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UNIT 1 THEOY PART

Electrical Circuit Terms and

Elements Circuit Terms:
Mesh:
A mesh is a closed loop within a circuit that does not contain any other loops inside it. It is the
smallest possible loop in a planar circuit. Mesh analysis is used to nd currents in such loops.

Loop:
A loop is any closed path in a circuit. A loop can consist of multiple meshes. It represents a path
where the starting and ending points are the same.

Node:
A node is a point in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected. It is a junction of
multiple components, such as resistors, capacitors, or voltage sources.

Branch:
A branch refers to a single element or a set of elements (such as resistors, voltage sources)
connected between two nodes in a circuit. A branch represents a path between two nodes.

Junction of a Network:
A junction is a point where three or more circuit elements meet. In analysis, it is important to apply
Kirchho ’s Current Law (KCL) at each junction, stating that the sum of currents entering a junction
is equal to the sum of currents leaving the junction.

Sources:
Ideal Voltage Source:
An ideal voltage source provides a constant voltage regardless of the current drawn by the load. It
is represented as a two-terminal device with a xed voltage di erence between its terminals,
independent of the current.

Practical Voltage Source:

A practical voltage source, unlike an ideal voltage source, has an internal resistance. The voltage
supplied decreases as the current increases due to this internal resistance.

Ideal Current Source:

An ideal current source provides a constant current regardless of the voltage across it. It
maintains the same current even if the load or external circuit changes.

Practical Current Source:

A practical current source is similar to the ideal current source but has an internal resistance or
limitations that cause the current to change when the voltage or load changes.

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Source Transformation:
Source transformation is a method of simplifying circuits by replacing a voltage source in series
with a resistor with a current source in parallel with the same resistor, and vice versa. This
transformation helps to simplify analysis and solve circuit problems e ciently.

Classi cation of Elements:

Active Elements:
Active elements are components that can supply energy to the circuit. These include sources like
voltage and current sources (ideal and practical), transistors, and operational ampli ers. They
have the ability to generate or supply energy to the network.

Passive Elements:
Passive elements are components that cannot generate energy; they only dissipate or store
energy. Common passive elements include resistors, capacitors, inductors, and diodes.

Unilateral Elements:
Unilateral elements are those that allow current to ow in only one direction. Examples include
diodes and transistors, which typically allow current in one direction and block it in the opposite
direction.

Bilateral Elements:
Bilateral elements can allow current to ow in both directions. These elements behave identically
in either direction of current ow, such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

Linear Elements:
Linear elements have a linear relationship between voltage and current, which means their
voltage-current (V-I) characteristics are a straight line. Examples include resistors, inductors, and
capacitors (under normal conditions).

Nonlinear Elements:
Nonlinear elements do not have a linear relationship between voltage and current. Their V-I
characteristics are not a straight line, meaning the current does not change linearly with voltage.
Examples include diodes, transistors, and certain types of

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Unit 2 THEORY PART

Here’s an explanation of the theorems along with their steps and descriptions of their circuit
diagrams:

1. Superposition Theorem
De nition: In a linear circuit with multiple independent sources, the voltage or current at any point
is the sum of the e ects of each source acting alone.

Steps to Apply:
Deactivate all independent sources except one:

Replace voltage sources with a short circuit (0 V).

Replace current sources with an open circuit (0 A).

Analyze the circuit to nd the contribution of the active source.

Repeat for all sources.

Sum up the contributions from all sources.

Circuit Diagram:

Original circuit with multiple independent sources.

Circuit analyzed with only one source active (repeat for others).

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Final superimposed result showing combined contributions.

2. Thevenin’s Theorem
De nition: Any two-terminal linear circuit can be replaced with an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source (VthV_{th}) in series with a resistor (RthR_{th}).

Steps to Apply:
Remove the load resistor across the terminals.

Find VthV_{th}:

The open-circuit voltage across the terminals.

Find RthR_{th}:

Deactivate all independent sources (short voltage sources, open current sources).

Calculate equivalent resistance across the terminals.

Rebuild the equivalent circuit:

Connect VthV_{th} in series with RthR_{th}, and reattach the load.

Circuit Diagram:

Original circuit with load.

Simpli ed equivalent circuit showing VthV_{th} and RthR_{th} in series.

3. Norton’s Theorem
De nition: Any two-terminal linear circuit can be replaced with an equivalent circuit consisting of a
current source (INI_{N}) in parallel with a resistor (RNR_{N}).

Steps to Apply:
Remove the load resistor across the terminals.

Find INI_N:

The short-circuit current across the terminals.

Find RNR_N:

Equivalent resistance across the terminals (same process as RthR_{th} in Thevenin).

Rebuild the equivalent circuit:

Connect INI_N in parallel with RNR_N, and reattach the load.

Circuit Diagram:

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Original circuit with load.

Equivalent circuit showing INI_N and RNR_N in parallel.

4. Maximum Power Transfer

Theorem
De nition: A load resistor (RLR_L) receives maximum power when it matches the Thevenin
resistance (RthR_{th}) of the circuit.

Steps to Apply:
Find the Thevenin equivalent (VthV_{th}, RthR_{th}) of the circuit.

Set RL=RthR_L = R_{th}.

Calculate maximum power using: Pmax=(Vth)24RthP_{\text{max}} = \frac{(V_{th})^2}{4R_{th}}

Circuit Diagram:

Circuit with load and sources.

