CHAPTER III

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
I. INTRODUCTION
Computer based information systems rely on computers and computer peripherals to capture,
process, and store and produce outputs. Students of management should understand how
computers capture, process, store, produce output and communicate the result. This involves
different information technologies: hardware, software, network, and database.
From a business perspective, an information system represents an organizational and
management solution based on Information Technology to a challenges posed by the
environment. The information system is part of a series of value adding activities for acquiring,
transforming, and distributing information that managers can use to improve decision making,
enhance organizational performance, and ultimately, increase firm profitability.
Information Technology provides managers with tools for more precise planning, forecasting,
and monitoring of the business. To maximize the advantages of Information Technology, there
is a much greater need to plan the organization’s information architecture and information
technology infrastructure.

The technology resources used for business information management (information

system) are more commonly referred to as information technology (IT). ‘IT’ refers to the
hardware, software and telecommunications networks used to manage information. In the
European Union and UK government initiatives IT is often now referred to as ‘ICT’ or
‘Information and communications technology’ to stress the importance of networks and the
Internet. Selecting the appropriate technology is undeniably important to the implementation of
the strategies needed to manage the information required to support different organizational
processes.
II. COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOY
1. Hardware
In computer terms, refers to the physical components of computers and related electronic
devices. In corporate decision making, managers should consider software first, not hardware.
Businesses need to first identify the tasks they want to support and the decisions they want to
make, and therefore the information they need to produce. This information will help them
determine the appropriate software, and they can then purchase the best hardware to run the

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software. A new organization can often make software-related decisions first. However, in a
great majority of cases, established organizations already have a significant investment in
hardware and, therefore, must often consider adopting new software within the constraints of
their existing hardware. Regardless of size, age, function, or capability, most computers have the
same basic components and operate according to the same basic principles.
A computer must handle four operations: (1) accept data, (2) store data and instructions, (3)
process data, and (4) output data and/or information. In recent years, data communication over
a network has become an essential aspect of input and output for almost every computer, whether
stationary or portable. In general, every computer has these components:
Basic components of computer
a. Input Devices
Receive signals from outside the computer and transfer them into the computer. The most
common input devices are the computer keyboard and mouse, but some input devices accept
voice, image, or other signals.
b. Central Processing Unit or CPU
It is the most important part of any computer. The CPU accepts instructions and data, decodes
and executes instructions, and stores results (output) in memory for later display. In technical
terms, a CPU is a chip made of silicon, transistors, and numerous tiny soldered wires that form
complex circuitry. The circuitry is built and programmed so that it can interpret electrical signals
to run computers. Some computers have several CPUs. The increase in the power of computers
and decrease in their prices have in large part been the result of engineers’ ability to increase the
number of transistors on these chips without increasing the chips’ size.
c. Internal Memory
It also called primary memory is located near the CPU and stores data and instructions just
before and immediately after the CPU processes them. This includes programs currently running
on a machine, intermediate results of arithmetic operations, intermediate versions of documents
being word processed, and data elements that represent the pictures displayed on a computer
screen and the sounds played by the speakers. Most of a computer’s internal memory is RAM
(Random Access Memory)
A smaller amount is ROM (read-only memory) RAM holds data and program instructions, and
is volatile by design, that is, its contents are cleared when the computer is turned off or when a

