the entry of water into the concrete.
2.4.2 Construction Errors:
Failure to follow specified procedures and good practice or outright carelessness may lead
to a number of conditions that may be grouped together as construction errors. Most of these
errors do not lead directly to failure or deterioration of concrete. Instead, they enhance the
adverse impacts of other mechanisms. Each error will be briefly described along with
preventative methods. In general, the best preventive measure is a thorough knowledge of what
these construction errors are, plus an aggressive inspection program. It should be noted that
errors of the type described in this section are equally as likely to occur during repair or
rehabilitation projects as they are likely to occur during new construction.
(a) Adding water to concrete. Water is usually added to concrete in one or both of the
following circumstances:
1. First, water is added to the concrete in a delivery truck to increase slump and decrease
emplacement effort. This practice will generally lead to concrete with lowered strength
 and reduced durability. As the w/c of the concrete increases, the strength and durability
will decrease.
2. In the second case, water is commonly added during finishing of flatwork. This practice
leads to scaling, crazing, and dusting of the concrete in service.
(b) Improper alignment of formwork.
Improper alignment of the formwork will lead to discontinuities on the surface of the concrete.
While these discontinuities are unsightly in all circumstances, their occurrence may be more
critical in areas that are subjected to high-velocity flow of water, where cavitations erosion may
be induced, or in lock chambers where the “rubbing” surfaces must be straight.
(c) Improper consolidation.
Improper consolidation of concrete may result in a variety of defects, the most common being
bugholes, honeycombing, and cold joints.
“Bugholes” are formed when small pockets of air or water are trapped against the forms.
A change in the mixture to make it less “sticky” or the use of small vibrators worked near the
form has been used to help eliminate bugholes.
Honeycombing can be reduced by inserting the vibrator more frequently, inserting the
vibrator as close as possible to the form face without touching the form, and slower withdrawal
of the vibrator. Obviously, all of these defects make it much easier for any damage-causing
mechanism to initiate deterioration of the concrete.
Frequently, a fear of “overconsolidation” is used to justify a lack of effort in
consolidating concrete. Overconsolidation is usually defined as a situation in which the
consolidation effort causes all of the coarse aggregate to settle to the bottom while the paste rises
to the surface. If this situation occurs, it is reasonable to conclude that there is a problem of a
poorly proportioned concrete rather than too much consolidation.
(d) Improper curing.
Curing is probably the most abused aspect of the concrete construction process. Unless concrete
is given adequate time to cure at a proper humidity and temperature, it will not develop the
characteristics that are expected and that are necessary to pro-vide durability. Symptoms of
improperly cured concrete can include various types of cracking and surface disintegration. In
extreme cases where poor curing leads to failure to achieve anticipated concrete strengths,
structural cracking may occur.
(e) Improper location of reinforcing steel.
This section refers to reinforcing steel that is improperly located or is not adequately secured in
the proper location. Either of these faults may lead to two general types of problems.
1. First, the steel may not function structurally as intended, resulting in structural
cracking or failure. A particularly prevalent example is the placement of welded wire mesh in
floor slabs. In many case, the mesh ends up on the bottom of the slab which will subsequently
crack because the steel is not in the proper location.
2. The second type of problem stemming from improperly located or tied reinforcing
steel is one of durability. The tendency seems to be for the steel to end up near the surface of the
concrete. As the concrete cover over the steel is reduced, it is much easier for corrosion to begin.
(f) Movement of formwork
Movement of formwork during the period while the concrete is going from fluid to a rigid
material may induce cracking and separation within the concrete. A crack open to the surface
will allow access of water to the interior of the concrete. An internal void may give rise to
freezing or corrosion problems if the void becomes saturated.
(g) Premature removal of shores or reshores.
If shores or reshores are removed too soon, the concrete affected may become overstressed and
cracked. In extreme cases there may be major failures.
(h) Settling of the concrete.
During the period between placing and initial setting of the concrete, the heavier components of
the concrete will settle under the influence of gravity. This situation may be aggravated by the
use of highly fluid concretes. If any restraint tends to prevent this settling, cracking or
separations may result. These cracks or separations may also develop problems of corrosion or
freezing if saturated.
(i) Settling of subgrade.
If there is any settling of the subgrade during the period after the concrete begins to become rigid
but before it gains enough strength to support its own weight, cracking may also occur.
(j) Vibration of freshly placed concrete.
Most construction sites are subjected to vibration from various sources, such as blasting, pile
driving, and form the operation of construction equipment.
Freshly placed concrete is vulnerable to weakening of its properties if subjected to forces which
disrupt the concrete matrix during setting.
(k) Improper finishing of flat work.
The most common improper finishing procedures which are detrimental to the durability of flat
work are discussed below.
(1) Adding water to the surface. Evidence that water is being added to the surface is the
presence of a large paint brush, along with other finishing tools. The brush is dipped in water and
water is “slung” onto the surface being finished.
(2) Timing and finishing. Final finishing operations must be done after the concrete has
taken its initial set and bleeding has stopped. The waiting period depends on the amouts of water,
cement, and admixtures in the mixture but primarily on the temperatures of the concrete surface.
On a partially shaded slab, the part in the sun will usually be ready to finish before the part in the
shade.
(3) Adding cement to the surface. This practice is often done to dry up bleed water to
allow finishing to proceed and will result in a thin cement-rich coating which will craze or flake
off easily.
2.5 Effect of Cover Thickness
There is a substantial experience which relates durability and the amount of water. The
thicker the cover over the steel is, the longer it will take the chloride ions to reach the steel and
reduce the pH and passivity provided by the cement. However, excessive cover can led to the
development of a few wide cracks under overstress, whereas a thinner cover results in many
small cracks.
As opposed to the above mentioned facts, which appear to justify the rigid rules on cover,
are the fallowing facts.
Ships built during World War I and II had covers of only about 20mm, yet they
did not suffer corrosion steel.
In the erstwhile USSR, many floating dry-docks have been built with covers of
15 and 20mm with highly successful durability over many years of adverse
exposure.
 It is confirmed opinion that the impermeability of the cover is of major importance. The
thickness should be related to the steel bar diameter and the maximum size of the coarse
aggregate.
The general factors affecting permeability, such as cement content, water/cement ratio,
compaction and consolidation of the concrete, and curing are important. While many fee that
prestressing steel should have a greater cover than non-stressed steel, because of the more
serious consequences of corrosion. Prestressed concrete pilling by hundreds of thousands are
rendering completely successful service with only 4-6cm of cover. Other factors affecting cover
are the tolerances of placement of steel and forms, and the depths of honeycombs and bug holes
and other surface defects.
Lack of adequate cover contributes much to corrosion in an aggressive environment. A
well compacted and continuous, even if thin, cover of good quality concrete on reinforcement is
sufficient to protect it from corrosion. The following are the reinforcement thickness of covers
for various levels of exposure.
For normal exposure : At least 50mm thickness
For moderate exposure : At least 40mm thickness
For mild exposure : At least 30mm thickness
For normal exposure : At least 20mm thickness