Equivalent circuit showing VthV_{th}, RthR_{th}, and RL=RthR_L = R_{th}.

Would you like me to generate images for these circuit diagrams or further explain the numerical
problems?

Unit 03 theory part

📘 Detailed Notes on AC Theories with De nitions and Diagrams

1. Representation of AC
Quantities by Phasor Method
📌 De nition:

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In the phasor method, AC quantities (voltage and current) are represented as rotating vectors on a
complex plane instead of time-dependent sinusoidal waves.

Components of a Phasor:

Magnitude:

Represents the peak or RMS value of the AC signal.

Phase Angle (θ\theta):

Shows the time delay or lead between voltage and current.

Formula:

If V(t)=V0cos(ωt+ϕ)V(t) = V_0 \cos(\omega t + \phi):

In Phasor form, it’s written as V0ejϕV_0 e^{j\phi}.

Circuit Diagram (Text Representation):

Voltage (V) --------→ Phasor (Vector) |Magnitude|------→ Angle (θ)

A 90-degree rotation on the diagram represents a phase di erence.

2. Conversion of Polar to
Rectangular and Vice Versa
📌 Polar to Rectangular Conversion
In polar form, we describe a phasor by magnitude rr and phase θ\theta.

Formula to Convert Polar to Rectangular:

Real Part: x=rcos(θ)x = r \cos(\theta)

Imaginary Part: y=rsin(θ)y = r \sin(\theta)

So, a polar form r∠θr \angle \theta becomes:

Rectangular:x+jy\text{Rectangular:} \quad x + jy

📌 Rectangular to Polar Conversion

Magnitude rr:

r=x2+y2r = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2}

Angle θ\theta:

θ=tan−1(yx)\theta = \tan^{-1}\left(\frac{y}{x}\right)

3. RL, RC, RLC Series and Parallel Circuits


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🔹 RL Series Circuit
An RL circuit contains a resistor (R) and an inductor (L) connected in series.

Impedance Formula:

ZRL=R+jωLZ_{RL} = R + j\omega L

Where ω=2πf\omega = 2\pi f (angular frequency).

🔹 RC Series Circuit
An RC circuit contains a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C) connected in series.

Impedance Formula:

ZRC=R−j1ωCZ_{RC} = R - j\frac{1}{\omega C}

🔹 RLC Series Circuit

Contains resistor (R), inductor (L), and capacitor (C) in series.

Total Impedance Formula:

ZRLC=R+j(ωL−1ωC)Z_{RLC} = R + j\left(\omega L - \frac{1}{\omega C}\right)

🔹 Parallel Components (RL, RC, RLC)

In a parallel combination, impedances are combined using:

1Ztotal=1Z1+1Z2+…\frac{1}{Z_{total}} = \frac{1}{Z_1} + \frac{1}{Z_2} + \ldots

📌 Circuit Diagram (Text Representation for RL Series)

Voltage Source → Resistor (R) → Inductor (L)

4. Impedance, Admittance, and Reactance

📌 Impedance (ZZ)
De nition: Total opposition to AC current, represented as a complex number (magnitude and
phase).

For di erent elements:

Resistor RR: ZR=RZ_R = R

Inductor LL: XL=jωLX_L = j\omega L

Capacitor CC: XC=1jωCX_C = \frac{1}{j\omega C}


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📌 Admittance (YY)
De nition: Reciprocal of impedance.

Formula

Y=1ZY = \frac{1}{Z}

Measured in Siemens (S).

📌 Reactance
Inductive Reactance (XLX_L):

XL=ωLX_L = \omega L

Capacitive Reactance (XCX_C):

XC=1ωCX_C = \frac{1}{\omega C}

📌 Phasor Diagrams
Visual representation of current and voltage phase relationships.

5. Power in AC Circuits
📌 Power Factor (cos(ϕ)\cos(\phi))
Shows how voltage and current phases align.

📌 Active Power (PP)

Formula:

P=V×I×cos(ϕ)P = V \times I \times \cos(\phi)

Measured in Watts (W).

📌 Reactive Power (QQ)

Formula:

Q=V×I×sin(ϕ)Q = V \times I \times \sin(\phi)

Measured in VAR (Volt-Amperes Reactive).

📌 Apparent Power (SS)


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Formula:

S=V×IS = V \times I

Measured in VA (Volt-Amperes).

📌 Power Triangle
A right triangle:

Base: Active Power PP.

Height: Reactive Power QQ.

Hypotenuse: Apparent Power SS.

6. Resonance in AC Circuits, Bandwidth, and Q Factor

📌 Resonance in AC Circuits
Occurs when inductive and capacitive reactances cancel each other out (XL=XCX_L = X_C).

At resonance, impedance is minimal, and current is maximized.

📌 Bandwidth (Δf\Delta f)
The di erence in frequencies at which power drops to half its peak value.

📌 Q Factor (Quality Factor)

Describes the sharpness of resonance in an RLC circuit.

Formula:

Q=f0ΔfQ = \frac{f_0}{\Delta f}

Higher Q → Sharper resonance peak and narrower bandwidth.

Conclusion
Phasor Methods simplify complex AC circuit analysis.

Understanding impedance, reactance, and power calculations is crucial for e ective circuit
analysis.

In resonance circuits, mastering the concepts of bandwidth and quality factor ensures optimal
performance and stability.

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