CHAPTER II

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The atmosphere

Andrews (2010), describes the earth’s atmosphere as a laboratory where many physical and

chemical processes do occur and Salby (1996), also describes the earth’s atmosphere as a

gaseous envelop that wraps the planet earth. In studying the atmosphere, the earth’s atmosphere

like those on other planets play a critical and a crucial role in solar energy redistribution across

the sun and the planet’s surface, thereby sustaining temperature balance and impacting overall

climate patterns.

The earth’s atmosphere is made up of many gases like nitrogen (N 2), oxygen (O2), argon (Ar),

carbon dioxide (CO2), etc. which are vital for sustaining life as it provides breathable air,

shielding nature from harmful radiations like the ultraviolet (UV) radiations, retaining heat and

preventing extreme temperature fluctuations. Without the atmosphere, globally average

temperatures of about 59˚F (15˚C) would be surpassed. Carbon dioxide (CO 2(g)) plays a very

important role is temperature regulation by absorbing and trapping radiations (Dhaka & Kumar,

2023; UCAR, 2021). The various element of gases that are found within the earth’s atmosphere

are approximately 78 % of nitrogen, 20.95 % of oxygen, 0.93 % of argon with other gases like

carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, neon, etc. making up the additional percentage remaining

(Allen & Cox, 2000; Dhaka & Kumar, 2023; UCAR, 2021). Other particles like dust, pollen and

spores, salt from sea spray, smoke, volcanic ash, and other harmful pollutants being introduced in

to the atmosphere as a result of human activities. These listed particles (solid or liquid) are

termed aerosols.

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Figure 1: A pie chart showing the components of the earth’s atmospheric gases.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atmosphere3.svg

This layer of mixture of gases called the atmosphere extends from the surface of the earth to

about 6,200 miles (10,000 km) and it’s subdivided into five layers in a stratified manner. The

commonest parameters used in dividing the atmosphere are temperature, gas composition, and

the electron density or electron concentration (Knížová et al., 2021). These various divisions of

the atmosphere each with its own characteristics and functions are interconnected and may

overlap to show how complex the dynamical atmosphere is. Divisions made on the basis of gas

compositions divide the atmosphere into two and these are homogeneity of the atmosphere

(homosphere) and heterogeneity of the atmosphere, (heterosphere). Homosphere is a layer

characterized by a relatively uniform composition of atmospheric gases, with major constituents

such as nitrogen and oxygen well mixed throughout. With the heterosphere, which is located at

higher altitudes, there is non-uniformity of gas composition due to the increasing influence of

ionization processes which leads to a higher concentration of ionized particles. The electron

2
concentration-based layer, which is the ionosphere is defined by the free electron concentration,

which varies due to interactions with the solar radiations and the earth’s magnetic and electric

field. These vertical divisions of the atmosphere are based on the thermal properties of the

various vertical regions of the atmosphere. The vertical structure of the atmosphere can simply

be defined as how the various properties of the atmosphere like atmospheric pressure,

temperature, chemical composition of the atmosphere, atmospheric density all change as we

move upward above the surface of the earth heading toward space, and the vertical distribution

of pressure, temperature, atmospheric density are governed by the hydrostatic equilibrium law,

radiative equilibrium law, and the convection in the troposphere especially in a static, spherical

atmosphere with a specified composition (Chamberlin et al., 1987). The temperature of the

earth’s atmosphere varies along with altitude and this is because of the selective absorption of

solar radiation particularly by certain wavelengths in specific regions. Solar radiation, emitted by

the sun as a blackbody at 5800K serves as the main source of energy for the earth’s system

whiles the energy flux ( F s ¿ corresponds to F s=σ T s ----- (1); where σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann

constant which is 5.67*10-8 W.m-2K-4; Ts is the temperature of the earth which is approximately

5800K, and Fs is the energy flux. These divisions of the atmosphere are the troposphere,

stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and the exosphere which represents a transition from

the earth to space and the earth’s gravitational pull is small at the exosphere and this results in

gas molecules vanishing into the outer space. In between each layer of the atmosphere is the

pause region namely tropopause (between troposphere and the stratosphere), stratopause

(between stratosphere and mesosphere), and the mesopause (between mesosphere and the

thermosphere). Fig. 2 below shows the structure of the atmosphere vertically and this image is

3
based on the Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) satellite data from 2007 to 2011 (Schwartz et al.,

2008).

We can make some declarations from Fig. 2 on the various layers of the atmosphere as a function

of temperature. In the troposphere, temperature (tropospheric temperature) decreases in higher

altitudes and at the troposphere and this is influenced by both radiative and convective processes,

and all daily weather activities are carried out in the troposphere. The height of the troposphere

region is approximated to be 10 km. Observing from Fig. 2, we can see a direct opposite of the

temperature – height relation (temperature invasion) in the troposphere happening in the

stratosphere. Temperature is directly proportional to height in the stratosphere and this is

because, the rising and sinking tropospheric air must be stopped from mixing with stratospheric

air. In the mesosphere, where the atmospheric pressures are low with low density, air molecules

are not likely to be seen in this atmospheric layer, that is, about ~99% of gas molecules are seen

below the mesosphere making temperatures very hot in the region. Temperatures are high in a

decreasing altitude as seen in Fig. 2 and this is because there is no ozone to absorb the ultraviolet

radiations.

