DRYING OF DURABLE CROPS

A Research Paper Submitted by the BSABEn 4 to the Faculty of the Institute of Engineering and

Applied Technology, Bulacan Agricultural State College, San Ildefonso, Bulacan.

As a Requirement for the Subject ABE 181: AB Products Processing and Storage

RENCY F. CUNANAN

December 2024
 DRYING OF DURABLE CROPS

INTRODUCTION

The drying process is essential for a sustainable agriculture. This process aims to reduce

the moisture content of the products grown after harvest. Reducing moisture is crucial to prevent

the development of fungi, molds and bacteria, and to ensure the quality and durability of

agricultural products. And drying foods and crops are a key process in the food industry,

requiring significant energy consumption. Dried foods are stable at room temperature, easy to

handle, have a long shelf life, and can be conveniently included in food preparation and

formulation. This drying process serves as either the main method of preservation or as a

secondary step in the production of certain products.

In agriculture there are several methods used to dry durable crops, each with its own

advantages depending on the type of crops, energy requirements, and desired final product

quality. Here are some common drying methods: Sun Drying, Artificial with Mechanical Drying,

Convection Drying or Convective Drying, Radiation Drying, Fluidized Drying, and Freeze

Drying. In this paper, agricultural drying principle, methods, operation of different dryers and

recent developments in drying technology are presented.

Objectives:

1. determine the principle and different methods of drying.

2. familiarize on different machines and equipment used during drying process.

 3. show the basic components of mechanical dryer,

4. discuss the principle of operation, and

5. discuss some or common problem, probable cause and possible solution of using

mechanical dryers.

METHODOLOGY

The students were tasked to search to the internet about drying durable crops focused on

understanding the principles and methods of drying and be familiarized for different equipment

machines used for drying agricultural crops, and challenges associated with that.

First the principle of drying was explored that involves different drying methods were

reviewed in different sources on the internet. including sun drying, air drying, and the other

modern methods of drying like vacuum drying, freeze drying, etc. each method was analyzed for

its different operation of drying.

Next, is the familiarization with the machines and equipment commonly used in drying

operations. A variety of drying systems were examined, including solar dryers, hot air dryers,

freeze dryers, and vacuum dryers, with a particular significance on mechanical dryers. These

dryers are widely used in small -scale or large-scale operation for food preservation and

experimentation, Also, were found several components that affect the operation of machines,

including the air circulation, heating elements, moisture removal, and the control mechanisms

that regulate the temperature, and humidity needed to the characteristics of the different types of

machines.
 The principle of operation of different mechanical dryers was discussed. The dryers was

operate by mechanical operation including circulating heated air, which accelerates moisture and

evaporation. As the air absorbs moisture from the crops, it is expelled through exhaust systems to

maintain a low humidity environment. The drying process involves heat transfer and mass

transfer with some factors such as air temperature, airflow velocity, and crop moisture content

that playing a significant role in determining the drying rate during process. The importance of

maintaining uniform drying conditions is to avoid over-drying or uneven moisture content.

Common problems with mechanical dryers were identified, such as uneven drying,

overheating, energy inefficiency, and clogging. Solutions included ensuring even airflow,

monitoring temperature, maintaining equipment, and proper storage to prevent moisture

reabsorption. This methodology provided a clear overview of the drying process, equipment, and

potential challenges, offering insights for improving crop drying efficiency and quality.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Sun Drying

One of the most common and useful methods of drying up until now is sun drying.

According to Tiwari. J Food process Tech (2016), The conventional drying system to preserve

fruits, vegetables, grains, fish, meat, wood and other agricultural products is sun drying which is

a free and renewable source of energy. Sun drying is a traditional method used to reduce the

moisture content of paddy or other crops used for drying by spreading the commodity out in the

sun. The solar radiation heats both the commodity and the surrounding air, which accelerates the

evaporation of moisture from the grains.

 This method is widely used in Asia due to its low cost compared to mechanical drying. It

requires minimal investment and is environmentally friendly, as it relies on solar energy and

produces no CO2 emissions.

However, for large-scale production, there are various known limitations of sun drying as

damage to the crops by animals, birds and rodents, degradation in quality due to direct exposure

to solar radiation, dew or rain, contamination by dirt, dust or debris. Also, this system is

laborious- and time intensive, as crops must be covered at night and during bad weather and have

to be protected from attack by domestic animals. There is also a chance of insect infestation and

growth of microorganism due to non-uniform drying process.