Cover Meter
When a metallic object is placed in the varying magnetic field of coil, the field induces eddy
currents in the object. These eddy currents in turn produce an additional magnetic field in the
vicinity of the magnetic object. A magnetic field gets superimposed and the magnetic field near
the coil also gets modified in the presence of metal. This modification has the same effect as
would be obtained if the characteristic of the coil itself had been changed. The change depends
upon the electrical conductivity, dimension, magnetic permeability, presence of discontinuity
such as crack, frequency of the field of the coil, size and shape of the coil, and the distance of the
coil from the metallic object.
It is possible to measure the cover thickness for a known diameter by keeping all other
parameters constant. By placing the soil at two different distances from the rebar, both the cover
thickness and the diameter of the rebar can be found.
2.6 Effect of Cracking
The formation of cracks is dangerous for protection against corrosion. Once concrete
cracks, the external depassivating agents can penetrate deep into concrete and set off the process
of corrosion. Cracks running transversely to the reinforcement are less harmful than the
longitudinal cracks along the reinforcement.
Thus in the order to induce the process of corrosion and to keep it going, at least one of
the following conditions must exist in any RC structure.
Chloride ion concentration in excess of the threshold value at the interface of the reinforcement
and concrete or sufficient advancement of the carbonation front to destroy the passivity of the
ferric oxide surface layer of the reinforcement.
Adequate moisture in the concrete to facilitate the movement of chloride ions and provide a
conduction path between the anodic and the cathodic areas on the steel.
Sufficient oxygen supply to the cathodic areas in order to maintain such areas in a depolarized
condition.
Difference in electrochemical potentials at the surface of the reinforcement.
Low values of electrical resistivity of concrete.
Relative humidity in the range 50-70%.
Higher ambient temperature.
Unit – III
MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES FOR REPAIR

Special concretes and mortar, concrete chemicals, special cements for accelerated strength gain,
Expansive cement, polymer concrete, Sulphur infiltrated concrete, ferro cement, Fiber reinforced
concrete.

