o, ~e o, ~~ e, ~ oO “~ o, “~s-clements: Boelements rey Meregorized into Mayor, THN! ond ace vem tel arisen of ther rene elmo cai on thei 5 " : it are require ements that 3 : _ tet a oerrogen,oxgen, roUen, Pree They neue eeyegen ana oxygen ae te Mos phosphorus, and sulfur. i ied in smaller quantities compared to Minette elements that are rea asa : I for life. They in seivplogal procasees, euch as nerve transmission, muscle contraction, and Bone formation. ii, Trace elements: sree elements that are requited in very small amounts by living organisms but are stil vital for their health and functioning. Examples include iron Zine, copper, manganese, iodine, selenium, and molybdenum. Despite being present in trace amounts, these elements serve as cofactors for enzymes, participate in hormone synthesis, and contribute to various metabolic reactions. nisms Here's ed in large quantities by living organisms phosphorus, and sulfur Among ant, followed by ritrogen 70r 0 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Proportions of bio-elements in human body Potassium, sulphur Sulphur, chlorine, s Zinc and iodine. orine, sodium, magnesium, iron, copper, may | Copper, manganese Oxygen 65% Nitrogen 3% Carbon 18% Calcium 2% Hydrogen 10% Phosphorus 1% relative mass | %2. ore:_Each gram of Lipid /fat supplies the body with about 9 calories, more than ‘ie that supplied by proteins or carbohydrates. Because fats are such an efficient / tw of energy, the body stores any excess energy a fat sa terms of eneray content per gram: ;, Carbohydrates: 7 : Provide approximately 4 Calories (4 keal) per gram. i, Proteins: Also provide approximately 4 Calories (4 keal) per gram Lipids (Fats): Provide approximately 9 Calories (9 kcal) per gram. Q3. How biochemistry is important for study of physiology, cell biology and anatomy? ‘Ans: Importance of biochemistry: Study of biochemistry is greatly helpful to explore the cell biology and anatomy as all the structures of the living organisms (cells, tissues and organs etc.) have specific biochemical organization Similarly, knowledge of biochemistry is essential to study the physiology of organisms because life processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, digestion inheritance, are explained in biochemical terms. Q4. Define gene (a localized region of DNA that codes for a protein). ‘Ans: A gene is a specific sequence of DNA that contains the instructions for building a functional protein or RNA molecule. It serves as the basic unit of heredity and carries the information necessary for the development, growth, and functioning of an organism Q5. Name structural and energy producing nature of carbohydrates. Ans: Structural nature: Carbohydrates can serve as structural components in cells and tissues, such as cellulose in plant cell walls and chitin in the exoskeletons of arthropods. Carbohydrates are primary broken down into glucose during cel processes and ATP production Q6. What are different plant ns: Ans: BI eins like beans, lentls, peas, ymon source: of protel it seeds are most coms source of energy for organisms. They can be Jjular respiration, providing fuel for metabolic sources of proteins? PlantMaryam NCP Sertes (SLOs Based! Lentils Soya Beans Protein Sources in Plants Q7. How primary structure of protein is important? Ans: The primary structure of a protein, which is the linear sequence of aming acids, is crucial because it determines the protein's overall structure and function. ‘Any alteration or mutation in the primary structure can affect the protei’s folding pattern, stability, and ultimately its function. This structure is essential fer defining how the protein interacts with other molecules and performs its specfc biological roles within the cell and organism i Se de Me om Ooo ao eho ofQu. ans: L il, iti, iv. vw vie vii, viii, i. ii ii, iy ma vi vil, V8 Ans; cells and as a whole in bodies of living organisms ow uplus are uportant ror living organisms? Fats and oils have several important functions in living organisrns, Butter, ghee and vegetable olls are used for cooking and frying of food, preparing bakery products and sweets, In mammals a layer of fat is present under the skin. This layer acts as a thermal insulator. Fats protect delicate organs from shocks. A layer of fat around our heart and kidneys protect these organs from injury. Lipids provide some vitamins such as A, D and E which are essential for health. These vitamins are insoluble in water and soluble in lipids. Fats and oils are important food stores in living organisms. They provide about twice, as much energy per gram as do carbohydrates, Vegetable oils are converted into vegetable ghee or margarine by catalytic hydrogenation Flats and cils are also used for the manufacture of materials ike soaps and detergents, cosmetic, polishes, paints and varnishes. In our bodies cholesterol is essential for the synthesis of several hormones, vitamin