Air Drying or Artificial with Mechanical Drying

The introduction of high-yielding crop varieties and the progressive mechanization of

agriculture now make it possible to harvest large quantities of grain with a high moisture content
in a short time. In humid tropical and subtropical zones, given unfavorable weather conditions at

harvest time, it is often difficult to safeguard the quality of products. to satisfy the need for

increasing agricultural production, it is therefore necessary to dry the products in relatively brief

times, whatever the ambient conditions. Consequently, it is necessary to resort to artificial

drying. This method consists of exposing the grain to a forced ventilation of air that is heated to a

certain degree in special appliances called "dryers".

Under the artificial with mechanical drying is the dryer machines, Deep bed dryers, Flat

bed dryers, Continuous flow dryers, Recirculating dryers, LSU dryer (Louisiana State University

dryer), and Tray dryer.

These machines are particularly useful to dry durable crops like Palay, Grains, And beans.

The advantages of using artificial dryers is to continue the drying of crops even the rainy season

to increase and sustain the production of product

Deep bed Dryer

These batch-in-bin dryer are commonly having large capacities to several hundreds of

tons of grains or any durable crops. And it’s commonly shaped like round or rectangle. The

pictures below shown the design and how it operates the Deep bed dryer.
The operation of Deep bed dryer efficiency the following rules may be followed:

1. An air flow rate of 2.94-3.92 m 3/min per tons can be used safely in cooler or drier places,

while the higher range is around 3.43-3.92 m 3/min per tons maybe used in hot and humid

climates. Rates above 3.92 m 3/min per ton may result in uneven drying and it’s expensive

in operation.

2. If the moisture content of grains is up to 18% the layer depth of the grain should be

limited to 3 meters. For grains whose moisture content is above 18% the maximum depth

recommended is 2.5 m deep layer make 20 days to dry during favorable weather

condition and up to 40 days during bad weather. In tropics where sprouting occurs in 4-8

days, deep bed dryer is not very successful.

3. The net perforated area of the floor should be 15% of the total floor area. An air velocity

of 300m/min through the opening is preparable.

The common problem exist to these dryer are the uneven drying since its operated using air

blowers inadequate airflow is insufficient distributed to the grain, and air blockage some of the

grain blocked the air space therefore the air cant pass through all grains.

Flatbed dryer.

The flatbed dryer is a bath type dryer similar to deep bed dryers except that the surface

area of the dryer is more than and the depth of drying layer is less. Thes dryer are usually 1–2-

ton capacity only, these are designed for farm level operation shown in the figure. The grain is

spread to 0.6 to 1.2 meters deep over the perforated floor and dried.
The main advantage of this type of dryer are

1. The whole batch is dried quickly and there are less chances of spoilage due to molding,

2. There is less likelihood of over-drying of the grain , and

3. A lower air is pressure required to force the drying air.,

The disadvantages of common problems are over or uneven drying Flatbed dryers can

struggle to achieve the desired moisture content if the drying process is not

properly controlled. Both over-drying and under-drying can occur:

 Over-Drying: If the drying time is too long or the airflow is too strong, the product may

be dried beyond the optimal moisture content, leading to reduced product quality. Over-

drying can cause crops to lose their texture, color, or nutritional value.

 Under-Drying: If the drying time is too short or the airflow is insufficient, the material

may not lose enough moisture, resulting in a higher moisture content than desired. This

can lead to spoilage, mold growth, or difficulties in storage.

Continuous flow dryer

These dryers are columnar type in which wet grains flow from the top to bottom of the

dryer. The rate of the flow of grains through column can be regulated by the conveyors. These

dryers are of two types Mixing and Non-Mixing as shown below.

The operation of continuous dryer is;

1. If the grains flow is in straight path, the dryers are called mixing type, and when the grain

is diverted in the dryers, it is called mixing type dryer, Drying is accomplished by forcing

heated air across the falling layers of grain.

2. In mixing dryer, baffles are provided to cause the grain mix during the downward flow.

These dryers use low air flow rates around 50-95 m 3/min per ton and high drying

temperature around 65-degree Celsius, Zigzag columns enclosed by screen on the both

sides are used primarily to achieve mixing during drying process.

3. In non-mixing dryer. Baffles are not provided the columns and drying takes place

between two parallel screens around 15-25 cm apart. In these dryers are high air flow

rates of 125-250 m3/ min per ton can be used. It permits a faster movement of grains in

columns. D rying temperature of 54 degrees Celsius is used in non-mixing dryers.