3.1 Special Concretes:

• Light-weight Concrete
• Light-weight Aggregate Concrete
• Structural Light-weight Concrete
• Aerated Concrete
• No-fines Concrete
• High Density Concrete
• Sulphur-Infiltrated Concrete
• Fiber Reinforced Concrete
• Polymer Concrete
Special Mortar:
The following are the different types of special mortars available; they are
Cement-clay mortar
Light-weight and heavy mortars
Decorative mortar
Air-entrained mortar
Gypsum mortar
Fire-resistance mortar
Packing mortar
Sound absorbing mortar
X-ray shielding mortar
3.1.1 Cement-clay mortar
Here clay is introduced as an effective finely ground additive in quantities ensuring a
cement-clay proportion of not over 1:1. The addition of clay improves the grain
composition, the water retaining ability and the workability of mortar and also increases
the density of mortar.
This type of mortar has better covering power and can be used in thin layers.
3.1.2 Lightweight and Heavy mortars
Light weight mortars:
These are prepared form light porous sands of pumice and other fine aggregates. They are
also prepared by mixing wood powder, wood shavings or saw dust with cement
mortar or lime mortar.
In such mortars, fibres of jute coir and hair, cut into pieces of suitable size, or asbestos
fibres can also be used.
These mortars have bulk density less than 15KN/m3.
Heavy weight mortars:
These are prepared from heavy quartz or other sands.
They have bulk density of 15 KN/m3 or more.
They are used in load bearing capacity.
3.1.3 Decorative mortars:
These mortars are obtained by using-
Colour cements or pigments and
Fine aggregate of appropriate color, texture and surface.
3.1.4 Air-entrained Mortar
The working qualities of lean cement-sand mortar can be improved by entraining air in
it(air serves as a plasticizer producing minute air bubbles which helps in flow
characteristics and workability)/
The air bubbles increase the volume of the binder paste and help to fill the voids in the
sand.
The air entraining also makes the mortar weight and a better heat and sound insulator.
3.1.5 Gypsum Mortar
These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding materials such as building gypsum and
anhydrite binding materials.
3.1.6 Fire Resistant Mortar
It is prepared by adding aluminous cement to a finely crushed power of fire-
bricks(Usually proportion being one part of aluminous cement to two parts of powder of
fire-bricks).
 This mortar being fire resistance, is used with fire-bricks for lining furnaces, fire places,
ovens etc.
3.1.7 Sound Absorbing mortar
These mortarts may have binging materials such as cement, lime, gypsum slag etc and
aggregate(light weight porous materials( such as pumice, cinders etc.
The bulk density of such a mortar varies from 6 to 12KN/m3.
Noise level can be reduced by using sound absorbing plaster formed with the help of
sound absorbing mortar.
3.2 Concrete Chemicals
Admixtures are used to modify the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. They
are classified as chemical and mineral admixtures. Chemical admixtures are used in construction
industry for building strong, durable and waterproof structures. Depending on their use, chemical
admixtures are used for the following four main purposes.
1. Some chemicals are mixed with concrete ingredients and spread throughout the body of
concrete to favorably modify the moulding and setting properties of the concrete mix.
Such chemicals are generally known as chemical admixtures Admixtures are added to
concrete to give it certain desirable properties in either the fresh or the hardened state.
Most admixtures result in modifying more than one intended property.
2. Some chemicals are applied on the surfaces of moulds used to form concrete to effect
easy mould-releasing operation.
3. Some chemicals are applied on the surfaces of concrete to protect it during or after its
setting.
4. Some chemicals are applied to bond or repair broken or chipped concrete.
3.2.1 Accelerators:
Accelerators reduce the setting time, generally produce early removal of forms and early setting
of concrete repair, and patch work. They are helpful in cold weather concreting. The most
common accelerator for plain concrete work Is calcium chloride (CaCl2). Its quantity in the
concrete mix is limited to 1-2% by weight of cement. The presence of CaCl2 can cause corrosion
of embedded steel. It reduces resistance against sulphate attack an may cause an alkali-aggregate
reaction. For prestressed and reinforced concrete CaC l2 cannot be used. Instead, calcium formate
is preferred as an accelerating admixture for such caoncretes. The properties and types of
accelerating admixtures are shown in fig. 3.1.

Properties

Shortens Setting Increases Early Aids Cold Weather

time Strength concreting

Types

Chloride containing Chloride-free

calcium chloride calcium formate
restricted to 1.5% for used for reinforced
plain concrete and prestressed
construction concrete members

Fig. 3.1 Accelerating Admixture

3.2.2 Retarders

Retarders increase the setting time of the concrete mix and reduce the water-cement ratio.
Usually up to 10% water reduction can be achieved. A wide range of water-reducing and set
retarding admixture s are used in ready mixed concrete. Usually, these chemicals are derived
from lignosulphonic acids and their salts, hydroxylated carboxylic acid and their salts and
sulphonated melamine or naphthalene formaldehyde.

They have a detergent like property. They work on the principle that water-reducing
agent migrate to the surface of water as shown in fig. this increases the surfaces activity and
hence imparts a soapy property to the mix and delays setting.

