21822737 Alenezi Thesis Redacted

Leadership Development of Managers Working in the
Ministry of Education and Educational Districts in

Kuwait
A Thesis Submitted for the

Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
University of Reading
Institute of Education
Kafa Alenezi
May, 2019
Dedication
Praise be to Allah for His grace and gifts
I dedicate this work to my country, Kuwait, and to those who seek to reform the
education system.
ii
Declaration
I confirm that this is my own work and that the use of all material from other sources has
been properly and fully acknowledged.
Kafa Alenezi
iii
Acknowledgements
In the name of Allah, Most Gracious and Most Merciful.
First, I thank Allah for the kindness, grace, and help that guided me to complete this
thesis.
My thanks and sincere appreciation go to my first supervisor, Dr. Chris Turner, who has
consistently supported me since the beginning of my PhD studies. His guidance and
valuable advice played a major role in my accomplishing this work through the many
useful meetings and discussions.
I would also like to express my thanks and gratitude to my second supervisor, Karen
Jones, for her insightful thoughts and notes, which helped develop my writing for this
thesis.
In addition, I would like to thank Dr. Alan Floyd and Dr. Tony MacFadyen for supervising
me previously.
I am grateful to faculty members from the Kuwait University: Fadhl Al-Fadhli and
Mohammad Al-Qaryouti from the Business Administration College (Department of Public
Management) and Dr. Abdul Aziz Al-Muhailbi from the Education College, who assessed
the questionnaire used in my study to ensure its validity. I would like also to thank Mr.
Walid Al Saied, Managers of Educational Affairs (formerly) for the information provided to
me during the research sample selection and pilot study stages.
My thanks and appreciation are extended to all those who assisted me during my
research trip, including both the Institute of Education staff at the University of Reading
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and my Ph.D. colleagues, who undoubtedly helped me enhance my academic abilities
through their scientific discussions.
I am also grateful to my wonderful friends Julia Cross and Gillian Tunley, who provided
endless support and encouragement and gave me confidence and strength to make my
dream come true.
As always, my greatest love and appreciation go to my family for their patience and
encouragement during my studies: my husband and best supporter, Metab; my children
Bashayer, Abdullah, and Abdulrahman; and especially my brilliant daughter Mashael, who
is not only a daughter but also an affectionate mother and devoted friend.
Finally, I extend my love to my wonderful grandchildren, who created joy in my life.
To everyone I say thank you and ask Allah to keep and reward you.
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Abstract
The professional development and preparation of new administrative leaders so they can
be equipped to work in a rapidly changing environment driven by the competitive
consequences of globalisation is certainly a key aim of the government in Kuwait. Thus,
this research explored the effectiveness of the current leadership’s preparation and on-
going development of those responsible for leading the education system in Kuwait.
This research used a qualitative interpretive approach and was conducted in two stages
with a sample of 54 managers (30 from the Ministry of Education departments and 24
from six education districts). In the first stage, 48 questionnaires were distributed, with 42
being returned representing a response rate of 87.5%. The second phase included semi-
structured interviews conducted with eight managers with different areas of expertise to
obtain more in-depth and comprehensive information on the issues that emerged from
the analysis of the questionnaires.
The data indicated that no specific formal programmes exist to prepare managers and
provide them with appropriate leadership skills. Although professional development
activities are available, they are not dedicated to improving leadership capability, but only
to developing some managerial and technical skills. These programmes do not specifically
target this category of managers; thus, they have not been effective in improving their
leadership skills. One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that the
majority of participants were unable to demonstrate a clear understanding of
management or leadership or distinguish between them.
