Linking Words

63 Cause, reason, purpose and result
A Cause and reason

You probably know how to use words like because, since and as to refer to the cause of or reason
for something. Here are some other ways to express cause and reason:
The collision was due to the icy conditions.
The collision was caused by ice on the road.
The cause of the collision was ice on the road.
The heavy rain caused the river to flood.
Owing to the icy conditions, the two cars collided.
Language help
If you use owing to with a clause, you must follow it with the fact that. In this example, the clause is
underlined. Owing to the fact that the conditions were icy, the two cars collided. (NOT Owing to the
conditions were icy, …)
Here are some other ‘cause’ words and typical contexts. They are all rather formal, and more suitable
for written use.
The rise in prices sparked (o ) a lot of political protest. (o en used for very strong, perhaps violent,
reactions to events)
The President’s statement gave rise to / provoked / generated a lot of criticism. (slightly less strong
than spark (o ))
The new law has brought about / led to great changes in education. (o en used for political/social
change)
This problem stems from the inflation of recent years. (explaining the direct origins of events and states)
The court case arose from / out of allegations made in a newspaper. (the allegations started the process
that led to the court case)
B Reasons for and purposes of doing things

Her reason for not going with us was that she had no money. or The reason (why) she didn’t go with
us was that … (less formal)
The following sentences are all fairly formal, and more frequent in written English:
I wonder what his motives were in sending that email? (purpose)
I wonder what prompted her to send that message? (reason/cause)
She wrote to the press with the aim of exposing the scandal. (purpose)
I’ve invited you here with a view to resolving our di erences. (sounds a bit more indirect than with the
aim of)
He refused to answer on the grounds that his lawyer wasn’t there. (reason)
The purpose of her visit was to inspect the equipment.
C Results
Most of these expressions are fairly formal, and more frequent in written English:
He did no work. As a result / As a consequence / Consequently, he failed his exams.
The result/consequence of all these changes is that no one is happy any more.
The examples with consequence/consequently sound more formal than result.
His remarks resulted in everyone getting angry. (verb + in)
The events had an outcome that no one could have predicted. [result of a process or events, or of
meetings, discussions, etc.]
The upshot of all these problems was that we had to start again. (less formal than outcome) When the
election results were announced, chaos ensued. (very formal)
132 English Vocabulary in Use Upper-intermediate

Exercises
63.1 Make two sentences into one using the ‘reason and purpose’ words in brackets. Look at B
opposite if you aren’t sure.
1 There was a controversial decision. She wrote to the local newspaper to protest. (prompt)
The controversial decision prompted her to write to the local newspaper to protest.
2 I didn’t contact you. I’d lost your phone number. (reason)
3 I will not sign. This contract is illegal. (grounds)
4 The government passed a new law. It was in order to control prices. (aim)
5 She sent everyone flowers. I wonder why? (motives)
6 The salary was high. She applied for the job. (prompt)
63.2 Make full sentences using ‘cause and reason’ words from A opposite.
1 closure of 20 mines → strikes in coal industry
The closure of 20 mines sparked (off) strikes in the coal industry.
2 The announcement of higher taxes → a strong attack from the opposition
3 The new Act of Parliament → great changes in industry
4 The failure of the electrical system → the train crash
5 A violent storm → the wall collapsed
6 Food shortages → serious riots in several cities
7 The food shortages → bad economic policies
63.3 Fill in the missing prepositions.

1 My reasons for not joining the club are personal.
2 The purpose this pedal is to control the speed.
3 I came here the aim resolving our dispute.
4 His stupidity has resulted everyone having to do more work.
5 All this arose one small mistake we made.
6 It was done a view lowering inflation.
7 That press article has given rise a lot of criticism.
63.4 Use the pictures to describe the causes and results of events in di erent ways.
1 … the road was blocked. There was heavy 2 … everyone got a refund.
snow, which caused the road to be blocked.
3 … the customers got angry. 4 … we had to walk home.
English Vocabulary in Use Upper-intermediate 133

64 Concession and contrast
A Verbs of concession
Concession means accepting one part of an idea or fact, but putting another, more important
argument or fact against it.
It can be expressed with a conjunction, e.g. Although they were poor, they were independent, or an
adverb, e.g. He is a bit stupid. He’s very kind, nevertheless, or through verbs like those in the table
below.
example paraphrase and comments

I acknowledge/accept that he has worked I agree but … (accept is less formal than
hard but it isn’t enough. acknowledge)
I admit I was wrong, but I still think we I accept I’m guilty of what I’m accused of.
were right to doubt her.
I concede that you are right about the You have won this point in our argument.
goal, but not the method. (rather formal, used in debates/arguments)
B Adverbs and other phrases showing contrast