D and bile acids. OR (Second Answer) Lipids are very useful biological molecules and have Many important roles in Phospholipids and cholesterol are components. of plasma membrane structure. Lipids act as energy stores in fat cells, liver and in blood. One gram of lipids krovides 9.1 kcal of energy which is double than carbohydrates or protein Many lipids act as important steroid hormones e.g, testosterone, Aldosterone ete. Some lipids act as insulators against atmospheric heat and cold Waxes are used by insects for constructing their hives, Waxy cuticle of leaves act as protective and waterproof layer to avoid water loss, Some vitamins are lipid in nature as they are derived from cholesterol e. @ vitamin A, D, E and K. Explain the compos! n Of chromatin material? 'n a non-dividing cell, hereditary material is found in the form of thin fibres ‘led chromatin, Chromatin is composed mainiy of cols of DNA bound to basicMaryam NCP Series (SLOs Based proteins called hletons, Te une of ONA Bead ike structures called nucleo ee Wiel DNA between wo consecutive Auclooso linker ONAAs scrosut, rucloosomos. and inkor ONA give “beads on appearance. Nucleosome DNA wound around histone proteins Nucleosome Each chromatin fibre consists of a single molecule of DNA. During cai division chromatin fibres condense to form chromosomes. Nuclear Chromatin fibre Condensed chromosome Chromatin and Chromosome Structure . Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in its cells. Chromosomes exist in pairs. Two identical chromosomes of a pait are called homologous chromosomes. Cells of diploid organisms contain two of each type of chromosomes, one homologue from female parent and one homologue from male parent. Each human cell has 46 chromosomes in the form of 23 homologous pairs. Although chromosomes are made up of DNA and histone proteins, hereditary material is DNA, Each chromosome carries a number of genes on it Q3. What are different types of disaccharides? How are they produced? Mentions their sources, Ans: Disaccharides are carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharide units Joined together by a glycosidic bond. Some common types of disaccharides include! i 7 i Sucrose is formed by the condensation reaction between glucose and fructose molecules.tls commonly found in sugarcane, sugar boots, and fru apples, and pin lke ‘oranges, Pore gee, Pineapples, Sucrose Is the most common swoetaner used in food and ji. Lactose: Lactose is com 1 glucos. yeas, composed of IUEOEO nd Graton males inked by a Sources: It is primarily found in mammalian milk, includ including cows milk, goat’ human breast milk. Lactose serves as h poet's rik, ond human be actose the primary carbohydrate source for infant ii, Maltose: Maltose consists of two glucose molecules linked by an ax is formed during the breakdown of starch or glycogen molecules mrseena toned. ‘Sources: It is commonly found in germinating grains, malted barley some. vegetables. Maltose is also used in the production of beer and malted eviragee Disaccharides are produced through a process called condensation or dehydration synthesis, where two monosaccharide molecules react in the presence of an enzyme known as glycosyltransferase. During this reaction, a hydroxyl group (-OH) is removed from one monosaccharide molecule and a hydrogen atom (-H) is Temoved from the other, resulting in the formation of a covalent bond between the two monosaccharides. A molecule of water (HO) is released as a byproduct of the reaction ‘When disaccharides are ingested, they are broken down into their constituent monosaccharides by specific enzymes known as disaccharidases, which are located on the surface of the small intestine. These enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis reaction, where a molecule of water is added to the glycosidic bond, breaking it and releasing the individual monosaccharides for absorption into the bloodstream Disaccharides play imponent roles as energy sources and. sweetening agents in foods and beverages, and their production and breakdown processes are essential for nutrient absorption and metabolism in living organisms. Q4. Give an account of genes on chromosomes. Ans: Gene: Gene is a small segment. of DNA in a chromosome where hereditary information is stored Genes are functional units of here chromosome is made of DNA containing many gent particular set of instructions for a particular functior usual terms, genes are responsible for heredity anes are units of biological information which usually occur in Pare The jfic position of gene on the partners of the gene pair are called alleles. The speciic Posttn N Arr ccuy ‘chromosome is called locus. Alleles share the same Kee in homologous pairs, two alleles of a given gene oocupy corresponding loci on these ,dity as they are made of DNA. The es, Every gene comprises of the nor protein-coding. Speaking inS° {NB 174 Biotor 1 Feder) soy