4
Figure 2: Global mean temperature profile of the earth’s atmosphere using data from 2007 to 2011. (COSMIC and

MLS satellite data are used to show mean temperature profile)

The few molecules of air that are able to stay in the mesosphere, they intend to lose more energy

than absorbing. In the thermosphere, little absorption of energy can cause a great increase in

temperature and this is because of the very low air density experienced in this atmospheric layer.

Combining the mesosphere to the thermosphere is what we call the ionospheric layer.

In the atmosphere, there are certain interactions that goes on between the atmosphere and some

electromagnetic radiations which have different wavelengths and frequencies. Actually, the

earth’s atmosphere cannot be classified as an electromagnetic wave so it does not have a definite

frequency assigned to it but rather its daily interactions with electromagnetic radiations gives the

layer of the atmosphere a frequency range, wavelength, forces acting there in the region with its

energies found or acting in the said region. For example, the ionosphere has a frequency range of

0.1 MHz to about 20 MHz, even with that, its dependent on which layer of the ionosphere (D, E,

F1, or F2) the radiation or particle is transmitting (Nykiel et al., 2019; Kalita & Bhuyan, 2017;

5
Radicella & Migoya-Orué, 2021). With the atmosphere as a protective coat helping in reducing

the amount of solar radiation from the sun to the earth, there are other forces and energies that act

in the atmosphere apart from the different types of waves (radio waves, microwave radiation,

infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X – rays and gamma rays, etc.) that exist in

the atmosphere with their respective wavelengths and frequencies and these energies and forces

are, gravity, coriolis force, centrifugal force, friction, pressure gradient force, all examples of

active forces in the atmosphere, and examples of energies in the atmosphere are thermal energy,

kinetic energy, potential energy (stored energy due to atmospheric pressure and density

gradients), chemical energy (stored in atmospheric gases and aerosols), latent energy (associated

with phase changes, e.g., evaporation and condensation), etc. These three parameters or factors

namely frequencies, energies, forces interact with each other and influence one another, shaping

the atmosphere and its behaviors (Electromagnetic Spectrum - Introduction, 2023). This work, is

to investigate the ionospheric patterns and to know where the disturbances in the ionospheric

patterns are as a result of climate variability, so our concentration will be on the ionosphere

(mesosphere and the thermosphere).

2.2 The ionosphere

Kennelly and Heaviside’s hypothesis on the earth being surrounded by ionized atmospheric layer

acting as a reflector, preventing radio waves from escaping into space. Their hypothesis was first

proven by Appleton and Barnett (1925) first direct experiment on frequency change using the

BBC transmitter positioned at Bournemouth. The experiment proved that radio waves arrived at

an elevated angle and the reflection heights were around 100 km to 200 km above the earth’s

surface (Seemala, 2023). Before Kennelly and Heaviside’s proposal and Appleton and Barnett’s

experiment, early mathematical physicist had hypothesized that it would be impossible to receive

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radio signals over long distances beyond the earth’s curvature due to diffractive attenuation. This

was proven in the year 1882 when Balfour Stewart discovered that the daily changes in the

earth’s magnetic field could be explained by the currents in the upper atmosphere whiles he was

studying on the behavior of the earth’s magnetic behavior. His reflection hinted the likelihood of

atmospheric influences on long distance radio transmission (Martyn, 1947). Nine years on in

1901, Italian physicist, Guglielmo Marconi demonstrated the reception of long-distance radio

signals across the Atlantic Ocean (Chamberlain & Hunten, 1987).

After several experiments and research in to the atmosphere, it was proven that the upper

atmosphere which spans from an altitude of 50 km to about 1000 km contains these multiple

distinct ions. The ionized region was called “ionosphere” by Watson – Watt which became a

universally accepted name (Seemala, 2023). The ionosphere which is the upper layer of the

atmosphere is approximately above 50 km in the earth’s atmospheric zone where vigorous solar

radiation dislodges electrons from molecules and atoms resulting in the formation of ions

carrying positive charges, and the electron density is highly dependent on the interaction of solar

activities and the earth’s geomagnetic field (Layers of the Atmosphere, 2021).

The formation of the ionosphere is due to a process called photo-ionization and with this process,

solar radiations like the ultraviolet (UV) rays and the X-rays interact with neutral atoms and

molecules of air gases. Bradbury (1938) believe that linear or beta (β) recombination also do

occur in some of the regions of the ionosphere especially the D-region and the F2-region whiles

the E-region and F1-region are formed as the result of the absorption of special bands of solar

radiation and that negative-ion formation is the predominant process in these regions and these

regions have abundant electrons to cause the reflection of electromagnetic waves. The formation

of the F2-region which is more crucial in the reflection of radio waves in the ionosphere is not

7
only attributed to the absorption of a particular band of solar radiation unlike other layers of the

ionosphere. The F2-region’s formation is more likely due to the increased rate of electron –

positive ion recombination especially during the day (Chamberlain & Hunten, 1987).