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computer program is allowed to replace the data in it. ROM is nonvolatile. It contains data and
instructions that do not change, mostly instructions the computer uses to load programs when it
is powered on. The amount of RAM—often simply called memory—and the speed at which it
operates is two of the properties that determine the power of a computer. The CPU and primary
memory are usually plugged into a circuit board in the computer case called the Mother Board or
System Board.
d. Storage
It is different types of media—such as magnetic disks, magnetic tapes, optical discs, DVDs, and
flash memory—that store data and information; however, unlike RAM, external memory allows
for permanent storage. Thus, many external storage media are portable and can be moved from
one computer to another.
e. Output Devices
Most commonly computer monitors and printers, deliver information from the computer to a
person. Additional output devices include speakers and digital audio players for audio output and
specialized output devices such as Braille writers.
2. SOFTWARE
It is a series of instructions to a computer to execute any and all processes, such as displaying
text, mathematically manipulating numbers, or copying or deleting documents. Software is a set
of instructions, written in a specialized language, the execution of which controls the operation
of the computer. Programs are examples of software. Computers only understand instructions
made up of electrical signals alternating between two states, which eventually close or open tiny
electrical circuits. Different sequences of signals represent different instructions to the computer.
In the early days of computers, programming a computer meant actually changing the
computer’s wiring by opening and closing switches or moving plugs from one circuit to another.
Because programs today consist of instructions that require no hardware reconfiguration, the
skill of composing software programs is independent of building or directly manipulating
hardware. As previously noted, software is executed not only on computers, but in every device
that uses microprocessors, such as motor vehicles, digital cameras, and mobile phones. However,
we will focus mainly on computer software that serves organizations.

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The software’s can be classified into two major categories; they are Application software and
System Software.
Application Software enables users to complete a particular application or task, such as word
processing, investment analysis, data manipulation, or project management.
System Software enables application software to run on a computer, and manages the interaction
between the CPU, memory, storage, input/output devices, and other computer components.
a. APPLICATION SOFTWARES
As noted earlier, an application is a program developed to address a specific need. An
application can also be software that lets nonprogrammers develop such programs. Most
programs that professionals use are application programs, such as word-processing programs,
spreadsheet programs, payroll programs, investment analysis programs, and work-scheduling
and project management programs.
(i) Application Specific Softwares Programs: the programs are designed to perform some
specific jobs are collectively called Application Specific Softwares.
(ii) General Purpose Application Software: Programs that serve different purposes, such as
developing decision-making tools or creating documents, are called General Purpose
Application Software. Spreadsheets and word processors are general-purpose applications.
General-purpose applications are available as packaged software
Packaged software is that ready to install from an external storage medium such as a CD or a
file downloaded from a vendor’s Web site. Application-specific software is not always so readily
available. Managers must decide whether an off-the-shelf software package meets all of their
needs. If it does, the company can simply purchase it. But if off-the-shelf or other ready-made
software cannot address an organization’s specified needs, managers must have a program
developed, either within the organization or by another organization specializing in that type of
software.
(iii) Office Productivity Applications:
The purpose of all business software is to make the work of people more productive. However,
applications that help employees in their routine office work often are called simply
“productivity tools.” Some other office productivity Applications are as follows,

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1, Word processors, 2, Spreadsheets 3,Presentation tools 4, File and database management
software’s 5, Graphics programs, 6,desktop publishing tools and 7, project management
applications,
b. SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software includes programs that are designed to carry out general routine operations,
such as the interface between user and computer, loading a file, copying a file, or deleting a file,
as well as managing memory resources and operating peripheral equipment such as monitors and
printers. The purpose of system software is to manage computer resources and perform routine
tasks that are not specific to any application. On one hand, system software is developed to work
in partnership with as many applications as possible; on the other, applications can work with
system software only if they are developed to be compatible with that software. The following
discussion covers major types of system programs. Compilers and interpreters are also classified
as system software.
a. Operating Systems
The operating system (OS) is the single most important program that runs on a computer and
the most important type of system software. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as
recognizing input from the keyboard and mouse, sending output to the computer display, keeping
track of files and directories (groups of files) on disks, and sending documents to the printer.
Without an operating system, no application can run on a computer. An operating system is
developed for a certain microprocessor or multiple microprocessors. Programmers know which
operations each microprocessor can perform and how it performs them.
In addition to performing input and output services and controlling the CPU, many Oss perform
accounting and statistical jobs, including recording times when a user logs on and logs off, the
number of seconds the operator used the CPU in every session, and the number of pages a user
printed.
b. Utilities Programs
Some OSs also perform such as hardware diagnostics, file comparison, file sorting, and the like.
However, not all OSs provide all the utilities that might be necessary, in which case special
utility programs must be used. Operating systems also include a number of security functions,
such as the ability to set user passwords and restrict access to files and computer resources.

