CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Anshuman Jaiswal, a

student of Class 12th (Science-PCB) has
successfully completed the project on the
above mentioned topic under the guidance of
Mrs. Bhavana Joshi (Subject Teacher) during
the year 2024-2025 in partial fulfillment of
Biology Practical examination conducted by
CBSE, New Delhi.

Signature of Examiner Signature of Teacher

 OBJECTIVE

To sTudy The basics of immuniTy

and iTs Types, along wiTh
anTigen-anTibody sTrucTure and
inTeracTion and The basic
sTrucTure and working of human
immune sysTem
 CONTENTS
 Immunity
 Types of Immunity
 Antibodies : General Structure and their Types
 Antibody-Antigen Interaction
 Vaccinization and Immunization
 Auto-Immunity
 Allergies
 Immune system of our body
 Examples of Immuno-deficiency Diseases along with
their brief description
 Immunity:-

Every day we are exposed to large number of infectious agents. However, only a
few of these exposures result in disease because our body is able to defend itself
from most of these foreign agents. This overall ability of the host to fight the disease-
causing organisms ,conferred by the immune system is called immunity. Hence, it
is also known as disease resistance.

o The lack of immunity is known as susceptibility.

 Innate Immunity:-

It is non-specific, natural type of defense that is present at the time of birth. It is

inherited by the organism from the parents and protects it from birth. For ex.
Humans have innate immunity against distemper, a fatal disease of dogs. This is
accomplished by providing 4 types of barriers to the entry of the foreign agents into
our body. These are —

(i) Physical barriers: Skin (its outer tough layer Stratum corneum) is the main
barrier which prevents entry of the micro-organisms. Mucus coating of the epithelium
lining the respiratory, gastrointestinal and urino-genital tracts also help in trapping
microbes entering our body.

(ii) Physiological barriers: Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from
eyes–all prevent microbial growth.

(iii) Cellular barriers: Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body like poly
morpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils) and monocytes and natural killer
(type of lymphocytes) in the blood as well as macrophages in tissues can
phagocytose and destroy microbes.

(iv) Cytokine barriers: Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called interferons which
protect non-infected cells from further viral infection.
 Acquired Immunity:-

It is pathogen specific. It is also known as adaptive or specific immunity. It is

characterized by memory. When our body encounters a pathogen for the first time, it
produces a response called primary response which is of low intensity. Subsequent
encounter with the same pathogen brings forth a highly intensified secondary or an
amnestic response. This is credited to the fact that our body appears to have
memory of the first encounter.

It is of two types : Antibody Mediated and Cell Mediated.

1) Antibody Mediated :

The primary and secondary immune responses are carried out with the help of two
special types of lymphocytes present in our blood, i.e., B-lymphocytes and T-
lymphocytes. The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in response to
pathogens into our blood to fight with them. These proteins are called antibodies.
The T-cells themselves do not secrete antibodies but help B cells produce them.
Because antibodies are found in the blood, the response is also called as humoral
immune response.
 Structure of Antibody:-

Antibodies are immune globulins(Ig) which are produced in the body in response to
the antigen or foreign bodies. Thus, all antibodies are Immunoglobulins but all
Immunoglobulins are not antibodies.

IgG serves as a model of basic structural unit of all Ig. Each antibody molecule has
four peptide chains, two small called light chains and two longer called heavy
chains. Hence, an antibody is represented as H2L2. The heavy chain has large no. of
amino acids while the light chain has smaller no. of amino acids. A disulfide bond
joins a light chain with a heavy chain. Two disulfide bonds also link the two heavy
chains. This part of the antibody displays considerable flexibility and is called the
hinge region. The stem of the Y shaped antibody monomer is called the FC region,
so named because when antibody structure was first being identified, it was a
fragment (F) that crystallized (C) in cold storage. It lacks the ability to bind to
antigen. Two identical fragments of Y shaped molecule possess the antigen-binding
sites and are thus named fragment antigen binding (Fab). The antigen binding
sites bind to the specific antigens in a lock and key pattern forming an antigen
antibody complex.

Each Y-shaped antibody molecule has atleast two binding sites that can attach to a
specific epitope (antigenic determinants of cell wall) on an antigen. Antigens thus
combine with the antibodies. The combination is very much like the lock and key
analogy.
Different types of antibodies like IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG are produced in our body.
 Antigen Antibody Interaction:-

Epitopes (antigenic determinants) are

components of the antigen. Each antigen
carries more than one epitope. Each Y
shaped antibody molecule has atleast two
binding sites that can attach to a specific
epitope on an antigen. An antibody can also
bind to identical epitopes on two different cells
at the same time which can cause
neighbouring cells to aggregate. The
antibodies can inactivate the invading agent
in one of the following ways:-

1. Agglutination: It is the clumping of

microorganisms or blood cells, typically due to
an antigen antibody reaction.

