BASIC CALCULUS REVIEWER

Topic: Limits
Definition: Consider a function f of a single variable x. Consider a constant c which the variable x
will approach (c may or may not be in the domain of f).
The limit, to be denoted by L, is the unique real value that f(x) will approach as x approaches c.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 Read as: ``The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L"
𝑥→𝑐

For the limit to exists, the limit from the left and right side of c must be the same:
The Limit from the left side of c is represented as lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

The limit from the right side of c is represented as lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑐

Ways in Estimating Limits: Table of Values

Example 1: Investigate lim 𝑥 2 by constructing tables of values.

𝑥→2

We need to approach c (which is 2) both from the left and right. This means we need to get x which gets
closer and closer to 2. Then substitute these x to the function.
From the left of 2 From the Right of 2

x f(x) x f(x)
1.9 3.61 2.1 4.41
1.99 3.9601 2.01 4.0401
1.999 3.996001 2.001 4.004001
1.9999 3.99960001 2.0001 4.00040001
1.99999 3.9999600001 2.00001 4.0000400001
lim 𝑥 2 = 4 lim 𝑥 2 = 4
𝑥→2− 𝑥→2+

Now, observe the values of f(x) both from the left and right. When the value of x approaches 2 (𝑥 → 2),
from the left or right, the value of f(x) gets closer and closer to the value 4.
The value 4 is the Limit or limiting value of the function when x approaches the value 2.

Therefore, lim 𝑥 2 = 4.
𝑥→2

Ways in Estimating Limits: Graph

Example 1: Investigate lim (3x – 2) by graphing.
𝑥→2

To determine the limit of a function

given graph, locate the x=c. In this
case, x=2, then by tracing from the
left and right, check the point it
approaches. The y-value of the point
will serve as the limit of a function.
In our example, lim (3𝑥 − 2) = 4
𝑥→2

Topic: Limit that does not exist (DNE)

The limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 → 𝑐 does not exist under
• 𝑓(𝑥) approaches a different number from the right
side of c than it approaches from the left side of c.

• 𝑓(𝑥) increases or decreases without bound as x approaches c.

• 𝑓(𝑥) oscillates (swing) between two fixed values as x

approaches c.

𝒙−𝟒
Example 2: Investigate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐 −𝟖𝒙+𝟏𝟔 using table of values.
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙
 From the left of 4 From the Right of 4

x f(x) x f(x)
3.5 -2 4.3 3.333
3.8 -5 4.21 4.761904
3.99 -100 4.0002 5000
3.999 -1000 4.00009 11111.11
𝒙−𝟒 𝒙−𝟒
lim = −∞ lim+ = +∞
𝑥→4 − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟏𝟔 𝑥→4 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙 + 𝟏𝟔

Observe that from the left of c (which is 4), the f(x) gets smaller yet not approaching a certain value but
to negative infinity. From the right of c (4), the f(x) gets larger but does not approach a certain value but
to positive infinity.
𝒙−𝟒
Since (𝑥) increases or decreases without bound as x approaches c, we say that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐 −𝟖𝒙+𝟏𝟔 does not
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙
exist (DNE).

Topic: Limit Theorems

T1. The limit of a constant number is itself.
If k is any constant, then the general Notation: lim k = k
x→c

Example:
a. lim 2 = 2
𝑥→3
b. lim 9 = 9
𝑥→0
c. lim 20 = 20
𝑥→1

T2. The limit of x as x approaches c is equal to c.

General Notation: lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

Example:
a. lim 𝑥 = 9
𝑥→𝟗
b. lim 𝑥 = −10
𝑥→−10
c. lim 𝑥 = 14
𝑥→14

CMT: Constant Multiple Theorem

Assume that the limits of f and g both exist as x approaches c and that they are L and M,
respectively.
The limit of a multiple of a function is simply that multiple of the limit of the function.
General Notation: lim 𝑘 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 ∙ lim𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Example: Assume that the lim 𝒇(𝒙) = 4

𝑥→𝑐
 a. lim 2 ∙ 𝒇(𝒙) = 2 ∙ lim 𝒇(𝒙) = 2 ∙ 4 = 8
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
b. lim 4 ∙ 𝒇(𝒙) = 4 ∙ lim 𝒇(𝒙) = 4 ∙ 4 = 16
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