These examples are fairly informal:
OK, you’re sorry. That’s all well and good / That’s all very well, but how are you going to pay
us back?
You shouldn’t seem so surprised. A er all, I did warn you.
It’s all very well saying you love dogs, but who will take it for
walks if we do get one?
He is boring, and he is rather cold and unfriendly,
but, for all that, he is your uncle and we should
invite him.
These examples are more formal:
Admittedly, she put a lot of e ort in, but it was all wasted.
I thought she didn’t like me. In fact, the reverse was true. We’re not almost there at all.
In Europe they use metric measurements. In contrast, the USA
Quite the opposite: we’ve got
still uses many non-metric measurements.
five miles to go yet.
It’s not actually raining now. On the other hand, it may rain
later, so take the umbrella.
C Collocating phrases for contrast

When it comes to politics, Jamie and Isla are poles apart.
There’s a world of di erence between being a friend and a lover.
There’s a great divide between city residents and people who live in the country.
A yawning gap divides the rich and poor in many countries.
There’s a huge discrepancy between his ideals and his actions.
Language help
On the other hand means ‘that is true and this is also true if we look at it from a di erent
viewpoint’, e.g. Life in the country is nice and quiet. On the other hand, you have to go a long way to
get to the shops. On the contrary is a rather formal expression which means ‘that is not true; the
opposite is true’, e.g. A: You must be pleased with your exam results. B: On the contrary, I thought
they would be much better.
134 English Vocabulary in Use Upper-intermediate

Exercises
64.1 Rewrite these sentences using the most likely verb from A opposite (there is usually more than
one possibility).
1 I know that you weren’t solely to blame, but you must take some responsibility.
I accept that you weren't solely to blame but you must take some responsibility.
2 OK, OK, I was wrong, you were right; he is a nice guy.
3 The company is prepared to accept that you have su ered some delay, but we do not accept liability.
4 She didn’t deny that we had done all we could, but she was still not content.
64.2 Complete the sentences with phrases from B opposite.
1 OK, you’ve cleaned the kitchen; 2 No need to panic. 3 She’s bossy and sly, but
that's all very well , but what , it ,
about the dining room? doesn’t start till six. she is a friend.
5 I know you’ve been very busy

4 saying preparing for the school concert.
you’ll pay me back soon; , but you still
when is what I want to know! mustn’t neglect your homework.
64.3 Use the word in brackets in an appropriate collocation to make comments on these statements.
1 Some people believe in nuclear weapons, some in world disarmament. (divide)
There's a great divide between those who believe in nuclear weapons, and those who believe in world disarmament.
2 She says one thing. She does quite the opposite. (discrepancy)
3 Toby believes in saving as much as possible. Catalina prefers to spend all the money they earn. (poles)
4 Being a student’s one thing; being a teacher’s quite another. (world)
5 People in the north of the country have a totally di erent standard of living from those in the south.
(gap)
64.4 Write a sentence before each of these sentences.

1 I expected Lydia to be tall and dark. The reverse was true; she was short, with fair hair.
2 On the other hand, it does have a big garden, so I think we
should rent it.
3 On the contrary, the number of cars on the road is
increasing yearly.
4 In contrast, in Britain you drive on the lef.
5 Quite the opposite; I feel quite full. I had a huge breakfast.
64.5 Choose between on the other hand and on the contrary and explain what the speaker means.
1 I’m not worried; on the contrary , I feel quite calm. It's nottrue that I'm worried.
2 It’s expensive, but , we do need it.
3 In some ways I’d like to change my job, but , I’d miss all my colleagues.
4 I don’t think he’s lazy; , he puts in a great deal of e ort.
5 She doesn’t speak Japanese well; , she only knows a couple of phrases.
6 This hotel looks very attractive; , it’s more expensive than the first one we
looked at.
English Vocabulary in Use Upper-intermediate 135

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63 Cause, reason, purpose and result

A Cause and reason

B Reasons for and purposes of doing things

132 English Vocabulary in Use Upper-intermediate

63.3 Fill in the missing prepositions.

3 … the customers got angry. 4 … we had to walk home.

English Vocabulary in Use Upper-intermediate 133

example paraphrase and comments

B Adverbs and other phrases showing contrast

C Collocating phrases for contrast

134 English Vocabulary in Use Upper-intermediate

64.2 Complete the sentences with phrases from B opposite.

5 I know you’ve been very busy

64.4 Write a sentence before each of these sentences.

English Vocabulary in Use Upper-intermediate 135

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