The results also indicate that the most effective method is informal learning. Evidence
suggests that the observation of others at work play an important and key role in
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leadership development. Consequently, the data collected indicates that attending more
formalised professional development courses has little influence on these managers'
leadership knowledge and understanding.
vii
Contents
Dedication ii
Declaration iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract vi
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Rationale, Significance, and Outcomes 1
1.2.1 Rationale 1
1.2.2 Significance of the Research 3
1.2.3 Outcomes of the Research 4
1.3 Research Aims and Objectives 5
1.4 Main Research Question 6
1.5 Structure of the Thesis 7
Chapter 2: International Context 8

2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Globalisation 8
2.2.1 Definition of Globalisation 8
2.2.2 Influence of Globalisation on Developing Countries 9
2.2.3 Globalisation and International Education 11
2.2.4 Globalisation’s Influence on Education in Kuwait 13
2.3 Neoliberalism 14
2.4 New Public Management (NPM) 16
2.4.1 Definition of New Public Management (NPM) 17
2.4.2 Main Features and Components of New Public Management (NPM) 17
2.4.3 Criticisms of NPM 19
2.5 Information about the State of Kuwait 20
2.5.1 Kuwait’s History 20
2.5.2 Kuwait’s Characteristics 21
2.5.3 Kuwait’s Economy 21
2.5.4 NPM’s Influence on Kuwait’s Management 22
2.5.5 Education in Kuwait 25
2.5.5.1 Centralisation of the Education System in Kuwait 25
2.5.5.2 Education Policy Reform in Kuwait—Public Education Strategy in
the State of Kuwait 2005–2025 (PESSK) 26
2.5.5.3 Ministry of Education (MoE) and Education Districts (EDs) 29
2.5.5.4 Professional Development of the Ministry of Education Managers 31
2.5.5.5 Selection of the Ministry of Education Managers 32
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2.5.5.6 Performance Appraisal System (PAS) 33
Chapter 3: Literature Review 35

3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Key Theoretical Ideas and Relevant Concepts 36
3.2.1 Key Concepts 37
3.2.2 Theoretical Ideas 39
3.2.2.1 Contingency Theory 39
3.2.2.2 Social Learning Theory 42
3.3 Management 45
3.3.1 Functions of Management 46
3.3.2 Levels of Management from a Systems Perspective 47
3.4 Leadership 49
3.4.1 The Concept of Leadership 50
3.4.1.1 Leadership as Influence 51
3.4.1.2 Leadership as Exemplifying Values 52
3.4.1.3 Leadership as Establishing an Agreed Vision 53
3.4.2 Leadership Selection 54
3.5 Organisational Culture 57
3.5.1 Centralisation and Decentralisation 59
3.5.1.1 Centralisation 59
3.5.1.2 Transition to Decentralisation 60
3.5.2 Decision-Making 61
3.5.3 Accountability 63
3.5.4 Performance 64
3.5.5 Exercise of Power in Education System 65
3.6 Professional Development 67
3.6.1 Definition of Professional Development 68
3.6.2 Adult Learning 70
3.7 Leadership Development 72
3.7.1 Trends in Leadership Development 73
3.7.2 Strategies for Leadership Development 75
3.7.2.1 Mentoring and Coaching 76
3.7.2.2 Reflection (Self-reflection in/on action) 78
3.7.2.3 Professional Learning Communities 80
3.7.2.4 Self-Directed Learning 81
3.7.2.5 Working as Part of a Team 83
3.7.3 Leadership Development Programmes 85
3.7.4 Learning through Lived Experience 87
3.7.4.1 Situated Learning 89
3.7.4.2 Identity Development 90
3.7.4.3 Observational Learning 93
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3.7.4.4 Structure and Agency 95
3.8 Review of Relevant Studies in the Field of Leadership Development 97
3.8.1 NIE (2013) 97
3.8.2 Al-Khatib and Al-Enezi (2008) 98
3.8.3 Al-Duaij (1994) 99
3.8.4 Mohammed (2008) 99
3.8.5 Amro and Awawda (2016) 100
Chapter 4: Research Design and Methodology 102

4.1 Introduction 102
4.2 Rationale for the Research Methodology Chosen 102
4.2.1 Ontological Perspectives 102
4.2.2 Epistemological Perspectives 105
4.2.3 Research Paradigms: Positive and Interpretive Approaches 108
4.2.4 Methodological Perspectives 110
4.2.4.1 Qualitative Research 110
4.2.4.2 Case Study 111
4.3 Research Methods 113
4.3.1 Use of Mixed Methods 113
4.3.2 Data Collection Instruments 115
4.3.2.1 Questionnaire 115
4.3.2.2 Interview 117
4.4 Research Sample 119
4.5 Data Collection 123
4.5.1 Pilot Studies 123
4.5.1.1 Pilot Study of Questionnaires 123
4.5.1.2 Pilot Study of Interview Questions 124
4.5.2 First Phase: Questionnaire (quantitative) 125
4.5.3 Second Phase: Semi-Structured Interviews (qualitative) 127
