Lecture 3- Modulation techniques

Modulation techniques
Encoding and Modulation
2
Modulation
◼ Modulation is the process of converting data
into electrical signals optimized for
transmission.
◼ Modulation techniques are roughly divided
into four types:
❑ Analog modulation,
❑ Digital modulation,
❑ Pulse modulation, and
❑ Spread spectrum method.
3
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
◼ Digital data, digital signal
❑ Equipment less complex and expensive than
digital-to-analog modulation equipment
◼ Analog data, digital signal
❑ Permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
◼ Digital data, analog signal
❑ Some transmission media will only propagate
analog signals
❑ E.g., optical fiber and unguided media
◼ Analog data, analog signal
❑ Analog data in electrical form can be transmitted
easily and cheaply
❑ Done with voice transmission over voice-grade
lines
Key Data Transmission Terms
6
Signal Encoding Criteria
◼ What determines how successful a receiver will

be in interpreting an incoming signal?
❑ Signal-to-noise ratio
❑ Data rate
❑ Bandwidth
◼ An increase in data rate increases bit error rate
◼ An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
◼ An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in
data rate
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
◼ Signal spectrum
❑ With lack of high-frequency components, less
bandwidth required
❑ With no dc component, ac coupling via transformer
possible
❑ Transfer function of a channel is worse near band
edges
◼ Clocking
❑ Ease of determining beginning and end of each bit
position
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
◼ Signal interference and noise immunity
❑ Performance in the presence of noise
◼ Cost and complexity
❑ The higher the signal rate to achieve a given data rate,
the greater the cost
Basic Encoding Techniques
◼ Digital data to analog signal

❑ Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
◼ Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
❑ Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
◼ Frequency difference near carrier frequency
❑ Phase-shift keying (PSK)
◼ Phase of carrier signal shifted
Digital to Analog Conversion
◼ Digital data needs to be carried on an

analog signal.
◼ A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the
function of transporting the digital data in
an analog waveform.
◼ The analog carrier signal is manipulated to
uniquely identify the digital data being
carried.
5.11
Digital-to-analog conversion
5.12
Types of digital-to-analog conversion
5.13
Note
5.14
Example
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If

1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the bit
rate.
Solution
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We can
find the value of N from
5.15
Example
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud

rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are
carried by each signal element? How many signal
elements do we need?
Solution
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are
unknown. We find first the value of r and then the value
of L.
5.16
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
◼ ASK is implemented by changing the
amplitude of a carrier signal to reflect
amplitude levels in the digital signal.
◼ For example: a digital “1” could not affect the
signal, whereas a digital “0” would, by making
it zero.
◼ The line encoding will determine the values of
the analog waveform to reflect the digital data
being carried.
5.17
Bandwidth of ASK
◼ The bandwidth B of ASK is proportional to

the signal rate S.
B = (1+d)S
◼ “d” is due to modulation and filtering, lies
between 0 and 1.
5.18
Binary amplitude shift keying
5.19
Implementation of binary ASK
5.20
Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which

spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using ASK with d = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This
means that our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz.
We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate
(with d = 1 and r = 1).
5.21
Example 5.4
In data communications, we normally use full-duplex

links with communication in both directions. We need
to divide the bandwidth into two with two carrier
frequencies, as shown in Figure 5.5. The figure shows
the positions of two carrier frequencies and the
bandwidths. The available bandwidth for each
direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data
rate of 25 kbps in each direction.
5.22
Figure 5.5 Bandwidth of full-duplex ASK used in Example 5.4
5.23
Frequency Shift Keying
◼ The digital data stream changes the

frequency of the carrier signal, fc.
◼ For example, a “1” could be represented
by f1=fc +f, and a “0” could be
represented by f2=fc-f.
5.24
Figure 5.6 Binary frequency shift keying
5.25
Bandwidth of FSK
◼ If the difference between the two

frequencies (f1 and f2) is 2f, then the
required BW B will be:
B = (1+d)xS +2f
5.26
Example 5.5
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which

spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using FSK with d = 1?
Solution
This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are
modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of the band is at
250 kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50 kHz; this means
5.27
Coherent and Non-Coherent
◼ In a non-coherent FSK scheme, when we

change from one frequency to the other,
we do not adhere to the current phase of
the signal.
◼ In coherent FSK, the switch from one
frequency signal to the other only occurs
at the same phase in the signal.
5.28
Multi level FSK
◼ Similarly to ASK, FSK can use multiple bits

per signal element.
◼ That means we need to provision for
multiple frequencies, each one to
represent a group of data bits.
◼ The bandwidth for FSK can be higher
B = (1+d)xS + (L-1)/2f = LxS
5.29
Figure 5.7 Bandwidth of MFSK used in Example 5.6
5.30
Example 5.6
We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3