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c. Operating System Functions:
Operating systems provide several services, the most important of which is system management.
System management refers to the efficient allocation of hardware resources to applications and
includes tasks such as prompting the user for certain actions, allocating RAM locations for
software and data, instructing the CPU to run or stop, allocating CPU time to different programs
running at the same time, and instructing co-processors and peripheral equipment.
3. TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS
Telecommunications, which is essential to today's smooth business operations, is the transmittal
of data and information from one point to another. The Greek word tele, which means "distance,"
is part of such words as "telegraph," "telephone," and other words referring to technologies that
allow communications over large distances. Thus, telecommunications is communications over a
distance. Telephone, fax, e-mail, the World Wide Web-none of these essential business services
would be available without fast, reliable telecommunications. In fact, electronic commerce,
popularly called "e-commerce," would be impossible.
a. Definition of Telecommunications:
“Telecommunications refers to the exchange of information by electronic and electrical means
over a significant distance”. A complete telecommunication arrangement is made up of two or
more stations equipped with transmitter and receiver devices. A single co-arrangement of
transmitters and receivers, called a transceiver, may also be used in many telecommunication
stations.
b. Telecommunications Devices:
Some of the devices essentially required for data transmission are telephones, telegraph, radio,
and microwave communication arrangements, fiber optics, satellites and the Internet.
c. Development and Benefits of Telecommunications
Telecommunications have brought six basic progresses and benefits in business processes.
i. Better business communication: When no physical objects need to be transferred from one
place to another, telecommunications technology can make geographical distance irrelevant. E-
mail, voice mail, faxing, file transfer, cellular telephony, and teleconferencing enable detailed
and instant communication, whether among managers, between managers and their staffs, or
among different organizations. Telecommunications can also be used by one person to monitor
another person's performance in real time. Telecommunications are used to communicate

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directions and receive feedback without requiring people coordinate their schedules to hold a
meeting. And the use of e-mail has brought some secondary benefits to business communications
by establishing a permanent written record of, and accountability for, ideas. The result is more
accurate business communications.
ii. Higher efficiency: Telecommunications has made business processes more efficient. Many
business processes are serial in nature: one department must have the input of another
department before acting and must then produce its own information, which in turn serves as
input for a third department, and so on. For example, when the sales department receives a
purchase order from a customer, it must communicate the order to the warehouse, which needs
the information to prepare the package. The warehouse workers must then forward shipping
documents to the accounts receivable department for billing. With telecommunications, all
documents can be accessed electronically by many different departments at the same time.
Furthermore, processes that used to take a long time for action and counteraction by two or more
parties can now be carried out in one session attended by all parties involved, through
telecommunication lines.
iii. Better distribution of data: Organizations that can transmit vital data quickly from one
computer to another no longer need centralized databases. Business units that need certain data
frequently may store it locally, while others can access it remotely. Only fast, reliable transfer of
data makes this efficient arrangement possible.
iv. Instant transactions: The availability of the Internet to millions of businesses and consumers
has shifted a significant volume of business transactions to the Web. Both businesses and
consumers can shop, purchase, and pay instantly online. In addition to commercial activities,
people can use telecommunications for online education and entertainment
v. Flexible and mobile workforce: Employees do not have to come to the office to carry out
their work as long as their jobs only involve the use and creation of information. They can use
telecommunication services by using Internet connections. Salespeople, support personnel, and
field workers are more mobile with wireless communication.
vi. Alternative channels: Services that used to be conducted through specialized dedicated
channels can be conducted through alternative channels. For example, voice communication
used to be conducted only through proprietary telephone networks but is now also conducted
through the Internet, which decreased its cost. Radio and television broadcasts were conducted