4.6 Data Analysis 128
4.7 Validity and Reliability (Credibility and Trustworthiness) 131
4.8 Ethical Considerations 134
4.9 Conclusion 137
Chapter 5: Research Findings 138

5.2 Results from Phase One: Questionnaire Findings 139
5.2.1 Demographic Data from the Questionnaire Sample 139
5.2.2 Managers’ Self-Perceptions 144
5.2.2.1 Managers’ Conceptual Understanding of Management and Leadership 144
5.2.2.2 Skills Required to be an Effective Leader 148
5.2.2.3 Working with other People and Leadership Skills Learned from Them 148
5.2.2.4 Difficulties and Challenges Faced in the Role of Managers 152
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5.2.3 Engagement in Different Types of Professional Development 152
5.2.3.1 Different Development Activities 152
5.2.3.2 Effectiveness of Professional Development Programmes 161
5.2.3.2.1 Programmes Provided by the Ministry of Education (PPMoE) 161
5.2.3.2.2 Programmes Provided by the Private Sector (PPPS) 163
5.2.3.3 Informal Learning Activities 167
5.2.4 Importance of Previous and Relevant Experience 168
5.2.5 Leadership Development 170
5.2.5.1 Effectiveness of Preparation Programmes for Managers 170
5.2.5.2 Suggested Improvements to the Effectiveness of the
Preparation of Leaders 178
5.3 Results from Phase Two: Interview Findings 178
5.3.1 Demographic Data of the Interview Sample 181
5.3.1.1 Managers’ Professional Backgrounds 183
5.3.2.1 Understanding of the Terms Management and Leadership 186
5.3.2.2 Skills Required to Exercise Leadership 189
5.3.2.3 Working with Others 190
5.3.2.4 Challenges Hindering Managers from fulfilling their Role as Leaders 192
5.3.2.5 Managers’ Perceptions of Themselves as Leaders 193
5.3.3 Engagement in Different Forms of Professional Development 195
5.3.3.1 Professional Development In-Service Activities 198
5.3.3.2 Impact of Professional Development Activities 201
5.3.3.3 Managers’ Use of Informal Learning Methods 202
5.3.4 Importance of Previous Employment Experience 213
5.3.5 Leadership Development 217
5.3.5.1 Educational Leadership Preparation Programmes 218
5.3.5.2 Strengths of the Leadership Training Programmes 221
5.3.5.3 Weaknesses of Leadership Training Programmes 224
5.3.5.4 Suggested Improvements to Enhance Effectiveness of
Leaders’ Preparation 230
5.3.5.4.1 Leadership Qualification 230
5.3.5.4.2 Leadership Selection 232
5.4 Chapter Summary 241
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Chapter 6: Discussion and Analysis of Results 243
6.2 Managers’ Perception of Themselves as Managers and Leaders 244
6.2.1 Managers’ Conceptual Understanding of Management and Leadership 244
6.2.2 Skills Required to be an Effective Leader 246
6.2.3 Importance of Working with Other People 247
6.2.4 Difficulties and Challenges Faced when Doing the Job as Managers 250
6.2.5 Managers’ Perceptions of Themselves as Leaders 252
6.3 A Provisional Model of Managers' Formal Learning Processes 254
6.4 Engagement in Formal and Informal Professional Development 256
6.4.1 Formal Activities 256
6.4.2 Professional Development In-Service Programmes 259
6.4.2.1 Programmes Provided by the Ministry of Education (PPMoE) 259
6.4.2.2 Programmes Provided by the Private Sector (PPPS) 261
6.4.3 Impact of Professional Development Programmes 263
6.4.4 Informal Learning Activities 266
6.5 Importance of Previous and Relevant Experiences of Working in Education 268
6.6 Leadership Development: Relevant Preparation and Training 273
6.6.1 Educational Leadership Preparation Programmes 273
6.6.2 Effectiveness of the Preparation Programmes 276
6.6.3 Strengths and Weaknesses in Leadership Training Programmes 278
6.7 Managers’ Views to Improve Educational Leadership Preparation Processes 284
6.7.1 Leadership Qualification 285
6.7.2 Leadership Selection 288
6.8 Chapter Summary 291
Chapter 7: Conclusion 293

7.2 Original Contribution to Knowledge 293
7.2.1 Formal Learning Model (FL) 294
7.2.2 Informal Learning Model (InFL) 298
7.3 Substantive Findings 302
7.3.2 Engagement in Different Forms of Leadership Development 308
7.3.3 Importance of Previous Employment Experience 310
7.3.4 Effectiveness of Preparation Programmes for Managers 312
7.3.5 Improving the Effectiveness of the Preparation of Leaders 314
7.4 Limitations of the Conceptual Framework and Research Design 316
7.5 Implications for Practice 319
7.6 Recommendations for Future Research 323
References 324
Appendices 354
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List of Tables
Table 4.1: Numbers and Percentages of Questionnaires Distributed, Collected, and

