Unit - 3

Analog Transmission
and
Multiplexing
 Chapter-5

Analog Transmission

1. Digital-to-Analog Conversion
2. Analog-to-Analog Conversion
Digital-to-analog conversion:

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of

changing one of the characteristics of an analog
signal based on the information in digital data.
Types of digital-to-analog conversion:
 Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
- Data element Vs Signal Element
- Data Rate Vs Signal rate

 Relationship between them is:

S = N X 1/ r baud
N = data rate (bps)
r = no. of data elements carried in one signal
element.

Note:
Value of r in analog transmission is r = log2 L.
L = type of signal element.(Not the level)
 Bit rate is the number of bits per second.

 Baud rate is the number of signal

elements per second.

 In the analog transmission of digital

data, the baud rate  bit rate.
Example 5.1
 An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal
element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per
second, find the bit rate.

Example 5.2

 An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and

a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many data
elements are carried by each signal element?
How many signal elements do we need?
Carrier signal
 A high-frequency signal that acts as a base for
the information signal is called the carrier signal
or carrier frequency.
 The receiving device is tuned to the frequency of
the carrier signal that it expects from the sender.
 Digital information then changes the carrier
signal by modifying one or more of its
characteristics (amplitude, frequency or phase).
 This kind of modification is called modulation
(shift keying).
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
to create signal elements.
 Both frequency and phase remain constant while
the amplitude changes.
Binary ASK (BASK)

 ASK is normally implemented using only two levels.

 This is refers to as binary amplitude shift keying or

on-off keying (OOK).

 The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0; the

other is the same as the amplitude of the carrier
frequency
Figure 5.3 Binary amplitude shift keying
Bandwidth of ASK

 Although the carrier signal is only one simple

sine wave, the processes of modulation
produces a non-periodic composite signal.

 This signal has continuous frequencies.

 Bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate.

 Another factor: d – depends on modulation &

filtering process. Value is between 0 and 1.

 So bandwidth expressed as B = (1+d) x S

 The formula shows that the required bandwidth
has a minimum value of S and a maximum value
of 2S.

 Imp: The location of the bandwidth.

 The middle of the bandwidth is where fc the

carrier frequency, is located.

 This means if we have a bandpass channel

available, we can choose our fc so that the
modulated signal occupies that bandwidth.

 This is in fact the most important advantage of

digital -to- analog conversion.
Figure 5.4 Implementation of binary ASK
Example 5.3

 We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz

which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the
carrier frequency and the bit rate if we
modulated our data by using ASK with d =1?
Example 5.4

 In data communications, we normally use full-

duplex links with communication in both
directions. We need to divide the bandwidth into
two with two carrier frequencies

 The available bandwidth for each direction is

now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data rate of
25 kbps in each direction.
Frequency Shift Keying

 In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the

carrier signal is varied to represent data.

 Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant

for all signal elements.
Binary FSK (BFSK)
 Two carrier frequencies
f1 – used if the data element is 0
f2 – used if the data element is 1
 Normally carrier frequencies are very high and
the difference between them is very small
 As Figure 5.6 shows, the middle of one
bandwidth is f1 and the middle of the other is f2.
Both f1 and f2 are f apart from the midpoint
between the two bands.
 The difference between the two frequencies
is 2f
Binary FSK
Bandwidth for BFSK

 We can think of FSK as two ASK signals, each

with its own carrier frequency (f1 and f2).
 If the difference between the two frequencies is
2f, then the required bandwidth is
B = (1 + d ) x S + 2f
BFSK: Example

 We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz

which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should
be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we
modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1?
Implementation

 Two implementations of BFSK:

Non-coherent and Coherent.

 Non-coherent BFSK – In this there may be

discontinuity in the phase when one signal
element ends and the next begins.

 Can be implemented by treating BFSK as two

ASK modulations and using two carrier
frequencies.
Non-coherent FSK Coherent FSK
 Coherent BFSK – In this, the phase continues
through the boundary of two signal elements.

 Can be implemented by using one voltage

controlled oscillator (VCO) that changes its
frequency according to the input voltage.

 The input to the oscillator is the unipolar NRZ

signal.