AT: Addition Theorem

Assume that the limits of f and g both exist as x approaches c and that they are L and M,
respectively.
Limit of a sum of functions is the sum of the limits of the individual functions. Subtraction
is also included in this law, that is, the limit of a difference of functions is the difference of
their limits.
General Notation:

AT: lim(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

ST: lim(𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Example: Assume that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 5

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

a. Find the lim 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐
Apply the AT:
lim(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
lim(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = 4 + 5
𝑥→𝑐
lim(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = 9
𝑥→𝑐

MT: Multiplication Theorem

Assume that the limits of f and g both exist as x approaches c and that they are L and M,
respectively.
The Multiplication Theorem: This is similar to the Addition Theorem, with multiplication
replacing addition as the operation involved. Thus, the limit of a product of functions is
equal to the product of their limits.
General Notation: lim (𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Example: Assume that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 5

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

a. Find the lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐
Apply the MT:
lim(𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
lim(𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)) = 4 ∙ 5
𝑥→𝑐
lim(𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)) = 20
𝑥→𝑐

DT: Division Theorem

Assume that the limits of f and g both exist as x approaches c and that they are L and M,
respectively.
This says that the limit of a quotient of functions is equal to the quotient of the limits of
the individual functions, provided the denominator limit is not equal to 0.
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
General Notation: lim (𝑔(𝑥) ) = 𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
=𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
 Example: Assume that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 5
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

𝑓(𝑥)
a. Find the lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
Apply the DT:
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
lim ( ) = 𝑥→𝑐
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) 4
lim ( ) =
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) 5

PT: Power Theorem

This theorem states that the limit of an integer power p of a function is just that power of
the limit of the function.

General Notation: lim (𝑓(𝑥))𝑝 = (lim 𝑓(𝑥))𝑝 = 𝐿𝑝

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Example: Assume that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4

𝑥→𝑐

a. Find the 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑓(𝑥))2

𝑥→𝑐
Apply the PT:
2
lim(𝑓(𝑥)) = (lim 𝑓(𝑥))2
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
2
lim(𝑓(𝑥)) = (4)2 = 16
𝑥→𝑐

RRT: Radical/Root Theorem

This theorem states that if n is a positive integer, the limit of the nth root of a function is
just the nth root of the limit of the function, provided the nth root of the limit is a real
number.
𝑛 𝑛
General Notation: lim √𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Example: Assume that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4

𝑥→𝑐

b. Find the 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2√𝑓 (𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐
Apply the RRT:
2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 √𝑓(𝑥) = 2√ lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
2 2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 √𝑓(𝑥) = √4 = 2
𝑥→𝑐

Topic: Limits of Polynomial, Rational, and Radical Functions

Solution (Steps) Reasons

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
lim (2𝑥 + 1) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2𝑥 + 𝑙𝑖𝑚 1 AT
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1

= (2 ∙ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥) + 1 CMT and T1

𝑥→1

= (2 ∙ 1) + 1 T2
 Therefore, 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏) = 𝟑
𝒙→𝟏

lim (𝑥 3 + 5) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 3 + 𝑙𝑖𝑚 5 AT

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
3
=(𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥) + 𝟓
𝑥→2 PT and T1
= (𝟐)3 + 5
=8+5 T2
Therefore, 𝒍𝒊𝒎(𝒙𝟑 + 𝟓) = 𝟏𝟑
𝒙→𝟐

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
lim (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥 + 1 𝑥→4 DT
lim =
𝑥→4 𝑥 lim 𝑥
𝑥→4
Evaluate the numerator:
lim (𝑥 + 1) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 + 𝑙𝑖𝑚1 AT
𝑥→4 𝑥→4 𝑥→4
= 4+1
𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒙 + 𝟏) = 𝟓 T2 and T1
𝒙→𝟒

Evaluate the denominator:

𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒙 = 𝟒
𝒙→𝟒
T2
𝒙+𝟏 𝟓
Therefore, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟒
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙
RADICAL FUNCTIONS
3
lim √𝑥 + 4 = 3√𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑥 + 4) RRT
𝑥→4 𝑥→4

= 3√𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑖𝑚 4 AT
𝑥→4 𝑥→4
3
= √4 + 4
3
= √8 T2 and T1
𝟑
Therefore, the 𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝐱 + 𝟒 = 𝟐
𝐱→𝟒

Topic: Substitution Method

Another way of finding the limits of functions is through substitution.
STEPS
a. Determine the value of c, it’s the number that your x approaches to.
b. Substitute x with the value of c.
c. Perform the operations and simplify.
Example 1: Polynomial Function
lim (2𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→1

The value of c is 1, hence, substitute x by 1.

lim (2𝑥 + 1) = 2(1) + 1 = 3
𝑥→1

Therefore, 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏) = 𝟑
𝒙→𝟏

Note: Direct substitution can be applied to any polynomial function.