Rejected 127
Table 5.1: Characteristics of the Research Sample 140
Table 5.2: Amount of Time Spent as a Manager and Teacher or Administrator 141
Table 5.3: Preparation, Job Training, and Professional Development 143
Table 5.4: Meaning of Management and Leadership 145
Table 5.5: Leadership Skills that Respondents Believe They Have 147
Table 5.6: Managers’ Perceptions of the Value of Previous Leadership Experiences and
Working as a Team 149
Table 5.7: Important Leadership Skills Learned from Others 150
Table 5.8: Difficulties and Challenges Faced by Managers as Leaders 151
Table 5.9: Respondents’ Views about In-Service Training Programmes to Develop
Leadership Skills 153
Table 5.10: Activities that Developed Managers’ Professional Knowledge,
Understanding, and Skills 155
Table 5.11: Activities that Helped Managers Develop Professional Knowledge,
Understanding, and Skills (including the two most important activate
in Table 5.10) 158
Table 5.12: Effectiveness of Professional Development Programmes Provided

by MoE and PS 165
Table 5.13: Most Important Informal Learning Methods that were Effective in
Developing Leadership Skills 168
Table 5.14: How Managers Perceive Themselves Based on Previous Experiences 169
Table 5.15: Respondents’ Views about Training Programmes to Prepare for their
Leadership Roles 171
Table 5.16: Preparation Programmes Provided by the MoE and PS 174
Table 5.17: Managers’ Suggestions to Develop Educational Leaders’ Preparation 179
Table 5.18: Demographic Data of Interview Samples 182
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List of Figures
Figure 5.1. Interviewees’ Distribution According to Their Perception of Themselves as

Leaders or Managers Based on Professional Experience 184
Figure 5.2. Interviewees’ Distribution According to Their Perception of Themselves as

Leaders or Managers Based on Attendance of Professional Development
Programmes 185
Figure 6.1. Provisional Model of Formal Learning Processes to Prepare and Develop
Educational Leadership in Kuwait, from Managers’ Perceptions 255
Figure 7.1. A Formal Learning Leadership Development Model 296
Figure 7.2. Proposed Informal Learning Model (InFL) for Leadership 299
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List of Appendices
Appendix 1 Kuwait’s Ranking in TIMSS 2015 (Mathematics and Science) 354
Appendix 2 Structure of the Ministry of Education (MoE) 356
Appendix 3 Structure of the Public Education Sector 357
Appendix 4 Structure of an Educational District (ED) 358
Appendix 5 Emerging Conception of Leadership Learning 359
Appendix 6 Questionnaire (English version) 360
Appendix 7 Prompt Card 369
Appendix 8 Interview Questions (pilot study) 370
Appendix 9 Interview Questions (main study) 371
Appendix 10 Participant Information Sheet 372
Appendix 11 Questionnaire Participants' Consent Form 374
Appendix 12 Interview Participants' Consent Form 375
Appendix 13 Interview Transcript Sample (pilot study) 376
Appendix 14 Interview Transcript Sample (main study) 389
Appendix 15 Demographic Data 402
Appendix 16 Coding Process of the Training Programmes Impact 406
Appendix 17 Participants’ Understanding of Level of Management and

Leadership Criteria 408
Appendix 18 Kolb's Learning Theory 409
Appendix 19 Marsick and Watkins Informal and Incidental Learning Model 410
Appendix 20 Ethical Approval to conduct the study 411
Appendix 21 Risk Assessment Form for Research Activities 416
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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
BERA British Educational Research Association
CSC Civil Service Commission
ED Education District
ELT Experiential Learning Theory
FL Formal Learning
InFL Informal Learning
KTS Kuwait Teachers Society
MoE Ministry of Education
NPM New Public Management
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PAAET Public Authority for Applied Education and Training
PAS Performance Appraisal System
PESSK Public Education Strategy in the State of Kuwait 2005-–2025
PIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy Study
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
PPMoE Programmes Provided by the Ministry of Education
PPPS Programmes Provided by the Private Sector
PS Private Sector
TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Leadership preparation is a critical issue, and the selection of candidates as leaders within
the administrative system in Kuwait needs to be carried out as professionally as possible.