 When the amplitude of NRZ is zero, the

oscillator keeps its regular frequency; when the
amplitude is positive, the frequency is increased.
Implementation of Coherent Binary FSK
Multilevel FSK
 MFSK is not uncommon with the FSK method. We can
use more than two frequencies.

 For example, we can use four different frequencies

f1,f2,f3 & f4 to send 2 bits at a time.

 To send 3 bits at a time, we can use eight frequencies,

and so on.

 However, we need to remember that the frequencies

need to be 2Δf apart.

 For the proper operation of the modulator and

demodulator, it can be shown that the minimum value of
2Δf needs to be S.
Phase Shift Keying

 In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is

varied to represent two or more different signal
elements.

 Both peak amplitude and frequency remain

constant as the phase changes.

 Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK.

Binary PSK (BPSK)
 The simplest PSK is binary PSK.

 In BPSK we have only two signal elements, one

with a phase of 0°, and the other with a phase of
180°.

 As simple as binary ASK- advantage - it is less

susceptible to noise.

 In ASK, the criterion for bit detection is the

amplitude of the signal; In PSK, the criterion for bit
detection is the phase.

 PSK is superior to FSK because no need of two

carrier signals.
PSK: Binary PSK

 Bandwidth : the same as BASK, B = (1 + d) x S

Implementation of Binary PSK

 The polar NRZ signal is multiplied by the carrier

frequency;
 The 1 bit (positive voltage) is represented by a
phase starting at 0°; the 0 bit (negative voltage)
is represented by a phase starting at 180°.
Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
 The scheme is called quadrature PSK or QPSK
because it uses two separate BPSK modulations;
one is in-phase, the other quadrature (out-of-
phase).

 The incoming bits are first passed through a serial-

to- parallel conversion that sends one bit to one
modulator and the next bit to the other modulator.

 If the duration of each bit in the incoming signal is

T, the duration of each bit sent to the corresponding
BPSK signal is 2T.

 This means that the bit to each BPSK signal has

one-half the frequency of the original signal.
Quadrature PSK
Example 5.7

 Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12

Mbps for QPSK. The value of d =0.
Animation
 https://youtu.be/C8eebS5MhuU
Constellation Diagram
 A constellation diagram can help us define the
amplitude and phase of a signal element,
particularly when we are using two carriers (one
in-phase and one quadrature),
 The diagram is useful when we are dealing with
multilevel ASK, PSK, or QAM.
 In a constellation diagram, a signal element type
is represented as a dot.
 The bit or combination of bits it can carry is often
written next to it.
Figure 5.12 Concept of a constellation diagram
 The diagram has two axes.
 The horizontal X axis is related to the in-phase
carrier;
 The vertical Y axis is related to the quadrature carrier.

 For each point on the diagram, four pieces of

information can be deduced.
1. The projection of the point on the X axis defines the
peak amplitude of the in-phase component;
2. The projection of the point on the Y axis defines the
peak amplitude of the quadrature component.
3. The length of the line (vector) that connects the point
to the origin is the peak amplitude of the signal
element (combination of the X and Y components);
4. The angle the line makes with the X axis is the phase
of the signal element.
Constellation Diagram: Examples

QPSK uses two carriers, one in-

phase and the other quadrature.
The point representing 11 is
made of two combined signal
elements, both with an amplitude
of 1 V. One element is represented
by an in-phase carrier, the other
element by a quadrature carrier.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

 QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK.

 The idea of using two carriers, one in-phase and the
other quadrature, with different amplitude levels for
each carrier is the concept behind QAM.

Bandwidth for QAM

 The minimum bandwidth required for QAM

transmission is the same as that required for ASK
and PSK transmission.
 QAM has the same advantages as PSK over ASK.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
 It conveys two digital bit streams, by changing
(modulating) the amplitudes of two carrier
waves, using the amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
digital modulation scheme
 The two carrier waves of the same frequency,
usually sinusoids, are out of phase with each
other by 90° and are thus called quadrature
carriers or quadrature components — hence the
name of the scheme.
 The modulated waves are summed, and the
final waveform is a combination of both phase-
shift keying (PSK) and amplitude-shift keying
(ASK),
 In QAM, the constellation points are usually
arranged in a square grid with equal vertical and
horizontal spacing.
 Since in digital telecommunications the data is
usually binary, the number of points in the grid is
usually a power of 2 (2, 4, 8, …).
 Since QAM is usually square, some of these are
rare—the most common forms are 16-QAM, 64-
QAM and 256-QAM.
 By moving to a higher-order constellation, it is
possible to transmit more bits per symbol.
 Figure 5.14 Constellation diagrams for some QAMs