Due to the flow of electrons in the ionosphere, its capable of conducting electric currents and

also serves as a medium of scattering, deflecting, and reflecting radio waves, which impact radio

communication, radar satellite systems, etc. The ionosphere which has an upper boundary and a

lower boundary only has a limit for the boundary which is about 50 km to 70 km above the earth

surface whiles its upper boundary has no limit but for the purposes of experiment and research,

the upper boundary is peg at 2000 km. At higher altitudes of the ionosphere, is the region called

the magnetosphere which extends up to tens of thousands of kilometers into space. In the

magnetosphere, charged particles are influenced by the earth and the sun’s magnetic field.

Figure 3: Typical variation of ionospheric density values, calculated using IRI 2016 model, during high and low

solar active times. (Seemala, 2023)

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The theory of the stratification of the ionosphere in fig. 3 was developed thoroughly by

Sydney Chapman (1931) in his book “the absorption and dissociation or ionizing effect of

monochromatic radiation in an atmosphere on a rotating Earth” who was part of the early

radio engineers interested in advancing long range radio communication and for that matter,

the need to research into this region of the atmosphere with excess plasma existing in

sufficient amount to affect radio wave propagation (S. S. Rao & Singh, 2021; Chamberlain &

Hunten, 1987; Seemala, 2023). Knížová et al. (2021) clearly states that, another parameter

used in dividing the ionosphere into low latitudes, mid-latitudes, and the higher latitudes is

the presence of the geomagnetic field coupled with the rotation of the earth. The complexity

of the ionosphere is more than a single layer and this is because there are many different

gases in the atmosphere each with different wavelength of radiation to become ionized.

Sankar (2021) available gases involved in ionization due to the presence of solar radiation are

molecular and atomic oxygen (O2 and O), molecular and atomic nitrogen (N 2 and N), atomic

hydrogen (H), and helium atom (He) with each of these gases varying in concentration at

different height in the ionosphere. Hydrogen and helium atom ionize at an altitude above 600

km, whiles atomic oxygen does ionize at an altitude above 200 km. Molecular oxygen (O 2)

ionizes at a height below 200 km. The resultant ion-electron density is the balance between

the production and loss of electrons. Electrons and ions loss are due to processes called

recombination and diffusion which happens at different rates depending on the ionospheric

height. The variations in the production and losing of an electron and ions lead to the creation

of a density profile with altitude, resulting in the creation of distinct layers within the

ionosphere. These divisions of the ionosphere are D-layer, E-layer, and F-layer, (Sankar,

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2021; Seemala, 2023) of which the F-layer is further divided into two, the F1-layer and the

F2-layer. As already stated, the ionosphere and its various layers (D, E, and F) display

differences in chemical composition and particle concentration with distinct features such as,

ionization patterns, electron density, and altitude ranges. The variations play a very critical

role in influencing the propagation of radio waves and other electromagnetic signals through

the earth’s atmosphere. In the D-region of the ionosphere, an altitude around 50 km to 90 km,

ionization only occurs during daylight hours due to interactions with solar radiation. In the E-

layer (> 90 km to almost 160 km), there is a high electron concentration as compared to the

lower layer of the ionosphere. In the E-layer, after sunset, the electron density in this region

rapidly decreases by a factor of 10 or more before stabilizing at a nighttime level.

The F-layer, which is the last layer of the ionosphere, has an altitude range of above 160 km

and further divided into two regions namely F1 and F2. The F1 which is mostly absent or less

distinct during the night peaks in altitude of about 200 km during day time and the F2 layer

with highest electron concentration around an altitude of about 300 km during the day and

experiences a shift to higher altitudes during night time.

The ionosphere is very sensitive to anthropogenic related processes and natural processes.

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, severe weather systems, and other atmospheric disturbances

are all natural processes that influence the behavior of the ionosphere likewise artificial

explosions which is a human-induced processes do affect the behavior of the ionosphere.

Atmospheric coupling, which is the interconnection of the atmospheric layers through

atmospheric waves allows the transfer of the energy and momentum between them. This

atmospheric coupling transmits disturbances from the lower atmosphere to the ionosphere.

Electrodynamical coupling is an area where much research needs to be done since a lot of

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 aspect in this field remain to be comprehended. Due to the motion of electrically charged

particles in the ionosphere and other layers of the atmosphere, the electrodynamical coupling

and this is described by the global electric circuit. Seemala (2023) practically prove that the

electron density profile of the ionosphere varies with altitude and also spatially with latitude.

The electron density also varies temporarily with time of day (diurnal variation), time of year

(seasonal variation), and solar cycle (11-year variation).

Figure 4:Variations of ionospheric structure during day and night time (Thabit et al., 2020).