Consequently, in-service leadership development programmes for leaders need to be
planned systematically to ensure their continued upgrading of knowledge and skills
(National Institute of Education [NIE], 2013). In addition, the preparation and
construction of educational leadership capabilities are key to educational reforms and are
an essential condition for the success of any effort to enhance effectiveness because
educational leadership and management are important factors that indirectly influence
the quality of an education system.
This study examines the effectiveness of the preparation and development programmes
for managers of the Ministry of Education (MoE) and educational districts (EDs) in the
Kuwaiti education system. It also attempts to reveal how these managers are prepared,
as well as the effectiveness of any activities or training in which they might participate to
improve their leadership skills. Furthermore, it explores their previous experience and
their ability to perform the leadership role required by their administrative position.
1.2 Rationale, Significance, and Outcomes
1.2.1 Rationale
Leadership is an important and crucial variable that can lead to improved ability and
organisational performance (OECD, 2001). Effective educational leadership has a
significant effect on improving learning (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004;
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Bush & Jackson, 2002). Leithwood et al. (2004) argued that the most important factor is
teaching while the second most important factor in terms of impact on student learning is
leadership.
Despite significant efforts undertaken by Kuwait to develop its education system and the
progress that has been made in different educational areas, there is still concern among
those interested in Kuwait’s educational affairs, primarily because of the modest results
Kuwait has on international tests such as Progress in International Reading Literacy Study
(PIRLS) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) (see Section
2.2.3.1 and Appendix 1).
There may be many reasons for such results, including a lack of administrative stability in
the executive supervisory positions in the MoE and educational institutions as well as
weaknesses in the abilities and skills of leadership (MOE, 2014). For example, the
Advisory Group from the National Institute of Education in Singapore conducted a
diagnostic analysis on different aspects of the education system in Kuwait and pointed
out that the leadership training programmes were insufficient and the quality of the
existing school leadership training programmes was poor (NIE, 2013).
The professional development of educational leaders in Kuwait has become an essential
requirement for successful educational reform. Kuwait's education strategy from 2005 to
2025 clearly states the importance of training for educational leadership for many
reasons, including the ongoing need for the modernisation and development of education
systems in an ever-increasingly globalised world, the lack of qualifications for educational
leadership and the need for executive training programmes to keep pace with the current
era’s requirements (MOE, 2003).
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From a personal perspective, I was previously a teacher (with 16 years of experience in
intermediate school and subsequently secondary school) and have long held concerns
about the education system in my country (Kuwait), despite the efforts of both the
government and MoE to improve the situation in recent years. In addition, my experience
in school administration (3 years as an assistant principal) has afforded me a greater
opportunity to deal with school principals as well as managers working in the MoE and
EDs. Therefore, I am able to recognise the importance of educational management to
facilitate the educational process, and I understand the significant role played by
managers in the MoE and EDs to manage a complex education system.
As a result of my own personal reflections, one of the core drivers of this study is to
address the need to improve the number of suitably qualified managers who can
efficiently and effectively lead and manage Kuwait’s education system. The current
situation may stem from inadequate academic and integrated training programmes as
well as a lack of experience actually working as a teacher in the education system,
learning from experienced managers’ observation, and a lack of qualifications to prepare
educational managers to work in district offices or the MoE.
