CH 12 ATOMS

REMEDIAL CLASS

Postulates of Bohr’s Theory

Q1 State Bohr’s quantization condition for defining stationary orbits.

OR

State Bohr postulate of hydrogen atom that gives the relationship for the frequency of
emitted photon in a transition.

(i) Stationary Circular Orbits: In an atom electron revolve around the nucleus in
certain orbits called stationary orbits.
(ii) Quantum Condition: The stationary orbits are those in which angular
momentum of electron is an integral multiple of h/2π

L = mvr = nh/ 2π where n = 1, 2, 3,...

This equation is called Bohr’s quantum condition.

(iii) Transitions: The electron does not radiate energy when in a stationary orbit. The
quantum of energy is emitted or absorbed when an electron jumps from one
stationary orbit to the other. The frequency of emitted or absorbed photon is
given by hν = |Ei –Ef|
This is called Bohr’s frequency condition.

Q2 Using Bohr’s postulates, obtain the expression for the total energy of the
electron in the stationary states of the hydrogen atom. Hence draw the energy
level diagram showing how the line spectra corresponding to Balmer series
occur due to transition between energy levels.
For hydrogen atom Z =1 and first orbit n = 1

Substituting the value of rn

If these energies are expressed by vertical lines on proper scale, the diagram obtained is
called the energy level diagram.

Hydrogen Spectrum Hydrogen emission spectrum consists of 5 series.

(i) Lyman series: This lies in ultraviolet region.

(ii) Balmer series: This lies in the visible region.
(iii) Paschen series: This lies in infrared region.
(iv) Brackett series: This lies in infrared region.
(v) Pfund series: This lies in infrared region.
Hydrogen absorption spectrum consists of only Lyman series
 QUE 3

Impact Parameter: The perpendicular distance of initial velocity vector of α-particle from
the nucleus, when the particle is far away from the nucleus, is called the impact parameter.
It is denoted by b. For head on approach of α-particle, b = 0.

Angle of Scattering (φ) : The angle by which α-particle is deviated from its original direction
is called angle of scattering.

Distance of Closest Approach The smallest distance of approach of α-particle near heavy
nucleus is a measure of the size of nucleus.

Q4 State Bohr’s postulate to define stable orbits in hydrogen atom. How does de Broglie’s
hypothesis explain the stability of these orbits?
QUE 5

Geiger-Marsden’s α-particle Scattering Experiment, WRITE OBSERVATIONS AND

CONCLUSION.

Observations:

(i) Most of the α-particles pass through the gold foil undeflected.
(ii) A very small number of α-particles (1 in 8000) suffered large angle deflection
(iii) some of them retraced their path or suffered 180° deflection.

Conclusion:

(i) Atom is hollow.

 (ii) Entire positive charge and nearly whole mass of atom is concentrated in a small
centre called nucleus of atom.
(iii) Coulomb’s law holds good for atomic distances.
(iv) Negatively charged electrons are outside the nucleus.

CH 13 Nuclie

REMEDIAL CLASS

Q1

Q2Define mass defect. Obtain the Binding energy in given condition.

Mass Defect It is observed that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the mass of
constituent nucleons (i.e., protons + neutrons). This difference of mass is called the mass
defect. Let (Z, A) be the mass of nucleus, mp = the mass of proton and mn = mass of
neutron, then the mass defect
Q3 Draw the graph showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon with the mass
number for a large number of nuclei 2< A < 240. What are the main inferences from the
graph? How do you explain the constancy of binding energy in the range 30 < A < 170
using the property that the nuclear force is short-ranged? Explain with the help of this plot
the release of energy in the processes of nuclear fission and fusion.

Inferences from graph

1. The nuclei having mass number below 20 and above 180 have relatively small binding
energy and hence they are unstable.
2. The nuclei having mass number 56 and about 56 have maximum binding energy – 8·8
MeV and so they are most stable.

3. Some nuclei have peaks, e.g He, C, O , indicates that these nuclei are relatively more
stable than their neighbours.

(i) Explanation of constancy of binding energy: Nuclear force is short ranged, so every
nucleon interacts with its neighbours only, therefore binding energy per nucleon remains
constant.

(ii) Explanation of nuclear fission: When a heavy nucleus (A ≥ 235 say) breaks into two
lighter nuclei (nuclear fission), the BE per nucleon increases i.e, nucleons get more tightly
bound. This implies that energy would be released in nuclear fission.

(iv) Explanation of nuclear fusion: When two very light nuclei (A ≤ 10) join to form a
heavy nucleus, the BE per nucleon of heavier nucleus more than the BE per
nucleon of lighter nuclei, so again energy would be released in nuclear fusion.

Q4 State Mass Energy Equivalence and obtain energy of 1 kg of mass.

CH 14 SEMICONDUCTORS REMEDIAL CLASS

Q1 Draw energy band diagrams of an n-type and p-type semiconductor at temperature T >
0 K. Mark the donor and acceptor energy levels with their energies.
Q2 Draw the necessary energy band diagrams to distinguish between conductors,
semiconductors and insulators.