In the ionosphere, solar activity causes acceleration of the electrons whiles the refraction of

electromagnetic waves is dependent on the total electron content, TEC. The sun which is mostly

quiescence can sometimes be disturbed and this may give rise to violent outburst of

electromagnetic radiations and solar particles. These radiations or particles can change the

distribution of the electrons and ions in the ionosphere reducing the effectiveness of some of the

best ionospheric models used in solving the disturbances in this region of the atmosphere.
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Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) receivers sometimes loss track of satellite signals as

they travel from the position of the satellite about an altitude of 20000 km above the surface of

the earth. Langley et al. (2011) at an altitude of about 20000 km, GNSS are being affected by the

space environment and the earth’s atmosphere as they travel from the satellite’s position in space

to the receiver’s position on the surface of the earth. The signals from the satellite are affected in

the plasma region of the earth’s atmosphere where refraction of signals take place and therefore

affecting their travel speed and travel time. In the ionosphere, the delay in the travel time is a

function of the electron density (number of electrons present) but in the lower atmosphere where

molecules and atoms are neutral in terms of conductivity, the refraction of signals that occur in

this region is a function of atmospheric pressure, atmospheric temperature, atmospheric

humidity, and other climate variables (Langley et al., 2011). In this paper, we are to further find

other factors that contribute to the ionospheric and tropospheric effect on GNSS data readings by

calculating the total electron content and the scintillation that occurs in the ionosphere, and the

climate variables effect on satellite readings.

2.2.1 Ionospheric scintillation and TEC

According to Bolaji et al. (2012), Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based

navigation system initially developed by the US Department of Defense (DoD) for military

purposes but later extended for civilian use. It helps locate ourselves on Earth. The accuracy of

GPS signals can be affected by the Earth's atmosphere, with the ionosphere causing the most

significant degradation. The efficiency of the Global Navigation Satellite Systems’ functions can

be negatively imparted during intense space weather episodes, especially during periods of

heightened solar activity periods due to disturbances and turbulences in the ionosphere (Kumar,

2023). Goswami et al. (2018) studied the relative performance of various satellite constellations

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(such as the United States’ Global Positioning System (GPS), Russia’s Globalnaya

Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (GLONASS), and Galileo Satellite created by the

European Space Agency for the European Union) under adverse ionospheric conditions related to

equatorial scintillations in the equinoctial months of 2014 and March 2016 at Calcutta (22.58°N

88.38°E geographic; 32°N magnetic dip) and September 2016 at Siliguri (26.72°N, 88.39°E;

39.49°N magnetic dip) which is near the northern edge of the equatorial ionization anomaly in

the Indian longitude sector. This study revealed that fluctuations in the carrier – to – noise ratio

(C/No) ranging from 36.6% to 60% under constrained ionospheric conditions at both Calcutta

and Siliguri stations (Kumar, 2023).

According to Seemala (2023), spatial irregularities in the phases of satellite signals are as a

result of the variations in electron contents in the ionosphere. The interferences caused in signal

phases can be constructive interference or destructive interference. In constructive interference,

there is an increase in signal amplitude whiles a decrease in signal amplitude is as a result of

destructive interference. These fluctuations in signal amplitude are termed as ionospheric

scintillation (Kintner et al., 2007). Dopler shift which occurs when there is a change in frequency

due to the relative motion between the satellite and the receiver also causes receivers to lose lock

on signals from satellites (P. V. S. R. Rao et al., 2006a). During ionospheric scintillation, the

destructive interference causes the power signal to be low which comes to affect the receiver in

its ability to monitor signals from satellites. Discontinuity in TEC variations happens when there

is several loses of phase lock loop (PLL) events between the receiver and the satellite and this is

known as cycle slip. Therefore, both doppler shift and cycle slip all affect ionospheric

scintillation.

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In calculating scintillation of the ionosphere, the total electron content (TEC) should be known

since scintillation occurs when irregularities in the electron density of the ionosphere causes

rapid changes in the phase and amplitude of transmitted signals. In practice, satellite signals are

lost or becomes very difficult to track during scintillation events. Scintillation and ionospheric

activities cause difficulties in satellite-receiver signal readings.

During geomagnetic storm events, the cycle slip in the polar regions are very high as TEC is

affected hugely. In the day, especially at 10am, atmospheric scientists have proven that TEC

increases and peaks around 2pm local time. In the ionosphere, delay of signals from satellites are

being affected by geographic variability (Langley et al., 2011) in the electron content. In mid-

latitude regions signals delay is typically within the range of 2m to 5m (Lu, 2006) even though

the ionosphere is relative stable as compared to the equatorial regions which has the highest

electron density. The middle latitude is being affected by a larger variability correlated with

auroral activity. Offenbacher and Thornstrom (2020) worked on satellite signals and found out

that signals from satellites are refracted by the ionosphere and the degree of refraction is

dependent on three main factors:

1. Degree of ionization (total electron content (TEC)).

2. Frequency of carrier signals.

3. Angle of incidence.

The degree of ionization (TEC) can be calculated by; TEC =∫ N e ds ; where Ne is the number of

electrons present between the path of the satellite and receiver; ds is the path of the satellite

signals. Total electron content (TEC) is normally measured in units defined by 1 total electron

content unit (TECu) is equal to10-16m-2.