1.2.2 Significance of the Research
After studying the appropriate literature related to these areas, the researcher found that
only a few studies had investigated issues affecting MoE and ED managers, such as the
work of Al-Khatib and Al-Enezi (2008) (training needs) and Alkandari (2013) (strategic
plan). However, these studies do not focus on leadership preparation or development,
nor do they analyse the skills and experiences that qualify individuals to accept a
leadership role. The focus is instead on school administration, despite the importance of
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the development of managers of the MoE and EDs because of the significance of their
role and influence on school management and the education system in general.
Therefore, the significance of this research is that it is the first study to be conducted with
MoE and EDs managers in Kuwait. Furthermore, this research is important for these
managers because it seeks to explore the extent of their willingness to manage and lead
when effectively carrying out their responsibilities in the education system as well as
participate in shaping and implementing educational policy. It also serves to better
understand what skills the study participants possess (or not) in order to fulfil the
leadership role and identify their training needs to meet functional obligations. Thus, this
research is important for planners and designers of training programmes for educational
leadership in Kuwait because it will help them determine these programmes’ objectives
to comply with the needs of participants as well as develop their leadership skills.
This study is expected to be an important addition to the theoretical literature in the
preparation and development of educational leadership in Kuwait, especially as,
according to Al-Fraih (2014), there is, in general, a lack of studies about leadership in
developing countries.
1.2.3 Outcomes of the Research
As a result of the issues outlined thus far, and in order for Kuwait to compete more
effectively with developed countries, the researcher believes that a more robust and
effective selection procedure along with the effective preparation of educational
managers prior to their appointment to their position is essential. It is also important for
MoE officials to provide effective and continuing professional development to assist them
4
in managing and leading the education system. In addition, the managers themselves
need to take their own share responsibility for developing their leadership skills.
This research illustrates the differences between preparation programmes (before
promotion to new position) and leadership development activities (in-service). The
findings show the importance of experience and the role of informal learning methods in
improving leadership skills as well as the extent of the participants’ need for specialised
programmes for educational leadership. The resulting findings are expected to help
policymakers, planners, and designers of professional development programmes better
understand the importance of the leadership role of MoE and ED managers, which will in
turn lead to the formation of a more comprehensive plan to help develop the necessary
leadership skills.
1.3 Research Aims and Objectives
This research aims to:
• Explore the effectiveness of the current arrangements for managers working in
the MoE and EDs to act in a leadership capacity and to exercise the necessary
leadership skills to achieve educational goals, such as developing future
generations capable of assuming responsibility in all its forms and aspects,
encouraging individuals to initiate and make decisions themselves, and enabling
them to plan for the future;
• Understand the leadership development process more clearly for MoE and ED
managers; and
5
• Provide an opportunity for MoE and ED managers to express their views and
perceptions about how they are prepared and developed for their leadership
roles.
• The objectives of this research are:
• To understand how the MoE and ED managers perceive themselves as managers
who exercise a leadership role;
• To identify the effectiveness of professional development for educational
managers in relation to their leadership role;
• To understand the experience and leadership skills for managers in the MoE and
EDs from their own perspective;
• To evaluate the effectiveness of the preparation programmes for educational
managers to carry out their role in terms of leading and managing the education
system in Kuwait; and
• To identify how the selection process and training of the MoE and ED managers
actually works in Kuwait.
1.4 Main Research Question
This study seeks to answer the following main question:
To what extent are the leadership preparation and ongoing professional development of
the MoE and ED managers effective in Kuwait?
This research question can be broken down into the following more specific questions:
RSQ1: To what extent do MoE and ED managers perceive themselves as managers who
exercise leadership in the education system?
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RSQ2: To what extent have MoE and ED managers engaged in leadership development
activities (whilst in post)?
RSQ3: To what extent have past and current experiences been helpful in developing the
expertise of MoE and ED managers?
RSQ4: How effective has the training been for MoE and ED managers (prior to
appointment) for their leadership role?
RSQ5: How do MoE and ED managers think their leadership preparation might be
improved?