Distinguishing features:

(a) In conductors: Valence band and conduction band overlap each other. In
semiconductors: Valence band and conduction band are separated by a small energy gap. In
insulators: They are separated by a large energy gap.

(b) In conductors: Large number of free electrons are available in conduction band. In
semiconductors: A very small number of electrons are available for electrical conduction. In
insulators: Conduction band is almost empty i.e., no electron is available for conduction.

Q3 How does the change in temperature affect the behaviour of these materials? Explain
briefly.

Effect of Temperature:

(i) In conductors: At high temperature, the collision of electrons become more

frequent with the atoms/molecules in the metals as a result the conductivity
decreases (or resistivity increases).
(ii) In semiconductors: As the temperature of the semiconducting material increases,
more electron hole pairs becomes available in the conduction band and valance
band, and hence the conductivity increases or the resistivity decreases.
(iii) In insulators: The energy band between conduction band and valance band is very
large, so it is unsurpassable for small temperature rise. So, there is no change in
their behaviour.
Q4 Draw the circuit arrangement for studying the V–I characteristics of a p-n junction
diode (i) in forward bias and (ii) in reverse bias and explain effect on output current.

Forward biased: When p-side of diode is connected by positive terminal and n-side is
connected by negative terminal of external voltage. The direction of applied voltage (V) is
opposite to the barrier potential (V0). As a result, the depletion layer width decreases and the
barrier height is reduced. Hence current flows in forward bias.

Reverse biased: When n-side of diode is connected by positive terminal and p-side is
connected by negative terminal of external voltage. the direction of applied voltage is same
as the direction of barrier potential. As a result, the barrier height increases and the depletion
region widens due to the change in the electric field. The effective barrier height under
reverse bias is (V0+V), hence no current flows in reverse bias.
Q5 Draw the typical V–I characteristics of a silicon diode. Describe briefly the following
terms: (i) threshold voltage or cut-in voltage in forward bias (ii) “breakdown voltage” in
reverse bias.

In forward bias, the current first increases very slowly, almost negligibly, till the voltage
across the diode crosses a certain value. After this, the diode current increases significantly
(exponentially), even for a very small increase in the diode bias voltage. This voltage is called
the threshold voltage or cut-in voltage (~0.2V for germanium diode and ~0.7 V for silicon
diode).

in reverse bias, the current is very small (~mA) and almost remains constant with change in
bias. It is called reverse saturation current This saturation current is due to the diffusion of
minority charge particles. At very high reverse bias the current suddenly increases and
independent of applied voltage called break down voltage.

Q6 State the principle of working of p-n diode as a rectifier. Explain with the help of a
circuit diagram, the use of p-n diode as a full wave rectifier. Draw a sketch of the input
and output waveforms.

Rectification: Rectification means conversion of ac into dc. A p-n diode acts as a rectifier
because convert an AC into pulsating DC and a p-n diode allows the current to pass only
when it is forward biased. This makes the diode suitable for rectification.

Working : write in short as explained in class.

Q7 Name the important process that occurs during the formation of a p-n junction.
Explain briefly, with the help of a suitable diagram, how a p-n junction is formed. Define
the term ‘barrier potential’ and DEPLETION LAYER

Ans. Drift and Diffusion are the important process that occurs during the formation of a p-n
junction

Potential barrier: During the formation of a p-n junction the electrons diffuse from n-region
to p-region and holes diffuse from p-region to n-region. This forms recombination of charge
carriers. In this process immobile positive ions are collected at a junction toward n-region
and negative ions at a junction toward p-region. This causes a potential difference across
the unbiased junction. This is called potential barrier.

Depletion region: It is a layer formed near the junction which has no free charge carriers
called depletion layer. Its thickness is about 1 µm.
 CH 11 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

Q1 Name the phenomenon which shows the quantum nature of electromagnetic

radiation.Define the terms (i) ‘cut-off voltage’ and (ii) ‘threshold frequency’ in relation to
the phenomenon.

“Photoelectric effect” shows the quantum nature of electromagnetic radiation.

(i) Cut off or stopping potential is that minimum value of negative potential at
anode which just stops the photo electric current.
(ii) For a given material, there is a minimum frequency of light below which no
photo electric emission will take place, this frequency is called as threshold
frequency.

Q2 Explain the effect of (i) intensity of light on photoelectric current, (ii) potential on
photoelectric current and (iii) frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential.

Q3 Draw graphs showing the variation of photoelectric current with anode potential of a
photocell for (i) same frequency but different intensities I1 > I2 > I3 of incident radiation.
(ii) same intensity but different frequency υ1 > υ2 > υ3 of incident radiation. Explain why
the saturation current is independent of the anode potential for incident radiation of
different frequencies but same intensity.

Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation. State clearly the three salient features observed
in photoelectric effect which can explain on the basis of this equation.
WHAT ARE MATTER WAVES? EXPRESS ITS WAVELENGTH IN TERMS OF MOMENTUM AND
KINETIC ENERGY?