Recirculating dryers

In continuous flow dryers, a multi-pass procedure is used to avoid excessive drying stress shown

in the figure below. During each pass, the grains are exposed to the heated air for a short time

(15- 30 min) and about 1-3% of the moisture content is removed.

 In such dryers, drying air temperature of 60-80°C is used. Drying is faster and effective

because of the continuous movement of grains during the short drying times. Between drying

passes, the grain is stored in a tempering bin for 4 to 24 hours to allow the moisture content at

the center and the surface of the grain to equalize.

Louisiana State University dryer (LSU Dryer)

This is a continuous flow-mixing type of grain dryer which is popular in India and the

U.S.A. It consists of 1) a rectangular drying chamber fitted with airports and the holding bin, 2)

an air blower with duct, 3) grain discharging mechanism with a hopper bottom, and 4) an air

heating system.
1. In Rectangular bin Usually the following top square sections of the bin are used for the

design of LSU dryer.) 1.2m x 1.2m) 1.5m x 1.5m) 1.8m x 1.8m) 2.1m x 2.1m the

rectangular bin can be divided into two sections, namely top holding bin and bottom

drying chamber.

2. In Air distribution System layers of inverted V-shaped channels (called inverted V ports)

are installed in the drying chamber. Heated air is introduced at many points through the

descending grain bulk through these channels. One end of each air channel has an

opening, and the other end is sealed. Alternate layers are air inlet and air outlet channels.

In the inlet layers, the channel openings face the air inlet plenum chamber, but they are

sealed at the opposite wall, whereas in the outlet layers, the channel openings face the

exhaust but are sealed other side.

The inlet and outlet ports are arranged one below the other in an offset pattern. Thus, air

is forced through the descending grain while moving from the feed end to the discharge

end. The inlet ports consist of a few full-size ports and two half size ports at two sides.

All these ports of same size are arranged in equal spacing between them. The number of

ports containing a dryer varies widely depending on the size of the dryer. Each layer is

offset so that the top of the inverted V ports helps in splitting the stream of grain and

flowing the grains between these ports taking a zigzag path. In most models, the heated

air is supplied by a blower.

 3. Grain discharging mechanism had three or more ribbed rollers are provided at the bottom

of the drying chamber which can be rotated at different low speeds for different discharge

rates of grains. The grain is discharged through a hopper fixed at the bottom of the drying

chamber. Causing some mixing of grain and air the discharge system at the base of the

dryer also regulates the rate of fall of the grain.

4. Air Heating System The air is heated by burning gaseous fuels such as natural gas, butane

gas, etc, or liquid fuels such as kerosene, furnace oil, fuel oil etc., or solid fuels like coal,

husk, etc. Heat can be supplied directly using gas burner or oil burner or husk fired

furnace and indirectly using heat exchangers. Indirect heating is always less efficient than

direct firing system.

And this type of dryer is sometimes equipped with a special far to blow ambient air from

the bottom cooling section in which the dried or partially dried warm grain corns in

contact with the ambient air. In general, the capacity of the dryer varies from 2 to 12 tons

of grain, but sometimes dryers of higher capacities are also installed. Accordingly, power

requirement varies widely. Recommended air flow rate is 60-70 m³/min/ton of parboiled

paddy and optimum air temperatures are 60°C and 85°C for raw and parboiled paddy

respectively. A series of dryers can also be installed.

And let’s talk about the advantage and disadvantages

 Uniformly dried product can be obtained if the dryer is designed properly.

 The dryer can be used for different types of grains.

  High capital investment

 Cost of drying is very high if oil is used as fuel.

Tray dryers

Tray dryers usually operate in batch mode, use racks to hold product and circulate air

over the material. It consists of a rectangular chamber of sheet metal containing trucks that

support racks. Each rack carries a number of trays that are loaded with the material to be dried.

Hot air flows through the tunnel over the racks. Sometimes fans are used to on the tunnel wall to

blow hot

air across the trays. Even baffles are used to distribute the air uniformly over the stack of trays.

Some moist air is continuously vented through exhaust duct; makeup fresh air enters through the

inlet. The racks with the dried product are taken to a tray- dumping station.

These types of dryers are useful when the production rate is small. They are used to dry

wide range of materials but have high labor requirement for loading and unloading the materials

and are expensive to operate. They find most frequent application for drying valuable products.