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through radio frequencies and company-owned cables. Newer technologies enable organizations
to broadcast over the Internet and provide telephone services over the Internet as well.
Furthermore, Internet technologies allow individuals to broadcast text, sound, and video to
subscribers’ computers or to Web-capable mobile devices.
b. Telecommunications products
Some of the useful telecommunications products in the daily in daily use are,
Cellular phones, Videoconferencing, Voice mail, Facsimile, Information kiosks, Pay at the pump
Web-based electronic commerce, worldwide peer-to-peer files sharing, and peer-to-peer
(P2P) file sharing.
d. Components of Telecommunication Systems:
Modern telecommunications systems can transmit video, voice, graphic images and text
information. The components required to transmit information include computers to process
information, terminals to send and receive data, processors and software. The support system of
a telecommunication system helps to ensure the safety of data transmission. Additionally,
telecommunication systems require failsafe, redundant components to ensure round-the-clock
operation. Telecommunication systems use electronic signals to communicate information.
Telecommunication systems also use a variety of compatible hardware and software to enable
communications. Digital technology has made telecommunication systems an important part of
daily life for most people. Some of the essential components of telecommunication systems
include Communications Signals, Communication Channels and Communications Networks.
i. Communications Signals
The data traveling through a telecommunications system uses analog and digital electromagnetic
signals. The analog signal is a continuous waveform used for voice communication that goes
through a communication medium. Digital signals, on the other hand, transmit data coded as one
bits and zero bits or on-off electric pulses. Computers communicate using digital signals. When a
computer is needed to communicate over an analog line it needs a modem to translate the
signals. A modem translates analog signals into digital and digital signals into analog.
ii. Communication Channels
The transmission of information over a telecommunications system also requires communication
channels. Communication channels use different mediums to transmit information from one
device to another. The speed in which the information flows depends on the transmission media.

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High-speed transmission is more expensive because the infrastructure to support the high-speed
transmission costs more than the infrastructure used to support low-speed transmission.
Examples of media used for transmission include wireless, fiber optics, coaxial cable and twisted
wire.
iii. Communications Networks
Telecommunication networks provide a variety of functions and receive a classification based on
their geographic capacity and the type of service they provide. A topology for the network is
known to be a layout for the connected devices. This is important because this is used to provide
a proper flow of data within the said network. The topology of a network and the network
connections indicate how a specific network performs its tasks. Some of the most recognized
topologies are as follows,
 Bus – This is the type of structure that uses a single medium to connect the computer.
 Ring – Each computer is connected to another adjacent computer for data transfer. One
failed network can cause all networks to turn off.
 Star – This is a structure that’s common in homes. It uses a certain hub or a router to
make the network possible.
 Tree – This is a complicated structure that connects the star into multiple buses. This is
common for internet cafes and offices.
 Mesh – this is a connection that leads to various data transmissions which are perfect for
routing huge networks.
iv. Types of Networks:
There are lots of networks that have been made possible by computers and technology, and they
guarantee you various benefits that you and some might like to have on their computers and/or
other devices. Some of the well-known types are as follows,
a. Personal Area Network (PAN):
A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network organized around an individual person
within a single building. This could be inside a small office or residence. A typical PAN would
include one or more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game consoles and other
personal entertainment devices. If multiple individuals use the same network within a residence,
the network is sometimes referred to as a home area network, or HAN. In a very typical setup, a
residence will have a single wired Internet connection connected to a modem. This modem then