Example 2: Rational Function and Direct Substitution
𝑥+1
lim
𝑥→4 𝑥
The value of c is 4, hence, substitute x by 4.
𝑥+1 4+1 5
lim = =
𝑥→4 𝑥 4 4
𝒙+𝟏 𝟓
Therefore, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟒
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙

Note: Direct substitution can be applied to a rational function ensuring that the denominator will not
be equal to zero. See example 3.
Example 3: Rational Function and Direct Substitution Fails

𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2
lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1
The value of c is -1, hence, substitute x by -1.

𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 (−1)2 + 3(−1) + 2 0
lim = = = 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 −1 + 1 0
Observe that the denominator is zero hence, undefined. However, it doesn’t mean that the limit of the
function does not exist.
What to do if this happens when direct substitution fails?
ANSWER: Simplify the expression. Check for factors that can be canceled in the numerator and
denominator.
𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2
Going back: lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1

Observe that the numerator is factorable (binomial factors): 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1)

𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 + 2)(𝒙 + 𝟏)
lim = =𝒙+𝟐
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 𝒙+𝟏
Now, that we have reduced the function, we can proceed with substitution:
Substitute x by -1 in the new expression: 𝒙 + 𝟐 = −1 + 2 = 1
𝒙𝟐 +𝟑𝒙+𝟐
Therefore, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝟏.
𝒙→−𝟏 𝒙+𝟏

Topic: Limits of Exponential, Logarithmic, and Trigonometric Functions

Exponential Functions
The exponential function is a type of mathematical function that helps find the growth or decay of
population, money, price, etc that are growing or decay exponentially.
General Notation: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝒙 If 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1, the exponential function with base b is defined by
Natural Exponential Function:
When the base, b, of the exponential function f(x) = bx, is replaced with e, we have the natural
exponential function.
General Notation: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙
Limits of Natural Exponential Function: Table of Values
Example: Evaluate the lim 𝑒 𝑥 using table of values
𝑥→0

Therefore, by inspection, the 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒆𝒙 = 𝟏

𝒙→𝟎

Logarithmic Function
Logarithmic functions are the inverses of exponential functions, and any exponential function can be
expressed in logarithmic form.
If 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1, if 𝒃𝒚 = 𝒙 then y is called the logarithm of x to the base b denoted by
General Notation: 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒙 Read as: “y equals the log, base b, of x.”

Natural Logarithmic Function

The logarithmic function to the base e is called the natural logarithmic function and it is denoted by
log e . Hence, the function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 𝑥.

However, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥 = ln (𝑥), hence, we’re going to use the function below for the natural logarithmic
function
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒍𝒏 𝒙
Limits of a Natural Logarithmic Function: Table of Values
EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate the lim ln x using table of values
x→1

Therefore, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒍𝒏𝒙 = 𝟎

𝒙→𝟏

Common Logarithmic Function

The logarithmic function with base 10 is called the common logarithmic function and it is denoted by
log10 or simply log. Hence, 𝑓(𝑥) = log10 𝑥
Since, that 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 = log 𝑥, hence, we’re going to use the function below to illustrate a common
logarithmic function.