Properties

Surface Activity Retarding Hot weather

agent chemical activity concreting
Fig.3.2 Retarders

3.2.3 Plasticizers

A plasticizers is defined as an admixture added to wet concrete mix to impart adequate

workability properties. As shown in fig. plasticizers can be of the following three types.

1. finely divided minerals

2. air-entraining agents
3. Synthetic derivatives
 Workability Ad

Finely Divided Minerals Air-Entraining Agents Synthetic Detergents

Either cementitious or Produces Produces Soapy

pozzolanic discontinuous air action
bubbles

Fig.3.3 Types of Plasticizers

3.2.3.1 Finely divided minerals
They are either cementitious or pozzolanic. Natural cements, hydraulic lime and slag
cement belong to the former category, whereas fly ash and heat-treated clays belong to the latter.
They are used as workability aids. They help in reducing bleeding by way of adding finer
particiles to the mix.
3.2.3.2 Air-entraining agents
These help in protecting concrete subjected to repeated freeze thaw cycles. Concrete
with entrained air has higher workability and cohesiveness. Segregation and bleeding are
reduced by using air-entraining agents. These agents are generally used to ensure durability
against frost.
Air-entraining agents are derived from synthetic detergents, salts of sulphonated
lignin, fatty acids, organic salts of sulphonated hydrocarbons or salts of wood resins.
These agents create millions of tiny air bubbles which relieve the expansion pressure.
They result inn 9% increase in the volume of water, and osmotic pressure develops as water
diffuses from gel pores into the capillaries.
 The stability of the air voids between the cement gel and aggregate is also shown in the
figure. Some air-entraining agents react and produce adverse effects when used along with
accelerating ot set-retarding admixtures.
3.2.3.3 Synthetic Derivatives
Synthetic derivatives introduce soapy into the mix. These are surface-active agents and
are primarily added to increase workability. The best example of a synthetic derivative is
benezene sulphonate. Chemically they comprise the same chemicals as found in retarders and
hence they also generally retard the setting time.
These derivates may react differently with different types of cement. Hence, a careful
study of the type of cement is required before choosing a particular synthetic derivative.
3.2.3.4 Superplasticizers
Superplasticizers produce extreme workability and thus flowing concrete. They achieve
reduction in the water content without loss of workability. Their use generally leads to an overall
reduction in the cost.
Superplasticizers molecules and cement grains are oppositely charged and hence repel
each other. This increases the mobility and hence makes the concrete flow. Superplasticizers
enables savings in cement for a given strength and are ideal for pumping concrete, casting
heavily reinforced concrete members, and the precast elements of concrete.
3.3 Special Cements for accelerated Strength Gain
In repairs of certain strucutures, particularly roadways and bridges, it may be desired that
early strength gain should be as rapid as possible. The engineer may, as a first approach, consider
admixtures so that ordinary types of Portland cement can be used. The chief chemical admixture
now used for this purpose is superplasticizer.
Formerly high doses of calcium chloride were advocated but this procedure has been
rejected on the basis of corrosion, problems associated with calcium chloride use. The time of
setting of Portland cement concrete and its strength gain may be shortened by the use of calcium
aluminate cement. Because of problems associated with the conversion, under hot humid
conditions, of the calcium aluminate hydrates from one form to another, and the resultant
strength losses, other types of cements have been preferred.
Regulated set cement is a modified Portland cement which contains a substantial amount
of calcium fluoro-aluminate. The cement meal contains a substantial amount of fluorite as a
substitute for limestone. The burning process has a problem due to the release of small amounts
of fluoro compounds. When prepared and ground the initial and final set of this type of cement
occurs almost simultaneously and therefore the time between mixing and set is often referred to
as the handling time. As a rule, this varies between 2 to 45 minutes.
The strength level is adjusted by controlling the amount of calcium fluoro aluminate in the
cement. The time of set is reduced and the compressive strength gain increased in regulated
cement mortars and concrete by an increase in the cement content of the mix, reduction of the
water/cement ratio, increases temperature of the mix and increase in curing temperature.
The chemical reactions of this type of cement are much more energetic than those of
Portland cements. For that reason retardation is necessary. Conventional retarders for Portland
cement are not effective in controlling the set of regulated set cement. However, citric acid is
used in the mix as a retarder. Where practical, the setting action can be effectively controlled by
reducing the mix temperature. Such reductions in the temperature of the mix is also
advantageous, as the heat of hydration is considerably higher than that of Portland cement
concrete.
Special cements based on chemical reactions which are completely different from those of
normal Portland or similar cements are now part of the technology. These include fast-setting
magnesium phosphate and aluminium –phosphate cements, which when used for concrete
patching for pavements allow traffic flow after only 45 minutes.
3.4 Expansion cement
Concrete made with ordinary Portland cement shrinks while setting due to loss of free
water. Concrete also shrinks continuously for long time. This is known as drying shrinkage.
Cement used for grouting anchor bolts or grouting machine foundations or the cement used in
grouting the prestress concrete ducts, if shrinks, the purpose for which the grout is used will be
some extent defeated. There has been a search for such type of cement which will not shrink
while hardening and thereafter. As a matter of fact, a slight expansion with time will prove to be
advantageous for grouting purpose.
This type of cement which suffers no overall change in volume on drying is known as
expansion cement. Cement of this type has been developed by using an expanding agent and a
stabilizer very carefully. Proper material and controlled proportioning are necessary in order to
obtain the desired expansion.
 Generally, about 8-20 parts of the sulphoaluminate clinker are mixed with 100 parts of
the Portland cement and 15 parts of the stabilizer. Since expansion takes place only so long as
concrete is moist, curing must be carefully controlled. The use of expanding cement requires
skill and experience.
One type of expansive cement is known as shrinkage compensating cement. This cement
when used in concrete, with restrained expansion, induces compressive stresses which
approximately offset the tensile stress induced by shrinkage. Another similar type of cement is
known as self-stressing cement. This cement when used in concrete induces significant
compressive stresses after the drying shrinkage has occurred. The induced compressive stresses
not only compensate the shrinkage but also give some sort of prestressing effects in the tensile
zone of the flexural member.
3.5 Polymer Concrete:
Polymer concrete is an aggregate bound with a polymer binder instead of Portland cement
as in conventional concrete.