2. Opsonization (Adherence): For

opsonizating the antigen, such as a bacterium
is coated with antibodies that enhance
phagocytosis. Making microbes more
susceptible to phagocytosis is known as
opsonization and antibodies are called
opsonins.

3. Precipitation: Phagocytic cells ingest agglutinated microbes more readily. Also,

soluble antigens may come out of solution and form a more easily phagocytized
precipitate when cross linked by antibodies. This process is called precipitation.

4. Neutralization: The reaction of antibody with antigen blocks or neutralizes some

bacterial toxins and prevents attachment of some viruses to body cells. This is
called neutralization.

5. Lysis: Some powerful antibodies attack plasma membrane of the cell and thereby
causing rupture of the plasma membrane allowing escape of the cell contents is
called lysis (dissolution).
2) Cell Mediated: The second type is called cell-mediated immune response or cell-
mediated immunity (CMI). The T-lymphocytes mediate CMI. Very often, when some
human organs like heart, eye, liver, kidney fail to function satisfactorily,
transplantation is the only remedy to enable the patient to live a normal life.
Then a search begins–to find a suitable donor. Grafts from just any source –an
animal, another primate, or any human beings cannot be made since the grafts
would be rejected sooner or later. Tissue matching, blood group matching are
essential before undertaking any graft/transplant and even after this the patient
has to take immune suppressant all his/her life. The body is able to differentiate
‘self’ and ‘non-self’ and the cell-mediated immune response is responsible for the
graft rejection.

o The cells of the immune system are derived from the pluripotent stem
cells in the bone marrow. Pluripotent means a cell that can differentiate
into many different types of tissue cells.
o When antibodies on B cell’s surface bind with antigens, the B cell is
activated and divides, producing clones. These clones give rise to plasma
B cells and memory B cells. This phenomenon is called clonal selection.
 Active and Passive Immunity:-

When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living or dead
microbes or other proteins, antibodies are produced in the host body. This type of
immunity is called active immunity. Active immunity is slow and takes time to give
its full effective response. Injecting the microbes deliberately during immunization or
infectious organisms gaining access into body during natural infection induce active
immunity.

It is further of two types : Natural and Artificial

A person who has recovered from an attack of small pox or measles or mumps
develops natural active immunity.

Artificial active immunity is the resistance induced by vaccines.

When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign
agents, it is called passive immunity. Ex: The yellowish fluid Colostrum secreted by
mother during the initial days of lactation has abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect
the infant. The foetus also receives some antibodies from their mother, through the
placenta during pregnancy.

It is also of two types : Natural and Artificial

Natural passive immunity is the resistance passively transferred from the mother to
the foetus through placenta. Ex: IgG antibodies can cross the placental barrier to
reach the foetus.

Artificial passive immunity is the resistance passively transferred to a recipient by

administration of antibodies. This is done by administration of hyper immune sera of
man or animals which contains antibodies. For ex: anti-tetanus serum (ATS) is
prepared in horses by active immuniastion of horses with tetanus toxoid, bleeding
them and separating the serum. ATS is then used for passive immunization against
tetanus.
 Vaccinization and Immunization:-

Vaccine is a preparation/suspension or extract of dead/attenuated (weakened)

germs of a disease which on inoculation (injection) into a healthy person provides
temporary/permanent active/passive immunity by inducing antibodies formation.
Thus antibody provoking agents are called vaccines.
The principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the property of ‘memory’
of the immune system. In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of
pathogen or inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine) is introduced into the
body. The antibodies produced in the body against these antigens would
neutralize the pathogenic agents during actual infection. The vaccines also
generate memory–B and T-cells that recognize the pathogen quickly on
subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with a massive production of
antibodies. If a person is infected with some deadly microbes to which quick
immune response is required as in tetanus, we need to directly inject the
preformed antibodies or antitoxin (a preparation containing antibodies to the
toxin). Even in cases of snakebites, the injection which is given to the patients,
contain preformed antibodies against the snake venom. This type of immunization is
called passive immunization.

Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the production of antigenic polypeptides

of pathogen in bacteria or yeast. Vaccines produced using this approach allows
large scale production and hence greater availability for immunization, e.g., hepatitis
B vaccine produced from yeast.

o Toxoid is a modified bacterial toxin that has been made non toxic but
retains the capacity to stimulate the formation of antitoxin.