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙
Limits of a Common Logarithmic Function: Table of Values
EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate the lim log 𝑥 using table of values
𝑥→1

Therefore, the 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 = 𝟎

𝒙→𝟏

Topic: Indeterminate Form

Definition: It is an expression that we cannot be able to determine the original value even after the
substitution of the limits.
𝒙𝟐 −𝟒 𝟎
Example: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎
𝒙→−𝟐 𝒙+𝟐

Observe that when you perform direct substitution, it resulted to 0/0 which is one of the
indeterminate form.
Question: What to do or how to find the limit of a function resulting to indeterminate form?
Answer: Factoring and Rationalization
Ways in Evaluating Limits of an Indeterminate Form
a. Factoring/Dividing out Technique
When to apply: If the given function is a rational function or any expression that can be
simplified using factoring.
Example:

𝑥2 − 4
∴ lim = −4
𝑥→−2 𝑥 + 2

b. Rationalization Technique
When to apply: When the given function contains a radical sign. Rationalize the expression
containing the radical sign.
First Case: If the given function contains a monomial radical, simply multiply the numerator
and denominator by that radical

Example of Monomial:

How to Rationalize Monomial

Example 1: Example 2:

Second Case: If the given function contains a binomial with one (or two) term/s containing
radical/s, simply multiply the numerator and denominator by its conjugate.

Limits and Continuity

A. Continuity at a Point
Given a Graph: A function is continuous at a point if you can trace it from the left to the right
side of x=c without lifting your pen.
Example: Given the graph below, state whether the
following point is continuous or not.
1. Is the function continuous at x=2?
If you trace the graph from the left side of 2 to the right side of
2, you don’t need to lift your pen, therefore, the function is
continuous at x=2.
2. Is the function continuous at x=0?
No, you need to lift your pen to go from left to the right side of
0.
3. Is the function continuous at x=4?
Yes, you can trace the graph from the left side of x to the right
side of x without lifting your pen.
Given a function:
There are three conditions to satisfy to determine if the function is continuous at a point.
𝑓(𝑐) exists
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) exists
𝑥→𝑐
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐

Note: If at least one of these conditions is not met, f is said to be discontinuous at x = c.

Example 1:
Determine if 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 1 is continuous or not at x=1.
𝑓(𝑐) exists

𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑐 = 1

𝑓(1) = 3(1) − 1
𝑓(1) = 2
The function exists when x=1.
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) exists
𝑥→𝑐

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚 3𝑥 − 1
𝑥→1

𝑙𝑖𝑚 3𝑥 − 1 = 3(1) − 1 = 3 − 1
𝑥→1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 3𝑥 − 1 = 2
𝑥→1

The limit as x approaches to 1 is 2.

𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐

Compare the 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚 3𝑥 − 1. They are the same.
𝑥→1

Conclusion: Therefore, f is continuous at x = 1.

Example 2:
x2 −x−2
Determine if f(x) = x−2
is continuous or not at x=2.

𝑓(𝑐) exists

𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑐 = 2

22 −2−2
𝑓(2) = 2−2

0
𝑓(2) = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
0
Conclusion: The first condition in the definition of a continuous function is not satisfied.
Therefore, f is discontinuous at x = 2
Continuity at an Interval
A function can be continuous on an interval. This simply means that it is continuous at every
point on the interval.
Example:
Using the given graph, determine if the function f is continuous on the
following interval:
a. (2, 4) or between x=2 and x=4.
We trace the graph from the right side of 2 to the left side of 4,
we will lift our pen.
Hence, the function is not continuous on the interval (2, 4).
b. (-∞, 3)
We trace the graph from the negative side to the left side of 3, we will
not lift our pen
Hence, the function is continuous on the interval (-∞, 3).

Types of Discontinuity
a. Removable Discontinuity
A removable discontinuity occurs when the graph of a
function has a hole.
It is said to be removable because the discontinuity may be
removed by redefining f(c) so that it will equal lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑐

𝒙𝟐 −𝟐𝒙+𝟏
Example: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙−𝟏

If you graph the redefine function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1,

the graph will look like this;

The graph above is the graph of the given

function. Observe that there’s a hole that makes
x=1 discontinuous. However, if we redefine the Observe that there’s no hole. We’re able to remove
function: the discontinuity.
Redefine the function:
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1
 b. Jump Discontinuity

Jump discontinuity occurs at a point where the left- and right-hand

limits of a function are not equal.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 − 𝑥→𝑐

Observe that when x=4, the function is discontinuous. It is

discontinuous because the
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5
𝑥→4 −

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥→4 +

lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐 − 𝑥→𝑐

c. Infinite Discontinuity

Infinite discontinuity occurs at a point where the left- or and right-hand

limits of a function are infinite (with asymptote/s)
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→0−

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→0+

Reminders:

• No formula card
• Calculator is a MUST.
• Read the instructions first before solving.
• Provide your complete solution.
• Goodluck!