The main technique in producing PC is to minimize void volume in the aggregate mass
so as to reach the quantity of polymer needed for binding the aggregates. This is achieved by
properly grading and mixing the aggregates to attain the maximum density and minimum void
volume. The graded aggregates are prepacked and vibrated in a mould. Monomer is then diffused
up through the aggregates and polymerization is initiated by radiation or chemical means. A
silane coupling agent is added to the monomer to improve the bond strength between the
polymer and the aggregate. In case polyester resins are used no polymerization is required.
An important reason for the development of this material is the advantage it offers over
conventional concrete where the alkaline Portland cement on curing, forms internal voids. Water
can be entrapped in these voids which on freezing can readily crack the concrete. Also the
alkaline Portland cement is easily attacked by chemically aggressive materials which results in
rapid deterioration, whereas polymers can be made compact with minimum voids and are
hydrophobic and resistant to chemical attack. The strength obtained with PC can be as high as
140 MPa with a short curing method.
However, such polymer concretes tend to be brittle and it is reported that dispersion of
fiber reinforcement would improve the toughness and tensile strength of the material. The use of
fibrous polyester concrete in the compressive region of reinforced concrete beams provides a
high strength, ductile concrete at reasonable cost. Also polyester concretes are viscoelastic in
nature and will fail under sustained compressive loading at stress levels greater than 50% of the
ultimate strength. Therefore, polyester concrete should be considered for structures with a high
ratio of live load to dead load and for composite structures in which the polymer concrete may
relax during long-term loading. Experiments conducted on FPC composite beams have indicated
that they are performance effective when compared to reinforced concrete beam of equal steel
reinforcement percentage. Such beams utilize steel in the region of high tensile stress, fibrous
polyester concrete (FPC) with its favorable compressive behavior, in the regions of high
compressive stress and Portland cement concrete in the regions of relatively low flexural stress.
Advantages
Advantages of polymer concrete include:
Rapid curing at ambient temperatures
High tensile flexural, and compressive strengths
Good adhesion to most surfaces
Good long-term durability with respect to freeze and thaw cycles
Low permeability to water and aggressive solutions
Good chemical resistance
Good resistance against corrosion
Lightweight
May be used in regular wood and steel formwork
May be vibrated to fill voids in forms
Allows use of regular form-release agents
Dialectric
Disadvantages
Some safety issues arise out of the use of polymer concrete. The monomers can be
volatile, combustible, and toxic. Initiators, which are used as catalysts, are combustible and
harmful to human skin. The promoters and accelerators are also dangerous. Polymer concretes
also cost significantly more than conventional concrete.
3.6 Sulphur-Infiltrated concrete
New type of composites have been produced by the recently developed techniques of
impregnating porous materials like concrete with Sulphur. Sulphur impregnation has shown
great
improvements in strength. Physical properties have been found to improve by several hundred
% and large improvements in water impermeability and resistance to corrosion have also been
achieved.
In the past, some attempts have been made to use Sulphur as a building material instead
of cement. Sulphur is heated to bring it into molten condition to which coarse and fine
aggregates are pored and mixed together. On cooling, this mixture gave fairly good strength,
exhibited acid resistance and also other chemical resistance, but it proved to be costlier than
ordinary cement concrete.
Recently, use of Sulphur was made to impregnate lean porous concrete to improve its
and
strength other useful properties considerably. In this method, the quantity of Sulphur used is
also comparatively less and thereby the processes is made economical. It is reported that
compressive strength of about 100 MPa could be achieved in about 2 days’ time.
The following procedure has been reported in making Sulphur-Infiltrated concrete.
The concrete to be infiltrated should be produced using normal aggregate with aggregate-
cement ratios between 3:1 to 5:1 and having water-cement ratio preferably in the range 0.60 to
0.80. The infiltration procedure normally used consists of moist-curing of concrete elements for
24 hours at about 230C followed by drying (at 1210C) for a period of 24 hours, immersing dried
element in molten Sulphur at 1210C under vacuum for two hours, releasing the vacuum and
soaking for an additional half an hour, and then removing the elements from molten Sulphur to
cool. In case of low water-cement ratio, concretes which are relatively dense external pressure
may be applied following the release of vacuum to force Sulphur into concrete. The foregoing
procedure may be modified to suit individual job conditions. However, the following points
should be kept in mind.
(i) For concretes with a water-cement ratio of the order of 0.65, the one-day-old elements must
be handled with care to avoid damage.
(ii) the drying temperature should be kept as high as possible but not exceeding 1500C since a
higher temperature may damage the gel-structure of the young hydrated cement paste. The
period of drying will depend on the type and size of element.
(iii) The period of vacuum, (evacuation time) appears to be less critical than the immersion time
in molten Sulphur after evacuation. For concrete with water-cement ratio of about 0.55,
increasedimmersion time is essential to achieve full infiltration.
Durability:
Generally, the performance of Sulphur-Infiltrated concrete is satisfactory against
freezing and thawing, seawater attack and wetting and drying. The Sulphur-Infiltrated concrete is
more durable than conventional concrete in higher concentrations of H2So4 and HCl. When left
submerged in stagnant water over extended periods of time, slight leaching of Sulphur may take
place and concrete may eventually show undesirable expansion followed by some cracking. The
instability of SIC in aqueous media is apparently related to the presence of polysulphide anions
formed during infiltration and found to be highly soluble in alkaline pore solutions of wet
concrete. The polysulphide and calcium ions (dissolved from concrete) form concentrated
calcium polusulphide, a yellow orange leachate. Under moist aerated conditions, it reacts with
oxygen to form Sulphur efflorescence.
The strength properties of SIC are not significantly affected when it is exposed to short-
term temperature up to 1000C. at this temperature SIC exhibits certain amount of ductile
behavior before failure.
The magnitude of increase in abrasion resistance of SIC depends on the Sulphur loading of
the test specimens. However, the Sulphur filling of the pores in concrete provides an
uninterrupted path for heat flow resulting in increased values of thermal conductivity over that of
normal dry concrete.
The Sulphur-Infiltrated concrete provides a corrosive protection to embedded steel.
TheSulphur loading required for a given corrosion protection depends upon water-cement ratio
usedin concrete. Higher the water-cement ratio, higher the Sulphur loading required. The
minimum Sulphur loading varies from 10% for 0.70 water-cement ratio to 5% for 0.40 water-