Mbps. The carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the
number of levels (different frequencies), the baud rate,
and the bandwidth.
Solution
We can have L = 23 = 8. The baud rate is S = 3 Mbps/3 =
1 Mbaud. This means that the carrier frequencies must be
1 MHz apart (2Δf = 1 MHz). The bandwidth is B = 8 ×
1M = 8M. Figure 5.8 shows the allocation of frequencies
and bandwidth.
5.31
Figure 5.8 Bandwidth of MFSK used in Example 5.6
5.32
Phase Shift Keyeing
◼ We vary the phase shift of the carrier

signal to represent digital data.
◼ The bandwidth requirement, B is:
B = (1+d)xS
◼ PSK is much more robust than ASK as it is
not that vulnerable to noise, which
changes amplitude of the signal.
5.33
Figure 5.9 Binary phase shift keying
5.34
Figure 5.10 Implementation of BASK
5.35
Quadrature PSK
◼ To increase the bit rate, we can code 2 or

more bits onto one signal element.
◼ In QPSK, we parallelize the bit stream so that
every two incoming bits are split up and PSK
a carrier frequency. One carrier frequency is
phase shifted 90o from the other - in
quadrature.
◼ The two PSKed signals are then added to
produce one of 4 signal elements. L = 4 here.
5.36
Figure 5.11 QPSK and its implementation
5.37
Example 5.7
Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12

Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0.
Solution
For QPSK, 2 bits is carried by one signal element. This
means that r = 2. So the signal rate (baud rate) is S = N ×
(1/r) = 6 Mbaud. With a value of d = 0, we have B = S = 6
MHz.
5.38
Constellation Diagrams
◼ A constellation diagram helps us to define

the amplitude and phase of a signal when
we are using two carriers, one in
quadrature of the other.
◼ The X-axis represents the in-phase carrier
and the Y-axis represents quadrature
carrier.
5.39
Figure 5.12 Concept of a constellation diagram
5.40
Example 5.8
Show the constellation diagrams for an ASK (OOK),

BPSK, and QPSK signals.
Solution
Figure 5.13 shows the three constellation diagrams.
5.41
Figure 5.13 Three constellation diagrams
5.42
Note
Quadrature amplitude modulation is a combination of ASK and PSK.
5.43
Figure 5.14 Constellation diagrams for some QAMs
5.44
Performance
◼ Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)

❑ ASK, PSK BT=(1+r)R
❑ FSK BT=2F+(1+r)R
◼ R = bit rate
◼ 0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered
◼ F = f2-fc=fc-f1
Performance
◼ Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)

1+ r   1+ r 
❑ MPSK BT =   R =   R
 L   log 2 M 
 (1 + r )M 
❑ MFSK
BT =   R
 log 2 M 
◼ L = number of bits encoded per signal element

◼ M = number of different signal elements
Minimum-Shift Keying (MSK)
◼ MFSK can be considered to be a form of

BFSK. For MFSK, the transmitted signal for
one bit time is:
where Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit, and Tb is the bit
duration.

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Modulation techniques

Encoding and Modulation

◼ What determines how successful a receiver will

◼ Digital data to analog signal

◼ Digital data needs to be carried on an

An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If

An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud

◼ The bandwidth B of ASK is proportional to

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which

In data communications, we normally use full-duplex

◼ The digital data stream changes the

◼ If the difference between the two

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which

◼ In a non-coherent FSK scheme, when we

◼ Similarly to ASK, FSK can use multiple bits

We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3

◼ We vary the phase shift of the carrier

◼ To increase the bit rate, we can code 2 or

Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12

◼ A constellation diagram helps us to define

Show the constellation diagrams for an ASK (OOK),

◼ Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)

◼ Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)

◼ L = number of bits encoded per signal element

◼ MFSK can be considered to be a form of

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