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TEC values are derived from the global navigation satellite system and satellite-borne signals,

but TEC values do not provide much information about the electron density profile structure of

the ionosphere. To know much about the electron density profile structure of the ionosphere, a

parameter known as “slab thickness” (τ) has been introduced. Slab thickness is calculated when

the peak electron density (NmF 2) and the vertical total electron content (VTEC) values are

known. With the combination of TEC and slab thickness, ionospheric phenomena can be easily

comprehended and also, we can determine its impact on radio wave propagation (Jayachandran

et al., 2004). “The ionospheric slab thickness (τ) defined as a ratio of the total electron content

(TEC) to the F-region peak electron density (NmF 2)” and has been examined during the solar

maximum (1981) and minimum (1985) phases of an intense, the 21st, solar cycle (Jayachandran

et al., 2004). The research done by Jayachandran et al. (2004) in different latitudinal regions on

the earth, Hawaii (low latitude), Boulder (mid-latitude), and Goosebay (high latitude) utilized the

mconcluded that ionization of NmF2 and TEC increase during the day time of magnetic quiet

days of solar maximum and this results in a thicker ionosphere as compared to the night time at

non-auroral latitudes. The daily peak to minimum values of slab thickness varied from 1.3 to

3.75, with peak values often observed at pre-sunset hours and post-sunset hours. The day-to-day

variability of slab thickness (τ) was found to vary from 10% during the day and (equinox, high

latitude) to 67%at night (summer, mid-latitude) during solar minimum, and from 10% during day

(winter and equinox, mid-latitude) to 56% at night (equinox, by high latitude) during at solar

VTEC
maximum. slabthickness , τ = ; where VTEC is vertical electron density, and NmF 2 is peak
NmF 2

electron density. Radicella and Migoya-Orué (2021) measuring the signal scintillation of

ionospheric irregularities, two indices were used to characterize ionospheric scintillation. These

are the phase scintillation index (σ φ) and amplitude scintillation index, (S 4).

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 √
2
2 −¿ Si >¿
Amplitude Scintillation index , S 4 = ¿ S >
i 2
¿ ¿ ; where Si is the carrier-to-noise ratio
¿ Si >¿

(C/NO) in the linear scale of the ith-satellite.

Phase Scintillation index , σ φ =√ ¿ φ' 2 >−¿ φ ' >¿ 2 ¿; where φ' is the detrended carrier phase. Pi et al.

(1997) ionospheric irregularities are monitored by using TEC change of rate (ROT) which is
i i
TEC t −TEC t −1
defined as ROT = ; where i ith-satellite; t is the time in epoch given in units of
t−1

TECu. Cherniak et al. (2014) studied, processed, and analyzed their data which has been

collected from three of their ground-based global navigation satellite’s network pf the Northern

Hemisphere. In doing so, the rate of total electron content change (ROT) and the rate of total

electron content change index (ROTI) parameters were used to study the occurrences of TEC

fluctuations. The conclusion of the study showed that, during space weather events, the

occurrences and magnitude of TEC fluctuations increase dramatically when used the GNSS

network to measure. Basu et al. (1999) measurement of ROTI was able to predict the presence of

scintillation causing irregularities when the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) did a study

to compare amplitude scintillation with fluctuations in TEC in 1998, from the month of February

to April at Ascension Islands (14.45˚ W, 7.95˚ S). The standard way of measuring the rate of TEC

change (ROT) is by using the rate of TEC change index (ROTI) which is the standard deviation

of ROT on time interval (Offenbacher & Thornstrom, 2020; Radicella & Migoya-Orué, 2021).

ROTI =√ ¿ ROT 2>−¿ ROT > ¿2 ¿ .

As GPS-based navigation applications grow in trans-ionospheric communications for

spaceborne vehicles and surface transportation, measuring TEC has become increasingly

important. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), total

16
electron content (TEC) is the total number of electrons present along a path between a radio

transmitter and a receiver. The frequency of carriers can be calculated by;

40.3 ( f 21−f 22 )∗TEC p

C 2−C1 = ; where f1 and f2 are frequencies transmitted by satellites; C 1 and C2
f 21 f 22

are pseudorange codes for the corresponding frequencies, f 1 and f2. Likewise, TEC can be

calculated from phase measurements;

40.3 ( f 21−f 22 )∗TEC Φ

L1−L2= 2 2
; where L1 and L2 are phase measurements corresponding to
f1f2

frequencies f1 and f2. The frequencies f1 and f2 are constants 1575.42 MHz and 1227.6 MHz

respectively. TEC𝚽 and TECp represents carrier phase TEC and pseudorange TEC respectively.