cement ratio. Applications:
The sulphur-Infiltrateed concrete is ideally suited for precast units such as
o Patio slabs
o Sidewalks
o Kerbs and
o Sewer pipes
3. FerroCement
Ferrocement is a type of thin reinforced concrete, constructed of cement mortar reinforced
with closely spaced layers of continuous and small diameter wire mesh.
 It is well known that conventional reinforced concrete members are too heavy, brittle,
which cannot be satisfactorily repaired if damaged, develop cracks and reinforcements are liable
to be corroded. These disadvantages of normal concrete make it inefficient for certain types of
work.
Ferrocement is a relatively new material consisting of wire meshes and cement mortar. It
consists of closely spaced wire meshes which are impregnated with rich cement mortar mix. The
wire mesh is usually of 0.5 to 1.0mm dia wire at 5mm to 10mm spacing and cement mortar is of
cement sand ratio of 1:2 or 1:3 with water/cement ratio of 0.4 to 0.45. The ferrocement elements
are usually of order of 2 to 3 cm in thickness with 2 to 5mm external cover to the reinforcement.
The steel content varies between 300 kg to 500 kg per cubic metre of mortar. The basic idea
behind this material is that concrete can undergo large strains in the neighbourhood of the
reinforcement and the magnitude of stains depends on the distribution and subdivision of
reinforcement throughout of the mass of concrete.
The main advantages are simplicity of its construction, lesser dead weight of the elements
due to their small thickness, its high tensile strength, less crack widths compared to conventional
concrete, easy repairability, noncorrosive nature and easier mouldability to any required shape.
This material is more suitable to special structures like shells which have strength through forms
and structures like roofs, silos, water tanks and pipelines.
Reinforcement
Skeletal reinforcement with closely spaced wires is the most commonly used
reinforcement in ferrocement. In the ferrocement a wire mesh is required to control the cracking
and skeleton steel to support the wire mesh. Use of fine meshes with thin wires at closer spacings
for effective crack control.
3.11.1 Types of Wire mesh reinforcement used in Ferrocement:
1) Hexagonal wire mesh
2) Square mesh
3) Three dimensional mesh
3.11.1.1 Hexagonal Wire Mesh:
Meshes with hexagonal openings are called chicken wire mesh. Diameter of wires varies
Between 0.5mm to 10mm, the grid size varies between 10mm to 25mm these meshes are more
flexible and easier to work with it, which means we can make it easily into desired shape.
3.11.1.2 Square Mesh:
Square mesh is made out of straight wires in both the longitudinal and transverse
directions. Thus welded-mesh thickness is equal to two wire diameters. Welded meshes are weak
at welded spots. Diameter varies between 1mm to 1.5mm. Grid size varies between 15 to 25mm.
3.11.1.3 Three Dimensional Mesh:
A three dimensional mesh is also available. A crimpled keeper wire frictionally locks
together three alternating layers of straight wire. The mesh is sufficiently thick so that in some
applications, only one layer is required.
3.11.2 Types of mortar for ferrocement:
1. Ordinary Cement Mortar
2. High Performance Mortar
3. Lightweight Aggregate Mortar
4. Fiber Reinforced Mortar
5. Polymer Mortar
3.11.2.1 Ordinary Cement Mortar:
Portland cement is used to make ordinarily cement mortar. The filter material is usually a
well-graded sand capable of passing 2.36mm sieve. However depending upon the characteristics
of the reinforcing material mortar may contain some small-size gravel.
The mix proportion ranges of the mortar for ferrocement are sand-cement ratio by weight,
1.4 to 2.5, water-cement ratio by weight, 0.3 to 0.5.
3.11.2.2 High Performance Mortar:
This mortar is similar to conventional cement mortar but it contains mineral admixture to
produce impermeable matrix. This enhances the durability of ferrocement by providing greater
protection to the steel reinforcement. By proper selection of chemical and mineral activities and
W/C ratio, FC mortar can reduce pore size considerably and thereby achieving very high strength
levels, which are not possible conventionally.
It having comprehensive strengths in the range of 50 to 100Mpa.
3.11.2.3 Light Weight Aggregate Mortar:
It is used to construct low-cost housing, Lightweight aggregate reduces the density of the
mortar. It helps in reduction of dead load, Lightweight aggregate are introduced replacing the
sand in the mortar, Lightweight aggregates reduce the thermal conductivity.
3.11.2.4 Fiber Reinforcement Mortar Composites
Fiber reinforcement mortar composites are produced by introducing small diameter
discontinuous fibers during mixing of mortar matrices, Fibers which have been produced from
steel, carbon, glass, nylon etc in various shapes & sizes thy posses high modulus of elasticity and
lead to strong and stiff composites.
In ferrocement applications very short length of 2mm to 12mm were used to increase their
properties. The short fibers was used in the composite, with the objective of improving the crack
resistance of the matrix. Short fibers can control micro cracking before the actual mortar cracks.
The long fibers were used to improve the post cracking behavior of the composites.
The length of these fibers allows them to bridge the cracks. The fibers can then transmit the
loads from the cracked matrix to uncracked matrix, which results in more ductility of composite.
3.11.2.5 Polymer Mortar:
To overcome the disadvantage of cement mortars and concretes, such as delayed
hardening, low tensile strength, high drying shrinkage and low chemical resistance, polymer
cement or polymer modified cement mortars are being used for man industrial application in the
form of protective coating for concrete.
Polymer modified mortar is obtained by the addition of polymer material to cement mortar
during resulting in a polymer modified mortar. The polymer fills of the capillary pores makes the
concrete impermeable.
Applications
Boats Construction
Sun Screens
Cylindrical shell roof
Folded plate roof
Water tank
3.12 Fiber Reinforced Concrete
FRC can be defined as a composites material, consisting of mixtures of cement mortar or
concrete and discontinuous, discrete uniformly dispersed suitable fibers.
Fiber is a small piece of reinforcing material that can be circular or flat.
Properties of FRC:
It have more tensile strength.
 Fibers improve the impact and abrasion resistance of concrete.
It posses high compressive strength.
It posses low thermal and electrical conductivity.
Aspect ratio
The fiber is often described by a convenient parameter called “aspect ratio”. The aspect
ratio of the fiber is the ratio of its length to its diameter. Typical aspect ratio ranges from 30 to
150.
Types of Fibers:
1. Steel Fibers
2. Glass Fibers
3. Polypropylene Fibers
4. Slurry Infiltrated Fiber Concrete (SIFCON)
5. Asbestos
6. Carbon
1. Steel Fibers
Steel fiber is one of the most commonly used fiber. Generally round fibers are used. The
diameter may vary from 0.25 to 0.75mm. The steel fiber is likely to get rusted and lose some of
its strength. But investigations have shown that the rusting of the fibers take place only at the
surface. Use of steel fiber makes significant improvements in flexural, impact and fatigue
strength of concrete. It has very high tensile strength of 1700N/mm2. Steel fibers are
incorporated in the shotcrete to improve its crack resistance, ductility and energy absorption and
impact resistance characteristics.