Ht Ss 02 Pal an have more than 0 alleles homologous chromosomes. Sometim called multiple allo a. gone | called gon ‘Genetic makeup of an organisin for & patent ay Beran = tp Genotype identifies alles related to a single Henan resent one on sa gon al away wo canis of 400 ore Prevet 9a on wach logue. Henna front aloes are preset to contl a ext al ios 00 arabe, whe reese a tached earlobe. Three ; counterpart" is rsp notype while “ES” i heerazyGOUs condtion ie, "EE" and "ee" are Tn heterozygous condition (wo dl Gene locl dominant allele 4 E a B men E a b ~Recessive allel Attached and free earlobe Homologous chromosome le When in heterozygous condition allele which suppresses the effect of other is called dominant allele. The allele which fails to express in heterozygous condition is called recessive. In this example free earlobe allele "E" dominates "e". Both "EE" and "Ee" Getermine free earlobe. Genotype for attached earlobe is "ee". The appearance of a trait in an individual is called phenotype. Free or attached earlobes are phenotypes. 271 7 During cell division chromatin fibres condense and further fold to form threadtlike structures called chromosomes. Small piece of huge DNA molecule in the chromosome is called Gene. Genes actually store and control the hereditary ‘formation. Each Grometome is made up of large number of genes. The total yenes found in Tagan of gue fo Organisms O™MIle Set of chromosomes of an organism is 25. Describe the role of gene in protein synthesis, Proteins are the main ‘structural ‘They make Muscles, bc fur‘ibosornes ther Mn aach ation on mRNA,” BP reso | ie Polypeptide ~L-O— ACL Ani ino acid Transcription and Translation Q6. Explain how genes control inheritance of characters. ‘Ans: The genes control traits by forming a panicular protein. Genes are responsible for controlling the traits as they possess the DNA molecules that have the genetic information which is passed to the RNA(Ribonucieic acid) folowing the transcription process Each chromosome carries a number of genes on it Gene: Gene is a small segment of DNA in a chromosome where herecitary information is stored. Alleles: Genes are units of biological information which usually occur in pairs. The partners of the gene pair are called allolos. The specific position of gene on the chromosome is called locus. Alleles share the same locus. As chromosomes occur in homologous pairs, two alleles of a given gene occupy cortesponcing lacin these homologous chromosomes, Sometimes a gene can have more than two allel called multiple alleles Genetic makeup of an organism for a pecicuet va o called genotype. Genotype identifies alleles related to a single trait I may be homozyas terozygous.OOS present On OF Gacy, lee. 4 9 gene ore presers me we rat ways wo EES C9 Semneey Gus To contro @ Ores of same able are eto contol a tat home'ogue. fh aheles 22 OE ts reese Meret : Heterozyaous: condition two Sere ne ea ODS Wes are Dostts Erne e ore mete st responsible for attached e870 fe. "EE" and “ee” are homozygous 9 loci dominant allele allele mosome sve Homologous chro} Attached and free €2! : a resses the effect of che ‘Winen in heterozygous conden 3 is called dominant alele. 7 ‘ ‘Stele which falls to exoress ec rcesaie Inte example fee exrone sles = Eee te determine free earlobe. Genotype for attacr aeoearen trait in an individual is called phenotype. Free or atta} i Genes control the functions of DNA and RNA Proteins are the most important is in help by being the building blocks for muscies also takes care of the production of the enzyme. iil, - These enzymes play an important role in processes and reactions within the Do: “responsible forall activities carried on by by the genes. iv, Genes consist of a particular set of instructions or specific functions. Fer fxample, the globin gene was instructed to produce haemogict: Haemoglobin is a protein that nelps to carry oxygen in the blood. ba own the composition of chromatin material. ins: Chromatin refers toa mixtire of DNA and on te chromosomes found in the cells of humans and other higher orgamsmme, ae hvomatin is @ complex of DNA, histone proteins and non-histone provers found within the nucleus of eukaryotic. cen chromosomes are f ryotic cells. It is the material from whic) re formed during cell division and Plays a critical role in regulating: Pair. The composition of chromatin's eretein synthesis s ay and are mainly controled1 AE ay ELS: . DNA is a long, double-strar ded polymer co mposed of four nucleotide bases adenine (A), thymine (7), cytosine (C), ss and gua a we §equence of these nucleotide bases cook n : characterises nnet® nstuctons . ged proteins 4hat associate i tal repeating unit of chromatin, ON © ins: H1, Hz orm an ecamer cae siucre else mg © Histones play a crucial rote i in compacting and organ 9 “rcer structure, thereby regulating access tothe genelc nomen: ne They also participate in the regulation of gene