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provides both wired and wireless connections for multiple devices. The network is typically
managed from a single computer but can be accessed from any device.
b. Wireless Local Area Network (LAN):
It works using wireless network technology such as Wi-Fi. This type of network is becoming
more popular as wireless technology is further developed and is used more in the home and by
small businesses. It means devices do not need to rely on physical cables and wires as much and
can organize their spaces more effectively.
c. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
This is a network which is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, and incorporates
elements of both. It may have an internal Ethernet as well as capability of connecting to the
internet. It typically spans a town or city and is owned by a single person or company, such as a
local council or a large company, a university, large school or small business. It is also known as
Campus Area Network (CAN).
d. Wide Area Network (WAN):
This is a common type of network nowadays that’s made possible by wireless technology.
Usually, a credential or service from a certain company is needed to enter a connection in this
type of network, but there are others that can be used for free. This is good for internet
connection. The internet is a well-known version of this one.
Some of the general purpose Networks are classified as follows,
e. Storage Area Network (SAN):
A type of network that specializes in file sharing and other matters in storing various software
within a group of computers.
f. Enterprise Private Network (EPN):
This is a software network that’s often used in businesses so that they can have privacy over files
and interactions between computers.
g. Virtual Private Network (VPN):
This is software that’s capable of setting up a network where everyone registered in the network
using a credential will be able to access each other through other registered computers.

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4. Data Communications
Data communications is any transfer of data within a computer, between a computer and
another device, or between two computers. For a computer to function, binary data in the
form of electrical impulses must flow from one component to another, such as from the
CPU to memory, from the CPU to the monitor, or from memory to the hard disk.
Telecommunications is communication of data between two devices over a distance. This
discussion refers to telecommunication among computers or between computers and other
digital devices. This type of communication is accomplished through the computer's Bus,
Bandwidth and Media.
a. BUS:
A bus is a system of wires, or strings of conductive material, etched on the surface of a
computer board. It is a communications channel that allows the transmission of a whole byte
or more in one pass.
b. Bandwidth: A communications medium is the physical medium, such as telephone
lines or television cables, through which data can be communicated. The capacity of the
medium is the speed at which data are communicated, which is also called the
transmission rate. It is often called "bandwidth." Bandwidth is measured in bits per
second (bps); the greater the capacity, the faster the transmission. As is often the case,
communications speed is a limited resource. The greater the speed is incurring the higher the
cost of the communications line. Thus, determining the type of communications lines to
install or subscribe to is an important business decision. Bandwidth is classified into two
types they are Narrowband and Broadband.
Narrowband:
When the communication line affords only low speed, it is said to be narrowband.
Broadband:
When a line has great capacity and can carry many streams of data simultaneously (and thus
the total transmission is faster), it is said to be broadband. For example, copper wire
telephone lines are a narrowband medium that cannot transmit effectively at speeds of
more than 56,000 bps and, even at this speed, only for short distances, unless special
software is used.

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c. Media
A medium is anything through which bits are transmitted. Media do not have to be
tangible as wires and cables. In the example just used, a guided medium, the pipe, carried
the first transmission. An unguided medium, air (which has no physical channel), carried
the second transmission. Another example of unguided media is outer space. Unguided
media allow wireless telecommunications, which is so important for businesspeople
outside the office; however, it is also useful in computer networks inside offices. In air and
space, a carrier such as radio waves or light must be used to carry the signal. Thus,
although we may refer to microwaves or light as media, they are actually the carriers of the
signal, not the media.
5. PEOPLE RESOURCES:
The Most Important Element
The people or human resources involved in business information management include internal
staff and staff at other organizations such as customers, suppliers, distributors, government
organizations and the media. In many businesses a high proportion of staff are knowledge
workers who are actively involved in creating, using and distributing information and applying
knowledge for decision making. Some of the knowledge workers are playing vital roles in
finance, human resources management, operations and marketing departments and that most of
these staff are functioning those areas would be knowledge workers.
Knowledge worker: An employee who spends a significant amount of their time in creating,
using and distributing information and applying knowledge for decision making.
The issues for the different stakeholders from the end-user to different types of managerial user
are summarized below. It can be seen that each stakeholder also faces all the concerns of those at
the level above – for example, every type of manager is also an end-user.
Internal end-user concerns include:
 Data quality – is it relevant, timely, accurate and easy to understand?
 Service quality – are the systems available when required at the speed required?
 Developing IT skills – do I have the best skills to use information and technology?
 Applications – do I have the right tools to do the job?