Carrano and Groves (2009), Seemala (2023) explains the differences between pseudorange TEC

(TECp) and the carrier phase TEC (TEC𝚽). TECp measurements are being considered absolute,

i.e. they provide a direct measurement of electron content along the path. In any case, the

measurements tend to be noisy and are influenced by the differential code biases (DCBs)and the

errors are being described as systematic as a result of the differences in the satellite and the

receiver. The carrier phase TEC (TEC𝚽) are more precise as compared to the pseudorange TEC

or code measurement TEC but the phase TEC measurements are ambiguous. In resolving the

limitations of each other, combination of TEC p and TEC𝚽 is mostly used. Integrating both TECs,

it is possible to improve the accuracy of TEC while minimizing phase ambiguity. Phase

ambiguity is eliminated after using the code measurement TEC as a reference, total electron

content becomes more accurate and reliable.

The accuracy of ionospheric modelling depends on mapping functions with the Klobuchar model

being the most used (Langley et al., 2011). There have been improvements in ionospheric

17
modeling in recent times, examples of such models are the TaiWan Ionosphere Model (TWIM),

IGS Global Ionospheric Model (GIM), etc. (Macalalad et al., 2014) but local inhomogeneities

(small – scale variations in TEC) still remains a problem to be solved by scientists. In the

ionosphere, signals slow down when crossing, that is, time of travel delay and phases of signals

are advanced when crossing the ionosphere. The speed of propagation of a signal is proportional

to the total electron content and its inversely proportional to the square of signal frequency;

40.30
Ionospheric Delay, I f ( m )= 2
TEC ; where c is the speed of light in free space. I f (m) is the
cf

time delay of a signal in the ionosphere at the L 1 band (Klobuchar, 1996). Rao et al. (2006),

Adewale et al. (2012), Bagiya et al. (2009), all generally accept that the GSV4004B receiver is

the most extensively employed and deployed satellite for ionospheric research and studies.

Twenty-two (22) of the total twenty – four (24) channels of the GSV4004B possesses, are

designed to simultaneously capture L 1 and L2 band signals from satellites. These channels are

specifically engineered to record TEC and ionospheric scintillation on the L 1 frequency which is

1575.42 MHz. The twenty – third (23 rd) channel is made to measure local background noise

(C/No) and scintillation index S4 correction factors. The last channel of the GSV4004B receiver

is configured to monitor a satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS), which detects phase,

amplitude, and code/carrier divergence for each satellite tracked on L1 sampling rates of 50 Hz

and 1 KHz, respectively. (Kumar, 2023).

To enhance the accuracy of the final navigation solution, the previous reliance on a single

frequency band (L1) for total electron content (TEC) estimation has been upgraded to incorporate

dual-frequency bands, namely L1 and L2 (Bolaji et al., 2012). ∆ t=(40.3) ( TEC

2
)
2 ; where ∆t is
c [f 1 −f 2 ]

the time delay in the L1 and L2 simultaneous transmissions from GPS satellites through the
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ionosphere to the ground station. The dispersive nature of the ionosphere refracts radio signals,

causing time delay (Ginzberg, 1970; Chen, 1984, Davies, 1989; and Hofmann-Wellenhof et al.,

2001).

An advantage of using dual-frequency instead of single-frequency receiver is that it can

concurrently utilize 1575.42 MHz for L1 and 1227.60 MHz for L2 frequencies (Carrano and

Groves, 2009; Kumar, 2023; Bolaji et al., 2012). This setup facilitates the measurement of the

relative phase delay between the two signals, known as slant TEC (sTEC) (Bolaji, 2012). Kumar

(2023) defines Slant TEC (STEC) as “the electron column density along an oblique line of

sight.” This statement simply means that STEC measures the total number of electrons between

the satellite and the receiver but not certainly in the path of the receiver's location. The global

position satellite move across different parts of the atmosphere and the electron content of the

ionosphere varies both spatially and temporally, STEC values can’t be used to accurately

describe the ionospheric conditions at a specific location and the reason being that STEC is

affected by the satellite's elevation angle and the varying electron density in the ionosphere. To

have the exact ionospheric condition at a particular place, slant TEC should be converted to

vertical total electron content (VTEC) and this is done by making some assumptions about the

ionosphere and the plasmasphere. Some of these assumptions are:

1. Assume that the ionosphere and the plasmasphere are horizontally stratified.

2. The stratification of the ionosphere and the plasmasphere are also considered to be

spatially uniform.

The above assumptions allow us to use the ionospheric thin shell mapping function and this

mapping function enables us to convert slant TEC to vertical TEC at a specific location called

the ionospheric piercing point (IPP) which is estimated to be an altitude of about 350 km

19
(Alfonsi et al., 2011) above the earth’s surface. With the conversion of the VTEC, considerations

are made on the satellite’s elevation angle and the varying electron content in the ionosphere and

the plasmasphere.

Figure 5: Schematic of Slant TEC to Vertical TEC conversion (Seemala, 2023)

[ b R + bs +b RX ]
VTEC=STEC − ;
S ( E)

S ( E )={1−¿ ¿

𝑺𝑻𝑬𝑪 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝐸𝐶 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟; 𝑺(𝑬) 𝑖𝑠

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝑧, 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (𝐼𝑃𝑃); 𝑬 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠; 𝑵𝒆 𝑖𝑠

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦; 𝒅𝒔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑹𝑬 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛

𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑚; 𝒉𝒔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ; 𝒃𝒔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒

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𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦; 𝒃𝑹 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦; 𝒃𝑹𝑿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠.