shows the simplest Shows another 4- shows another shows a 16-QAM

4-QAM scheme QAM using polar QAM-4 in which constellation of a
(four different NRZ, but this is we used a
exactly the same signal with two signal with eight
signal element as QPSK. positive levels levels, four
types) using a to modulate positive and four
unipolar NRZ each of the two negative.
signal to modulate carriers.
each carrier.
ANALOG-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
 Analog-to-analog conversion is the
representation of analog information by an
analog signal.
 Modulation is needed if the medium is
bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass
channel is available to us.
Amplitude Modulation
 In AM transmission, the carrier signal is
modulated so that its amplitude varies with the
changing amplitudes of the modulating signal.
 The frequency and phase of the carrier remain
the same; only the amplitude changes to follow
variations in the information.
 The modulating signal is the envelope of the
carrier.
 AM is normally implemented by using a simple
multiplier because the amplitude of the carrier
signal needs to be changed according to the
amplitude of the modulating signal.
Amplitude Modulation

The total bandwidth required for AM can be determined

from the bandwidth of the audio signal: BAM = 2B.
AM Band Allocation
 Bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and
music) is usually 5 kHz
 Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
allows 10 kHz for each AM station.
 AM stations are allowed carrier frequencies
anywhere between 530 and 1700 kHz(1.7MHz).
 Separated by at least 10 kHz to avoid
interference.
 Frequency Modulation
 In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier
signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.
 The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal
remain constant, but as the amplitude of the
information signal changes, the frequency of the
carrier changes correspondingly.
 FM is normally implemented by using a voltage
controlled oscillator as with FSK.
 The frequency of the oscillator changes according
to the input voltage which is the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
Frequency Modulation

The total bandwidth required for FM can be determined

from the bandwidth of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B.
FM Band Allocation
 Bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and
music) broadcast in stereo is almost 15 kHz
 FCC allows 200 kHz for each station (β =4 with
some extra guard band)
 FM stations are allowed carrier frequencies
anywhere between 88 and 108 MHz.
 Separated by at least 200 kHz
Phase Modulation
 In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is
modulated to follow the changing voltage level
(amplitude) of the modulating signal.
 The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier
signal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the
information signal changes, the phase of the carrier
changes correspondingly.
 In FM, the instantaneous change in the carrier
frequency is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal
 In PM the instantaneous change in the carrier
frequency is proportional to the derivative of the
amplitude of the modulating signal.
Phase Modulation

• The total bandwidth required for PM can be determined from

the bandwidth and maximum amplitude of the modulating
signal: BPM = 2(1 + β)B.
Animation:
 https://youtu.be/beFoCZ7oMyY
 Chapter 6

Bandwidth Utilization:

Multiplexing and Spreading

Bandwidth Utilization

 Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available

bandwidth to achieve specific goals.

 Two categories: multiplexing and spreading

 Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing

 Privacy and anti-jamming can be achieved by

spreading.
Multiplexing
 Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared.
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across
a single data link.
 If the bandwidth of a link is greater than the
bandwidth needs of the devices connected to it, the
bandwidth is wasted.
 An efficient system maximizes the utilization of all
resources; bandwidth is one of the most precious
resources we have in data communications.
 In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of
one link.
 In Fig, the lines on the left direct their transmission
streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them
into a single stream (many-to-one).
 At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a
demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the stream
back into its component transmissions (one-to-many)
and directs them to their corresponding lines.
Categories of Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing
 FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines
analog signals
 Signals modulate different carrier frequencies
 Modulated signals are combined into a composite
signal that can be transported by the link.
 Channel - Bandwidth range to accommodate a
modulated signal
 Channels can be separated by strips of unused
bandwidth (guard band) to prevent overlapping
FDM Process
Multiplexing Process

 Each source generates a signal of a similar

frequency range.

 Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals

modulates different carrier frequencies (f1,f2,
and f3).

 The resulting modulated signals are then

combined into a single composite signal that is
sent out over a media link that has enough
bandwidth to accommodate it.
FDM Demultiplexing Example
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4
kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link
with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
 Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be
multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?

 Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.
This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 x 100 + 4 x 10 =540 kHz
Analog Hierarchy
Hierarchical system used by AT&T
 The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
uses two bands. The first band of 824 to 849
MHz is used for sending, and 869 to 894 MHz is
used for receiving. Each user has a bandwidth of
30 kHz in each direction. The 3- kHz voice is
modulated using FM, creating 30 kHz of
modulated signal. How many people can use
their cellular phones simultaneously?

 Each band is 25 MHz. If we divide 25 MHz by 30

kHz, we get 833.33. In reality, the band is
divided into 832 channels. Of these, 42 channels
are used for control, which means only 790
channels are available for cellular phone users.
Other Applications of FDM

 A very common application of FDM is

 AM : 530 to 1700 kHz
 FM : 88 to 108 MHz

 Another common use of FDM is in

television broadcasting.
 Each TV channel has its own bandwidth of 6
MHz.
Implementation

 FDM can be implemented very easily.

 In many cases, such as radio and television

broadcasting, there is no need for a physical
multiplexer or demultiplexer.

 As long as the stations agree to send their

broadcasts to the air using different carrier
frequencies, multiplexing is achieved.
Prisms in WDM
 Combining and splitting of light sources are
easily handled by a prism

 Prism bends a light beam based on the

incidence angle and the frequency
Time Division Multiplexing

 TDM is a digital process that allows several

connections to share the high bandwidth of a
link.
 Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as
in FDM, time is shared.
 Each connection occupies a portion of time in
the link.
 Note that the same link is used as in FDM; here,
however, the link is shown sectioned by time
rather than by frequency.
 In the figure, portions of signals 1,2,3, and 4
occupy the link sequentially
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for
combining several low-rate channels into one
high-rate one.
 TDM divided into two different schemes:
1.Synchronous
2. Statistical (or Asynchronous)
Synchronous TDM:

 In synchronous TDM, each input connection

has an allotment in the output even if it is not
sending data.
 In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from
each input connection is collected into a frame.
 If we have n connections, a frame is divided into
n time slots and one slot is allocated for each
unit, one for each input line.
 If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration
of each slot is T/n and the duration of each
frame is T (unless a frame carries some other
information).
 The data rate of the output link must be n times
the data rate of a connection to guarantee the
flow of data.
 Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame
consists of one complete cycle of time slots, with
one slot dedicated to each sending device.

 In a system with n input lines, each frame has n

slots, with each slot allocated to carrying data
from a specific input line.

 In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is

n times faster, and the unit duration is n times
shorter.
Interleaving

 TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating

switches, one on the multiplexing side and the
other on the demultiplexing side.
 The switches are synchronized and rotate at the
same speed, but in opposite directions.
 On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in
front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This
process is called interleaving.
 On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens
in front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to receive a unit from the path.
Interleaving
Empty Slots
 Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could
be. If a source does not have data to send, the
corresponding slot in the output frame is empty.

 Statistical TDM can improve the efficiency by

removing the empty slot from the frame
Data Rate Management

 Problem with TDM: handling disparity in the

input data rates

 If data rates are not the same, three strategies,

or a combination of them, can be used.

 We call these three strategies

 Multilevel multiplexing,
 Multiple-slot allocation, and
 Pulse stuffing.
Multilevel Multiplexing

 Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when

the data rate of an input line is a multiple of
others.
Multiple-Slot Allocation

 Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more than

one slot in a frame to a single input line.
 For example, we might have an input line that
has a data rate that is a multiple of another
input.
Pulse Stuffing
 Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not
multiple integers of each other.
 Therefore, neither of the above two techniques
can be applied. One solution is to make the
highest input data rate the dominant data rate
and then add dummy bits to the input lines with
lower rates.
 This will increase their rates. This technique is
called pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit
stuffing.
 The idea is shown in Figure 6.21. The input with
a data rate of 46 is pulse-stuffed to increase the
rate to 50 kbps. Now multiplexing can take
place.
Pulse stuffing
Frame Synchronizing
• Synchronization between the multiplexing and
demultiplexing is a major issue in TDM
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing

 Synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved

slot in the output frame. This can be inefficient if
some input lines have no data to send.