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Departmental Managers’ issues include:
 Selecting providers – which internal and external suppliers of information
management services do I select?
 Applications selection – are the right applications available to support the
performance of the area I am responsible for?
 Integrating with other functions – how can I share information with other
departments and shared processes?
 Knowledge management – how can the knowledge of my staff be shared and
enhanced?
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) perspective includes:
 Contribution of IS to business in terms of value-adding and cost control
 Strategic impact of IS – how can improved information management yield
competitive advantage?
 Legal implications of information management – what are the legal risks? What
are senior managers liable for in law?
IS manager or CIO perspective includes:
 IS strategy – how can IS expenditure support corporate strategy?
 Managing change and minimizing risk as new applicantions are introduced
 Resourcing – which technologies should be outsourced and which should be kept
in house?
 Security – are information services secure?
Customer or partner perspective:
 Supply of quality information from organization
 Security of own information
 Integration of systems for transfer of information
 Support through enquiries made of partner organization.
6. PROCEDURES:
a. Planning Information Systems
In recent years, a growing number of corporations have implemented enterprise ISs such as ERP
systems, SCM and CRM systems, or other systems that serve the entire organization or many of
its units. The investment of resources in such systems, both in financial and other terms, is

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substantial, as is the risk in implementing such large systems. If the implementation is
successful, the new system can significantly change the manner in which the organization
conducts business and even the products or services it sells. For all these reasons it is necessary
to plan the implementation of information systems, whether they are developed in-house, made
to order by another company, or purchased and adapted for the organization. When planning, it is
important to align IT strategies with the overall strategies of the organization. (In this discussion
the terms “IT planning” and “IS planning” are used interchangeably.)
b. Steps in Planning Information Systems
IT planning includes a few key steps that are a part of any successful planning process:
• Creating a corporate and IT mission statement.
• Articulating the vision for IT within the organization.
• Creating IT strategic and tactical plans.
• Creating a plan for operations to achieve the mission and vision.
• Creating a budget to ensure that resources are available to achieve the mission and
vision
7. DATABASE MANAGEMENT
An effective information system provides users with timely, accurate and relevant information.
This information is stored in computer files. When the files are properly arranged and
maintained, users can easily access and retrieve the information they need.
Data are pieces of information that represent the qualitative or quantitative attributes of a
variable or set of variables. Data (plural of "datum") are typically the results of measurements
and can be the basis of graphs, images, or observations of a set of variables. Data are often
viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which information and knowledge are derived.
The database approach emerged out of the need, indeed urgency, to eliminate the data management
problems.
A database could be defined as "A mechanical/automated, formally defined, centrally controlled
collection of data in an organisation". Database can also be defined as "A collection of data
organized to service many users/applications at the same time and managing data so that they appear to be
in one location".