Various IGS associate analysis centers (IAAC) provide VTEC values which can be used in

different applications like climate modelling that stimulate the ionosphere’s electron density.

Assimilating these vertical total electron content values into climate models involve combining

them with the model’s prediction using data assimilation techniques, and this allows the model to

incorporate real-world data and improve its accuracy. The outcome of this assimilation process is

a weather-like representation of the ionosphere’s electron content in all time ranges, including

past conditions, current conditions, and forecasting or future conditions (Radicella & Migoya-

Orué, 2021).

2.3 Climate variables and their impact on ionospheric scintillation

Macalalad et al. (2014), Seemala (2023) agreed that, ionospheric disturbances (scintillation) that

cause delay in travelling signals from the satellite to the receiver on earth is been affected by

many factors such as location of receiver, time of day, solar activity, earth’s magnetic field, etc.

After the emergence of upper atmospheric physics and space research, many of the upper

atmospheric scientists have come to agree that latitudinal change have a great effect on the

measurement of TEC. Langley et al. (2011) said, the refraction of signals in the troposphere and

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stratosphere is a function of atmospheric pressure, temperature, etc. but are the refraction of

these signals able to cause loss of lock of the signals by the receivers on earth?

The latitude has been subdivided into three main regions namely, high latitude, mid-latitude, and

low latitude. Most scientific researches have been done at the mid-latitude because the mid-

latitude exhibits clearly daily and seasonal variations. The low latitude has a dynamic ionosphere

and its very sensitive to plasma instabilities as a result of the magnetospheric ring currents. In

general, the ionospheric disturbances are linked to the activities of the sun like sunspot activity P.

V. S. Rao et al. (2006), geomagnetic storms Prikryl et al. (2015), low solar activity Bolaji et al.

(2012) etc. either direct or indirect.

In equatorial (< 10˚) and low latitude (10˚ to 30˚) regions , there is the highest electron density

(Langley et al., 2011) and many researches who have studied the lower latitude like (Davies &

Hartmann, 1997), Liu and Chen (2009), P. V. S. R. Rao et al. (2006b), Zhao et al. (2005), Essien

et al. (2018) have all confirmed that TEC values significantly vary during certain times of the

day which the strongest TEC sensitivity happens during pre-sunrise periods and that of great

magnitude during the day and this is as a result of both extreme solar ultraviolet ionization and

the upward vertical drift (E х B). Bagiya et al. (2009) concluded that “in low latitude regions, the

highest daytime peak TEC values depend greatly on the strength of the equatorial ionization

anomaly”. Their study analyzed GPS satellite signals at Rajkot, India, to study ionospheric

variations in Total Electron Content (TEC) during low solar activity periods from 2005 to 2007.

The results show maximum TEC during Equinoctial months (March, April, September, October),

minimum during Winter months (November, December, January, February), and semi-annual

variation during Summer (May, June, July, August). The ionospheric total electron content

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(TEC) variations over the low-latitude regions are tough to model and predict this is because of

the equatorial ionization anomaly (EIA) present (Shenvi & Virani, 2023).

The ionospheric scintillation effect principally occurs in these three regions, equatorial region,

auroral region, and the polar regions and these three regions have and in these various regions,

there exist different physical processes leading to the formation of electron density irregularities

(Tiwari et al., 2010). Jiao and Morton (2015) confirmed Tiwari et al. (2010) said by juxtaposing

scintillation effect at high‐latitude and at equatorial region on GPS signals during the maximum

of solar cycle 24. Jiao and Morton (2015) concluded that scintillation at the equatorial zone is

much severe and last longer as compared to scintillation effects at high latitudes which has a

more moderate effect and this is characterized by phase fluctuations rather than amplitude

fluctuations. The study which was conducted at Alaska, Ascension Islands, Jicamarca, Peru, and

Gakona showed that effect of scintillation is dependent on geographic location during

geomagnetic activities, solar activities, and seasonal changes. Jiao et al. (2013) in their earlier

publication titled “Characterization of high-latitude ionospheric scintillation of GPS signals”

showed that, at high latitudes, scintillation is mostly characterized by phase scintillation and not

amplitude scintillation. According to Basu et al. (2002), irregularities in the ionosphere

especially during solar maximum happen in the equatorial regions and the high latitudes.