Vaccines are classified as follows:-

1. 1stgenerationvaccines:Producedbyconventionalmethods.Ex:smallpox vaccine, Salk’s
polio vaccine

2. 2ndgeneration vaccines: Prepared with the help of genetic engineering echniques

.Ex: Hepatitis B and Herpes vaccine

3. 3rdgenerationvaccines :Synthetic vaccines which are under trial.

 Allergies:-

The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in

the environment is called allergy. The substances to which such an immune
response is produced are called allergens. The antibodies produced to these are
of IgE type. Common examples of allergens are mites in dust, pollens, mould,
spores, feathers, fur, animal dander, etc. Symptoms of allergic reactions include
sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty in breathing. Allergy is due to
the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast cells. For
determining the cause of allergy, the patient is exposed to or injected with very
small doses of possible allergens, and the reactions studied. The use of drugs
like anti- histamine, adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy.
Somehow, modern- day life style has resulted in lowering of immunity and more
sensitivity to allergens –more and more children in metro cities of India suffer from
allergies and asthma due to sensitivity to the environment. This could be because of
the protected environment provided early in life.

Some forms of allergy are:-

Hay Fever: Allergy due to pollen of grasses, trees and other plants. It is
characterized by inflammation of the membrane lining the nose.

Asthma: The tissue surrounding the bronchioles of the lungs swell up and compress
the bronchioles. Hence, there is difficulty in breathing. Treatment is with
bronchodilators with or without corticosteroids, usually administered via aerosol or
dry powder inhalers.

Anaphaylaxis (Anaphylactic shock): An allergic reaction involving all the tissues

of the body and occurs in a few minutes after the injection of an antigen such as
penicillin.

 Auto Immunity:-

If the immune system fails to recognize self from non self and starts destroying the body’s
own proteins, this leads to some malfunctions which are called autoimmune
diseases and such an immunity is known as autoimmunity. Sometimes due to
genetic and other unknown reasons, the body attacks self-cells. This results in
damage to the body and is called auto-immune disease.

Ex: Addison’s disease, Auto immune haemolytic anaemia, Rhemumatoid arthritis,etc.

 Immune System in the Body:-

The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble
molecules like antibodies. Immune system is unique in the sense that it recognizes
foreign antigens, responds to these and remembers them. The immune system also
plays an important role in allergic reactions, auto-immune diseases and organ
transplantation.

Lymphoid organs: These are the organs where origin and/or maturation and
proliferation of lymphocytes occur. The primary lymphoid organs are bone marrow
and thymus where immature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen-sensitive
lymphocytes. After maturation the lymphocytes migrate to secondary lymphoid organs
like spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of small intestine and appendix. The
secondary lymphoid organs provide the sites for interaction of lymphocytes with the
antigen, which then proliferate to become effector cells.

The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including
lymphocytes are produced. The thymus is a lobed organ located near the heart and
beneath the breastbone. The thymus is quite large at the time of birth but keeps
reducing in size with age and by the time puberty is attain edit reduces to a very
small size. Both bone-marrow and thymus provide micro-environments for the
development and maturation of T-lymphocytes. The spleen is a large bean-shaped
organ. It mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes. It acts as a filter of the blood
by trapping blood-borne microorganisms. Spleen also has a large reservoir of
erythrocytes. The lymph nodes are small solid structures located at different points
along the lymphatic system. Lymph nodes serve to trap the micro-organisms or
other antigens, which happen to get into the lymph and tissue fluid. Antigens
trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of lymphocytes present
there and cause the immune response. There is lymphoid tissue also located within
the lining of the major tracts (respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts) called
mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). It constitutes about 50 per cent of the
lymphoid tissue in human body.
 Immuno- deficiency Diseases:-

These are conditions where the defense mechanisms of the body are weakened,
leading to repeated microbial infections.

These may be primary or secondary:-

Primary immunodeficiency diseases: They exist from birth. A person may be

without B cells or T cells or both from the birth. Ex: Severe combined immune-
deficiency disease (SCID).

Secondary immune-deficiency diseases: Factors such as malnutrition, infections,

metabolic disorders may lead to defects in specific and non specific immunity. Thus,
they are more common than primary immune-deficiency diseases.
Ex: AIDS ,Hodgkin’s disease

SCID: The person who is suffering from SCID lacks both B cells and T cells from
birth. It is a serious genetic disease in which the person is highly susceptible to
infection.

AIDS: It is a disorder of cell mediated immune system of the body. There is a

reduction in the number of helper T cells which stimulate antibody production by B
cells. This results in the loss of natural defence against viral infection.
 NCERTClass1
 2BiologyTextbook
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_(medical)
 http://www.hammiverse.com/lectures/43/2.html
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundles
s- biology/chapter/antibodies/
 http://www.microbiologynotes.com/differences-
between- primary-and-secondary-immune-response/