expression by ineonc accessibilly of DNA to transcription factors and other reguaioy molane iii, Non-Histone Proteins: © In addition to histones, chrématin contains v , arious non hi Contribute to its structure and function. sore praee t © —_Non-histone proteins include chromatin remodeling complexes, chromatin modifying enzymes, transcription factors, DNA repair proteins, and structural proteins. @ These proteins interact with DNA and histones to regulate chromatin structure, dynamics, and function. © They play roles in gene regulation, DNA replication, DNA repai chromosome segregation, and other nuclear processes. The composition of chromatin is dynamic and can undergo changes in ‘onse to various cellular signals and environmental cues. Chromatin remodeling, histone modifications, and DNA methylation are among the mechanisms by which ne expression: cells regulate chromatin structure and ge t to different developmental his dynamic regulation allows cells to adapt stages. ‘prysioloical conditions, and external stimuli, ulimately influencing cellular functions and behaviors. resp tance and that it can be copied i fF inherit . lain that gene is a unit of Ch a a mnt ‘Ans: The gene is considered the fundamental a acersis of =n : ‘ation that determines SPeCtio Te carries the genetic inform: wt ere orgniom, Genes ar segment f NALS stesso peg, of cells. They serve aS the buen ong oe molecules, which are essentié‘and are copied and pF units of inheritance snes, function cos of nucleotides (adenine, thymine Genes consist of specific sequer a ong the DNA mole So, ‘and guanine) al Acasa, 8 the instructior ane eet mma nce aan functioning of an organism. s dotemrines the SOquHCe of ithin a ger The sequence of nucleotides wil f Tne acids in the protein it encodes. This 80% structure and function of the protein quence, in turn, determines the Se a cell divides, ts DNA must be replicated to. ensure that each tic information. daughter cell receives a complete set of gene! During DNA replication, the double-stranded DNA molecule unwinds ang into two complementary strands. 18 a template for the synthesis of a new formation of two identical DNA Each separated strand serves a ‘complementary strand, resulting in the molecules. ensures that each daughter cell inherts a Y's genome, including all its genes. Inheritance: : When organisms reproduce sexually, genetic information is passed from aera to ofpring tough he transmission of genes : spring inherit one set'of genes from each parent, receivir receiving o (varan form of a gene) fom the mother and one from the fathers Combination of alleles inherited from parents d ee Parents determines the genetic ae recaeae Of the offspring, which contributes to their observable Genetic variation arises throu igh processes such a: and random assortment of chromosomes during roots, corwibuing wee ty of traits within populations, ee Conwrtosing vo b8 Gregor Mende''s | describe how gones no of inheritance, formulated in the 19th century, ae are transmitted from parents to offspring in predictable. Mendet's principles, includ ; ing the law of hasnt nnn potas aa ann a tn Variations maintained within pongo °3H® af inheited and nase 97 i neq, Mology ye 7) pescribe the central dogma Stating the role YY HO / Feder ® synthesis. OF GHm8 I prepay a =mesaiie- central ogmay ® The sequence of mwcleaier i coetin ‘of mRNA Centromere Ribosome reads the mawa Sequence of nucleotides and Jeins specific amine acide Apart of DNA (Agene) DNA of chromosome 12000009000 (auc SPE Protein (structural protein or enzyme makes the rateie Sty cell and organism all Traits are made by specific proteins. Specific proteins have specific number and sequence of their amino acids. DNA controls this sequence of amino acids by the sequence of its nucleotides. ‘Transcription: During protein synthesis, the sequence of DNA nucleotides decides that What will be the sequence of amino acids. For this purpose, the specific sequence of DNA nucleotides is copied in the form of messenger RNA (mRNA) nucleotides. This process is called transcription. jotides to ribosome. The The mRNA carries the sequence of ils ncn ote form "osome reads this sequence and joins specific amin in. This step is known as translation.‘Maryam NCP Sertes (SLO8 Bate) —— Jing the instructions 4 4) na conta eromena aon yonco of nucleot tof DNA (fai ie Kaw 28.8 Org aaa O2CU PA. One ‘The par nae pam cemaxere® the ay ne housed ote e rosomes are KNOWN a9 int oe of goes 06 EES ay (opeeO OF AK Tense we hat a gene exists in more van fare the two alternate form, S (sine itera n tes then ‘one alternate form. Inthe at veo fmm Gra geno and 8" and’ are the ter a of another gon? fan individual has Aa gery ne alternate forms of called alleles: vat Ef ovipbelt iegividual, allele ‘A’ 1S located ap, ‘Rand erin ‘of one another. 