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Instead of storing the data separately in different locations/files, for different applications, the data
records are physically organized and stored, so as to promote data sharing, availability, data
consistency, security and integrity, which are the major objectives of the database approach.
The Traditional File Approach
Data can be maintained in one of two ways: they are as follows,
a. Traditional file approach: it means there is no mechanism for tagging, retrieving, and
manipulating data.
b. Database approach: it does have this mechanism and the benefits of the database approach is
completely eliminating the inconvenience involved in accessing and manipulating data in the
traditional file approach such as program-data dependency, high data redundancy, and low data
integrity.
The Database Approach
In the database approach, data pieces are organized in the following structure they are,
Entity: an entity is any object about which an organization chooses to collect data. Entities can
be types of people, such as employees, students, or members of fan clubs; events, such as sales
transactions, sports events, or theatre shows; or inanimate objects, such as inventoried or for-sale
products, buildings, or minerals. In the context of data management, “entity” refers to all the
occurrences sharing the same types of data.
Character: The smallest piece of data is a character (such as a letter in a first or last name, or a
digit in a street address).
Field: Multiple characters make up a field. A piece of information is about an entity such as the
last name or first name of a student, or the student’s street address.
Record: The field related to the same entity is making up a collection of related records, such as
File: all the records of a college’s students, is called a file.
Database: several related files must be kept together is called database. A collection of such files
is referred to as a database. However, the features of a database can be present even when a
database consists of a single file. Once the fields are assigned names, including Last Name, First
Name, SSN, and the like, the data in each field carries a tag—a field name—and can be easily
accessed by the field name, no matter where the data is physically stored. One of the greatest
strengths of databases is their promotion of application-data independence. In other words, if an

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application is written to process data in a database, the application designer only needs to know
the names of the fields, not their physical organization or their length.
While a database itself is a collection of several related files, the program used to build
databases, populate them with data, and manipulate the data is called a database management
system (DBMS). The files themselves are the database, but DBMSs do all the work—
structuring files, storing data, and linking records. As we described previously, if you wanted to
access data from files that were stored in a traditional file approach, you would have to know
exactly how many characters were designated for each type of data. A DBMS, however, does
much of this work (and a lot of other work) for you.
c. DATABASE STRUCTURES
The relationships among the many individual data elements stored in databases are based on one
of several logical data structures, or models. Database management system (DBMS) packages
are designed to use a specific data structure to provide end users with quick, easy access to
information stored in databases.
Five fundamental database structures or models are hierarchical, network, relational, object-
oriented, and multidimensional.
i. Hierarchical Database Model:
In the Hierarchical Database Model we have to learn about the databases. It is very fast and
simple. In a hierarchical database, records contain information about these groups of parent/child
relationships, just like as a tree structure. The structure implies that a record can have also
repeating information. In this structure Data follows a series of records; it is a set of field values
attached to it. It collects all records together as a record type. These record types are the
equivalent of tables in the relational model, and with the individual records being the equivalent
of rows. To create links between these record types, the hierarchical model uses these type
Relationships.
ii. Network Database Model:
A network databases are mainly used on a large digital computers. It more connections can be
made between different types of data, network databases are considered more efficiency It
contains limitations must be considered when we have to use this kind of database. It is Similar
to the hierarchical databases, also having a hierarchical structure. A network database looks more
like a cobweb or interconnected network of records.

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iii. Relational Database Model:
In relational databases, the relationship between data files is relational. Hierarchical and network
databases require the user to pass a hierarchy in order to access needed data. These databases
connect to the data in different files by using common data numbers or a key field. Data in
relational databases is stored in different access control tables, each having a key field that
mainly identifies each row. In the relational databases are more reliable than either the
hierarchical or network database structures. In relational databases, tables or files filled up with
data are called relations (tuples) designates a row or record, and columns are referred to as
attributes or fields.
iv. Object-Oriented Database Model:
In this Model we have to discuss the functionality of the object oriented Programming .It takes
more than storage of programming language objects. Object DBMS's increase the semantics of
the C++ and Java .It provides full-featured database programming capability, while containing
native language compatibility. It adds the database functionality to object programming
languages. This approach is the analogical of the application and database development into a
constant data model and language environment. Applications require less code, use more natural
data modeling, and code bases are easier to maintain. Object developers can write complete
database applications with a decent amount of additional effort.
v. Multidimensional model:
This is a variation of the relational model designed to facilitate improved analytical processing.
While the relational model is optimized for online transaction processing (OLTP), this model is
designed for online analytical processing (OLAP).
Each cell in a dimensional database contains data about the dimensions tracked by the database.
Visually, it’s like a collection of cubes, rather than two-dimensional tables.

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