Drying operation in case of such dryers is slow and requires several hours to complete drying of
one batch. With indirect heating often the dryers may be operated under vacuum. The trays may

rest on hollow plates supplied with steam or hot water or may themselves contain spaces for a

heating fluid. Vapor from the solid may be removed by an ejector or vacuum pump

Fluidized bed dryer

Fluidized bed dryer consists of a steel shell of cylindrical or rectangular cross section. A

grid is provided in the column over which the wet material is rests. In this type of dryer, the

drying gas is passed through the bed of solids at a velocity sufficient to keep the bed in a

fluidized state. Mixing and heat transfer are very rapid in this type of dryers. The dryer can be

operated in batch or continuous mode.

Fluidized bed dryer is suitable for granular and crystalline materials. If fine particles are

present, either from the feed or from particle breakage in the fluidized bed, there may be

considerable solid carryover with the exit gas and bag filters are needed for fines recovery.

The main advantage of this type of dryer are rapid and uniform heat transfer, short drying

time, good control of the drying conditions. And in case of rectangular fluid-bed dryers separate

fluidized compartments are provided through which the solids move in sequence from inlet to
outlet. These are known as plug flow dryers; residence time is almost the same for all particles in

the compartments. But the drying conditions can be changed from one compartment to another,

and often the last compartment is fluidized with cold gas to cool the solid before discharge.

Solar Dryer

Solar drying of agricultural products can be advantageous alternative to sun drying for

the farmers of developing nations. It can be a means of supplementing or replacing artificial

dryers with consequential savings in fuels and costs.

Solar drying provides higher air temperatures and lower relative humidities than simple

sun drying. It enhances the drying rates and lower final moisture content of dried products. As a

result, the risk of spoilage is reduced, both during the actual drying process and in subsequent

storage. In many cases, solar drying can be feasible alternative wholly or partially to artificial

drying. In solar drying system, a source of motive power is required for some types but

considerable saving in energy costs is possible.

There have two basic principles are inherent in the operation of solar dryers, firstly the

solar heating of air, and secondly the removal of moisture from the wet material by the heated

air.
Classification of solar dryers can be made on the following criteria.

1. The degree of exposure of the crop to insolation. Based on degree of exposure the solar

dryers are further classified as direct and indirect types.,

2. The mode of air flow through the dryer. Based on these criteria, the solar dryers are

further classified as natural and forced convection dryers.

3. The temperature of the air circulated to the drying chamber

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The choice of drying method depends on several factors, including the scale of

production, the type of crop, local climate conditions, and available resources. Sun drying

remains a viable option for small-scale, low-cost operations, especially in regions with abundant

sunlight. However, for large-scale production or regions with unfavorable weather conditions,

artificial drying methods—such as deep bed dryers, continuous flow dryers, and solar dryers—

offer more reliable and efficient solutions.

While artificial dryers come with higher initial costs, they provide better control over the drying

process, ensuring uniformity and reducing the risk of spoilage. Solar dryers, in particular, present

a promising middle ground, offering an energy-efficient and sustainable alternative for

smallholder farmers, especially in regions with high solar radiation.

Ultimately, the ongoing challenge is to balance cost, efficiency, and environmental impact while

ensuring that drying processes are adapted to the specific needs of farmers and agricultural
systems. As agricultural production continues to grow, the evolution of drying technologies will

play an essential role in ensuring food security and minimizing post-harvest losses.

For the recommendation

 If you are a small-scale farmer and don’t have artificial dryers, choose the traditional sun

or solar drying methods for low cost and high efficient production.

 If you are in big farming, I suggest that both traditional and artificial dryers you should

use, for better and good drying efficiency and quality production, and to avoid

unnecessary things.

 Flatbed dryer in artificial drying is one of the most recommended dryers in terms of

drying efficiency, capacity, and quality.

REFERENCES

Choudhary, A. (2024, April 17). Principle of tray dryer. Pharmaguideline.

https://www.pharmaguideline.com/2017/09/principle-of-tray-dryer.html

Lodhi, A. S. (2021, February 7). Grain dryers [Slide show]. SlideShare.

https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/grain-dryers/242381108

Solar Drying - energypedia. (n.d.). https://energypedia.info/wiki/Solar_Drying

Tiwari, J Food Process Technology [Journal of Food J Processing & Technology]. (2016). A
review on solar drying of agricultural produce. Researchgates. Retrieved November 25,
2024, from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333080865_A_review_on_Solar_Drying_of_A
gricultural_Produce

Van Halem, E. (2024, February 21). How does a Fluid Bed Dryer work? | Tema Process. Tema
Process. https://temaprocess.com/products/fluid-bed-dryers/how-does-a-fluid-bed-dryer-
work/