Applications
Industrial Flooring
Warehouses
Overlays
Tunneling
2. Glass Fiber
Glass fiber is a recent introduction in making fiber concrete. It has very high tensile
strength of 1020 to 4080 N/mm2 glass fiber which is originally used in conjunction with cement
was found to be affected by alkaline condition of cement. Therefore, alkaline resistant glass fibre
by trade name “CEM-FIL” has been developed and used.
o AR glass fibers have a density that is similar to that of concrete.
o It gives better bond between the concrete matrix and the reinforcement.
o It prevents crack.
The fibers also have elastic modulus which is significantly higher than concrete. This enables the
fibers to provide an effective reinforcement during the hardened stage of concrete.
Application
Noise Barriers
Water ducts and channels
Tunnel lining
Railways.
3. Polypropylene fiber:
They are having good resistance against shrinkage and temperature cracks. It is having low
modulus. They have longer elongation under a given load, which means they can absorb more
energy without fracture.
The low modulus fibers can be combined with steel fibers which is the latest trend what we
call hybrid technology. Its applicable for structure exposed to atmosphere. These fibers can take
care of the drying shrinkage where as steel cannot perform in wet condition.
Applications:
Area of application: Polypropylene fibers can be used for slabs on grade, airport,
highways, pavement, parking areas, bridge deck overlays, sewer pipes, precast concrete
products.