Scintillation, which is been affected by latitude is also affected by activities of the sun. These

activities are geomagnetic storms, solar flares, sunspots, etc. The tropospheric climate may not

have a direct influence on ionospheric scintillation but we can use the climate variables like

ENSO (El Nino – Southern Oscillation) levels at different regions of the equator to examine the

influence of earth’s climate on scintillation. Studies have shown that, it is difficult and

challenging to see a direct impact of El Nino and La Nina on the ionosphere and this is because

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of the complexity of the atmosphere’s ionospheric system (Pedatella & Forbes, 2009; Chang et

al., 2018). According to the World Health Organization (2023) countries in the tropics (Africa,

Latin America, South and South- East Asia) are mostly affected by La Nina and El Nino. Since

ENSO causes a shift in the global climate and thus disrupts the atmospheric circulation pattern

which connects the tropics to the mid-latitude jet streams. La Nina which is the cold part of

ENSO, and El Nino, which is the warm part of ENSO become one of the major sources of annual

global climate variability, which is second to the sun’s influence on earth’s climate. Even though,

it is difficult to monitor the signature of ENSO on the ionosphere, scientist have been able to

prove that, ENSO has a link with the distribution of electrons and ions in the atmosphere. Sun et

al. (2019) confirmed that ENSO’s La Niña phase, influenced the thermospheric wind diurnal

eastward 3 (DE-3) and stationary planetary wave 4 (SPW-4) in the northern hemisphere during a

period of low solar activity (2007-2011). The influence of La Nina (strong Lanina years of

2010/2011) in the ionosphere’s DE-3 and SPW-4 had an impact on the distribution of electrons in

the ionosphere which directly had an impact on the total electron content (TEC). They used data

collected by the FORMOSAT - 3/COSMIC satellites to measure electron density. Before Sun et

al. (2019) conclusion, Chang et al. (2018) had made a prediction on La Nina and El Nino having

an indirect influence on the ionosphere’s E layer. They said, the dense sporadic E (Es) of the

ionosphere’s E – layer contains ionized metals which can disrupt radio signals as a result of

scintillation. The phase fluctuations (S4) index in the mid-latitude E – layer showed unknown

connection to ENSO variations in the troposphere. These tides influence wind shears in the lower

thermosphere (above the E – region). The modulated wind shears then affect the formation of

sporadic E (Es) layers leading to variations in the extreme scintillation based on the ENSO cycle.

Chang et al. (2018) concluded by saying “results indicate that ENSO signatures can be

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transmitted to E s formation mechanisms, potentially through modulation of vertically

propagating atmospheric tides that alter lower thermospheric wind shears”. Baldwin et al.

(2001), Lieberman et al. (2007) on variability of tides in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere

(MLT) has been found to be influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in these tidal

sources as well as the background wind fields of the middle atmosphere. Of particular interest

are changes related to the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) of the middle atmosphere. The

atmospheric tides dominating the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT) wind fields are

excited by water vapor heating and latent heat release in the troposphere, as well as ozone

heating in the stratosphere and how the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) modifies

tropospheric convective activity.

Sun et al. (2013), Liu et al. (2006), Liu et al. (2011), Chou et al. (2017), all study the

ionosphere’s reaction towards natural events like solar storms, eclipse, earthquakes, typhoons,

etc. by using the dense ground-based global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) which has seen

technological improvements and also improvements in numbers. The reactions of the ionosphere

towards the events mentioned above is as a result of the high resolution of the GNSS both in

space (less than 1˚ in both latitude and longitude) and in time (30s). GNSS TEC observation data

has been compiled into global ionospheric map (GIM) to monitor global ionospheric weather and

climate (Sun, 2019). Das and Pan (2016), Sun et al. (2018) soundings of Radio Occultation (RO)

were used to record the changes in stratospheric temperature during the 2009, July 29 total

eclipse, the El Nino Southern Oscillation effect on the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) from the

stratosphere to ionosphere.

Sun et al. (2019) agrees that, severe weather or climate activities cannot only influence the

troposphere but rather may also modulate the upper atmosphere especially when Nishioka et al.

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(2013) showed that an enhanced Fujita scale 5 tornado happened in Moore, Oklahoma on May

20, 2013 affected the concentric waves and short-period oscillations in North America. Apart

from Nishioka, Song et al. (2017) also reported that typhoons Rammasum and Matmo in

southern China caused ionospheric disturbances which was detected by the ground-based GNSS

TEC detection.

Newman et al. (2016) reported an abnormal and irregular upward displacement of the westerly

phase pressure levels from 30 hPa to 15 hPa during the 2015/2016 warm phase of ENSO.

Newman et al. (2016) reported an anomalous upward displacement of the westerly phase when

normally, the quasi-biennial oscillation shows a downward displacement of the westerly phase.

The phase moved from 30 to 15 hPa pressure levels during the 2015/2016 El Nino Southern

Oscillation warm phase. During ENSO 2015/2016, the F3/C RO temperature recorded the

sudden disturbances in the QBO which is averaged ±5˚ N latitude at each pressure level. Das and

Pan (2016), Sun et al. (2018) have shown that during ENSO warm phases, the QBO period can

be shorten not only in the stratosphere but can be done in the mesosphere and lower

thermosphere (MLT) region. This happens due to the interaction between the broad-band

atmospheric waves, tides, and background wind field. In this work, we are to investigate the

potential trends in the ionosphere due ENSO effect as the story of ENSO’s effect on ionospheric

scintillation isn’t that clear.

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