1n ua atl te a is if ine pee of the two homologous ‘chromosomes and W ‘When daring meiosis, alls, 280 Separate arg ctvomosomes, separ, Hyman gametes of Bot parents Una, Seats (and eater also) receives one allele from ‘each pi biology describes the flow of genetic The central dogma of a the role of genes in proten information within a biological SYA 51958, the central dogma outines the ‘nd then to protein. Here's a detailed explanation of the central dogma and the roe of genes in protein synthesis, L 4 FAA Riral dogma begins with DNA replication, during which the double stranded DNA molecule unwinds and separates into two complementary strands Each separated strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand, resulting in the formation of two identical ONA molecules. © DNA replication ensures the faithful transmission of genetic inf 3, se gereraion of a othe next et atteaallies Transcription: © Transcription is the process by y which genetic information transcribed into a complementary RNA molecule ee © Mt occurs in the nucle a nucleus of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotewep Sertes (SLO 181 J Heder) resulting RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (MRNA), carries the + Jenete information from the DNA to the cytoplasm, where it serves ay» {bmplate for protein synthesis, Trani ’ is translated into a specific sequence of amino acide a f iozzurs on ribosomes inthe eyopasm of cola tin epee During translation, the mRNA molecule binds to a begins with the initiation of translation, ‘Boece end te prooeee Transfer RNA (RNA) molecules, each carry . ; ying a specific amino acid, bind to the complementary codons (three-nucleotide : through their anticodon regions pacepaedeon +The sboscme catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids, resulting inthe synthesis of a polypeptide chain - + As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, i reads the codens and tRNA molecules bring in the the growing polypeptide chain + Translation continues uni a stop codon is reached, signaling the termination of protein synthesis and the release of the completed polypeptide chain The central dogma of molecular biology outlines the sequential ponecses of DONA replication, transcription, and transition, through which genetic ierseee. encoded in DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated into oroteina Genes serve as the templates for protein ‘synthesis, with the genetic code stored in DNA being transcribed into mRNA and subsequently translated into the amino acid sequence of a protein. This fw of genetic information is fundamental fo the functioning of living organisms and the inheritance of traits from one generation tothe next sequently, Corresponding amino acids, adding them to Q10. Describe structure, sources and functions of lipids, Ans: Structure of Lipids: hol) are © Lipids which are mainly made up of fatty acids and glycerol (an Alco called Acyl glycerides. Lipids are composed of faty acids and ghycerot Lipids are most often triglycerides, which are made up of 3 fatty acids and Iycerol «Patty acids may be saturated or unsaturated f dds: iid at room ra eeturnieefalty acids have all single bonds and are sol temperature e.g. cheese, butter, ghee etc, oa Si ht ds and are liquid al Unsaturated fatty acids have sot Mi i Oe eayamcn types of cy lenperature ©, 507008" OT i one eel an re ey acs re tri-acyl glycer ‘Tri — acyl glee ane Glycerol + 3 fatty acids ‘phosphate, nitrogen base Some lipids are, even Tg, phospholipids an weather they have three ‘long with glycerol and fatty acids 0 igen tet formula 1 Some lipids may not have Te rey vitamin D ‘ing structure called steroids €.9-Steroids and Waxes Triglycerides ES 7 te AMX ent types of lipids ty Acids ‘Structure of different. ‘Sources of Lipids: Variety of food are rich sources of lipids. Foods containing large amounts of saturated fat include red meat, butter, cheese, ghee. fish liver oil etc Some oils are obtained from plant seeds like sunflower oil, soybean i peanut ol, coconut and palm oil are also rich in unsaturated fats. Wax is obtained from comb of many insects, Nuts and seeds Chocolate lipids ° Unids are very useful bioto 'cal molecules and have many important roles aI ecules fr tind 8 a Whole in bodies of ae ving organisms. Lipid; rec a ey Sage menor rateMaryam NCP Series (SLOs Based) 183 Blology 9° (MBF / Federal) i Phospholipids and cholesterol” | ie terol are ‘stricture: components of plasma membrane i. Lipids act as energy stores in fat cells, liver and in blood. One gram of lipids provides 9.1 kcal of energy which is double’ than carbohydrates or proteins. ii. Many lipids act as important steroid hormones e.g. testosterone, Aldosterone etc. Some lipids act as insulators against atmospheric heat and cold. Waxes are used by insects for constructing their hives. Waxy cuticle of leaves act as protective and waterproof layer to avoid water loss. i. Some vitamins are lipid in nature as they are derived from cholesterol e.g. vitamin A, D, E and K.