4. Slurry infiltrated fiber Concrete (SIFCON)

SIFCON is a high-strength, high performance concrete. It contains high volume

percentage of steel fibers. It is also called as high-volume fibrous concrete. The volume of steel
varies from 4 to 20 percent. SIFCON has no coarse aggregates. It contains fine sand and
additives such as fly ash, micro-silica and latex emulsions. Proportions of cement and sand
generally used for making SIFCON are 1:1, 1:1.5, or 1:2. Cement slurry alone can also be used
for some application. Generally, fly ash or silica fume equal to 10% to 15% by weight of cement
is used in the mix. The water cement ratio varies between 0.3 to 0.4.
Applications:
Proportions like ductility, crack resistance and penetration and impact resistance are very
high for SIFCON when compared to other materials, it is best suited for application in the
following areas.
Overlays, bridge decks
Seismic resistance structures
Precast concrete products
Military applications such anti-missile hangers, under-ground shelters
Aerospace launching platforms
Repair, rehabilitation and strengthening of structures
Concrete mega-structures such as offshore and long-span structures, solar towers etc.
5. Compact Reinforces Concrete (CRC)
CRC is a mixer of cementitious content and fine steel fibers and further reinforced with a
high concentration of continuous and uniformly placed larger steel bars. CRC has structural
similarities with reinforces concrete, but is much more heavily reinforced and exhibits
mechanical behavior more like that of structural steel, having almost the same strength and
extremely high ductility.
Applications:
It is best suited for the applications in the following areas:
Load carrying parts in large machines.
Special high-performance joints in conventional steel.

6. Asbestos
Asbestos is mineral fiber and has proved to be most successful of all fibers as it can be
mixed with Portland cement. Tensile strength of asbestos varies between 560 to 980N/mm2. The
composite product called asbestos cement has considerably higher flexural strength than the
Portland cement paste. For unimportant fiber concrete, organic fibers like coir, jute, cane splits
are also used.
Applications
Sheet pipe, boards, sewer pipes, wall lining etc.
7. Carbon:
Carbon fibers perhaps posses very high tensile strength 2110 to 2815 N/mm2 and young‟s
modulus. It has been reported that cement composite made with carbon fiber as reinforcement
will have very high modulus of elasticity and flexural strength. Carbon fibers concrete are used
to construct structures like cladding, panels and shells.