 In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are

dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth
efficiency.
Only when an input line has a slot's worth of
data to send is it given a slot in the output frame.

 In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots in

each frame is less than the number of input
lines.
 The multiplexer checks each input line in round robin
fashion; it allocates a slot for an input line if the line has
data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and checks the
next line.
TDM Slot comparison
Addressing:

 In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed

relationship between the inputs and outputs
because there are no preassigned or reserved
slots.

 We need to include the address of the receiver

inside each slot to show where it is to be
delivered.
Slot size:
 Since a slot carries both data and an address in
statistical TDM, the ratio of the data size to
address size must be reasonable to make
transmission efficient.
No Synchronization Bit
 The frames in statistical TDM need not be
synchronized, so we do not need
synchronization bits.
Bandwidth
 In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is
normally less than the sum of the capacities of
each channel.
SPREAD SPECTRUM - SLE
 In spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals from
different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth
 Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless
applications (LANs and WANs).
 Spread spectrum techniques add redundancy; they
spread the original spectrum needed for each
station.
 If the required bandwidth for each station is B,
spread spectrum expands it to Bss such that Bss » B.
 The expanded bandwidth allows the source to wrap
its message in a protective envelope for a more
secure transmission.
Spread spectrum

 Spread spectrum achieves its goals through two

principles:
1. The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by
far, larger than what is needed. This allows redundancy.
2. The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the
bandwidth Bss must be done by a process that is
independent of the original signal. In other words, the
spreading process occurs after the signal is created by
the source.
 After the signal is created by the source, the
spreading process uses a spreading code and
spreads the bandwidth.
 The figure shows the original bandwidth B and
the spreaded bandwidth Bss.
 The spreading code is a series of numbers that
look random, but are actually a pattern.
 There are two techniques to spread the
bandwidth:
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

 The frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

technique uses M different carrier frequencies
that are modulated by the source signal.
 At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier
frequency; at the next moment, the signal
modulates another carrier frequency.
 Although the modulation is done using one
carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are
used in the long run.
 The bandwidth occupied by a source after
spreading is BFHSS » B.
FHSS
 A pseudorandom code generator, called
pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit
pattern for every hopping period Th
Frequency Selection in FHSS

 The frequency table uses the pattern to find the

frequency to be used for this hopping period and
passes it to the frequency synthesizer.
 The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier
signal of that frequency, and the source signal
modulates the carrier signal.

 Suppose we have decided to have eight hopping

frequencies then M is 8 and k is 3.

 The pseudorandom code generator will create

eight different 3-bit patterns.

 These are mapped to eight different frequencies

in the frequency table
 The pattern for this station is 101, 111, 001, 000,
010, 011, 100.
 Note that the pattern is pseudorandom it is
repeated after eight hoppings.
 This means that at hopping period 1, the pattern
is 101.
 The frequency selected is 700 kHz; the source
signal modulates this carrier frequency.
so on.
Frequency Cycles
Bandwidth Sharing
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

 Replace each data bit with n bits using a

spreading code
 Each bit is assigned a code of n bits called
chips, where the chip rate is n times that of the
data bit.
 As an example, let us consider the sequence used
in a wireless LAN, the famous Barker sequence
where n is 11.

 We assume that the original signal and the chips in

the chip generator use polar NRZ encoding.

 Figure 6.33 shows the chips and the result of

multiplying the original data by the chips to get the
spread signal.

 In Figure 6.33, the spreading code is 11 chips

having the pattern 10110111000

 If the original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread

signal is 11N.
 This means that the required bandwidth for the
spread signal is 11 times larger than the
bandwidth of the original signal.

 The spread signal can provide privacy if the

intruder does not know the code.

 It can also provide immunity against interference

if each station uses a different code.
DSSS Example