1.5 Structure of the Thesis
Chapter 2 presents an overview of the relevant topics, such as globalisation and the
education system in Kuwait. The theoretical perspectives and relevant literature about
the studied topics are discussed in Chapter 3 (Literature Review). Chapter 4 (Research
Design and a Methodology) presents the research design and methodology and explains
the methods used to answer the research questions as well as justify the selection of the
research design, sample, tools, and data analysis methods. Chapter 5 (Research Findings)
presents the results of a pilot study and analyses the qualitative and quantitative data
collected during two consecutive phases during the main study. In Chapter 6 (Discussion
and Analysis Results), the research findings are discussed and linked to the literature and
previous studies. Finally, Chapter 7 (Conclusion) summarises the main findings and
provides answers to the research question and sub-questions; it also highlights the
original contribution of this study, recommendations, and limitations while providing
suggestions for future research.
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Chapter 2: International Context
2.1 Introduction
This chapter highlights issues related to the international context, such as globalisation
and the state of Kuwait. Section 2.2 presents a discussion about globalisation and its
impact on many aspects, such as global education. Section 2.3 examines the issue of
neoliberalism and its role in economic and administrative transformations. Section 2.4
covers new public management (NPM) and its main features and components. Section 2.5
focuses on the state of Kuwait, such as its history, constitution, population, economy, and
environment. It also highlights the influence of NPM on Kuwait’s management and
provides a brief background about the education system in Kuwait.
2.2 Globalisation
Although there is extensive literature about the topic of globalisation, surprisingly, no
single convincing theory or even systematic analysis of its basic features has emerged
(Held, McGrew, Goldblatt, & Perraton, 1999).
2.2.1 Definition of Globalisation
Globalisation refers to the changing nature of the global economy, which is linked to
changes in economic growth and interactions across state borders (Bevir, 2009). It is the
process of the integration of governance, economy, culture, science, and technology
across national borders (Amedzro, 2005). Globalisation is a complex process because it
involves rapid social change (modern social life through the speed of capital flows, goods,
knowledge, information, beliefs, etc.) across national borders that occurs at the same
time across multiple dimensions in economics, politics, communication, and the physical
8
and cultural environments as well as in all interactions related to transformation
(Tomlinson, 2006).
Several Arabic studies on globalisation have viewed the phenomenon as a growing trend,
representative of the division of work and the diffusion of technology from its location to
various parts of the world, thereby leading to an increase in productivity. However, this
has also led to the economic exploitation of the poor, where giant corporations utilise
poorer countries with cheap labour to make profits and transfer to them different
culture, ignoring the recipient countries’ culture, just to achieve profit (Amin, 2009).
Globalisation is a move towards integration in the world and the abolition of
geographical, temporal, and objective boundaries between states and societies. Different
countries have undergone varying degrees of globalisation (Mohammed, 2009).
Globalisation refers to the gradual transformation of economic, social, and cultural
policies, legislation, and regulations from both within national borders and across
countries. This process occurs through technological development and the ability to easily
communicate; as such, it has resulted in the domination of developed countries over
developing countries and a disintegration of the barriers and borders between them.
2.2.2 Influence of Globalisation on Developing Countries
Although many countries contribute to globalisation, such as Arab states, by virtue of
their strategic location, forcing them to deal with globalisation, the United States has
been attempting to spread its own culture and politics. Oil accounts for approximately
three quarters of all Arab exports, and many Arab countries import food. Multinational
companies’ dominance is concentrated in several areas of the Arab world, especially the
Arab Gulf region. The companies that embody globalisation mechanisms have become a
9
direct threat to the authority of the state, reflecting the internal political implications that
threaten state sovereignty (Mohammed, 2009).
Globalisation is an inevitable phenomenon. Its supporters from Arab countries emphasise
their countries’ need to open up to world cultures while preserving Arabic values and
behaviours because the strongest politically, economically, and technologically will also
be the strongest culturally. By publishing globalised cultures and values, they are
affirming Western patterns and habits, which are beginning to dominate the Islamic and
Arab world (Alkherashi, 1999).
Arab countries have been forced to develop effective methods to confront globalisation.
They have adopted programmes to repair their economic, financial, and administrative
status and meet the development and economic integration requirements (Abdel Aziz,
Zakaria, & Althan, 2011). The Arab region has a regional subsystem linked to the global
market under the policy of openness, which has forced the region to face the pressures of
globalisation (Mohammed, 2009). However, the economic potential of the Arab region
and its strategic location are more closely related to globalisation than the interests that
serve the global system, particularly Western powers, because of its vast energy wealth,
which makes the Arab system a globalised one (Idrissi, 2015).
The economy of Kuwait, like most Arab Gulf states in the region, depends on oil to
provide employment and welfare for its citizens while ensuring a state of stability and
comfort. It relies on expatriate labour in certain professions to meet the needs of its
economy, especially since the discovery of oil and the development of the industry.
Different factors have prompted Kuwait’s merge into globalisation processes, such as
humanitarian aid, military support, and the need for better resources and imported
10
foreign goods because of the lack of produce and local expertise, as well as its citizens’
unwillingness to perform some professions, resulting in the need for foreign labour
(Kamal, 2013).
2.2.3 Globalisation and International Education
Globalisation has had a great impact on education at many different levels and will
continue have significant impacts in the future. World governments understand the
essential role of educational institutions, not only in the education and training of skills
needed in the global economy, but also in preparing individuals in new communities that
rely on information and knowledge (Carnoy, 1999).
Educational decentralisation may be a manifestation of globalisation because it changes
the political power of the nation state, where decentralisation can be a product of
ideology; the central state bureaucracy is considered an impediment to private sector
growth (Carnoy, 1999). Balarin (2014) also argued that one of the effects of this global
regime change, which has taken place in all aspects, is the impact on education through
processes of globalisation, regionalisation, decentralisation, deregulation, and
outsourcing to the private sector of various aspects of educational provision, funding,
regulation, and ownership.
Education is the cornerstone of this phase. It will help identify key features to guide
future workers and leaders to respond to economic and cultural globalisation challenges.
Education plays an important and essential role in dealing with the problematic aspects of
globalisation (Magsino, 2008).
11
According to Carnoy (1999), globalisation influences education in five ways:
• Rising demand for products requires a high level of skill to producers, leading to
pressure to increase the average level of education in the labour market and to
provide more opportunities for adults to gain further skills.
• Governments of developing countries are under pressure to increase spending on
education in order to produce a better educated labour force.
• Information technology is being introduced into education systems gradually. This
is partly by attempting to expand the quantity of education at a lower cost
through distance learning.
• Globalisation means a shift in the culture of the world as it also has the effect that
many countries feel marginalised by the market value of this new culture. This
new shift also affects the regulations of the education system.
• Comparisons of the quality of national education systems are growing at the
international level by applying global standards tests. These are part of a large
effort to strengthen accountability by measuring the production of knowledge and
using the results to assess workers in the field of education, such as teachers and
managers (Carnoy, 1999).
The OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has become the
world’s first standard to assess the quality, equity, and efficiency of school systems in
providing students with these basic skills (OECD, 2014). PISA is a triennial survey to assess
the extent to which 15-year-old students nearing the end of compulsory education have
gained the basic knowledge and skills necessary for full participation in modern societies.
PISA results show what students in the highest-performing and most rapidly improving
education systems can do. The findings enable policymakers around the world to
12
measure the knowledge and skills of students in their own countries in comparison with
those in others and learn from policies and practices applied elsewhere (OECD, 2014).
2.2.4 Globalisation’s Influence on Education in Kuwait
In the last two decades, educational policy has seen fluctuations in education systems and
their values, resulting in quality education being neglected while a rising focus on quantity
has been taking place instead. Therefore, the drafting of the education policy in Kuwait
through a national dialogue involving all national forces with academic specialisations has
been dictated by the age requirements with all its challenges (Al-Qallaf, Ruwaished, &
Khadr, 2006).
Al-Qallaf et al. (2006) identified the general objectives of education, vocational training,
and rehabilitation, as stipulated by the government’s work programme during the 10 th
legislative term (2003). These general objectives illustrate the extent of the Kuwait
government’s attention on globalisation through the development education. A few
objectives relevant to this study are mentioned below:
• Make a quantum leap in the education curriculum for pre-university stages to
ensure the achievement of development goals and a communication culture in the
present era.
• Apply institutional reform in the public education sector in line with the
requirements of achieving the developmental goals and objectives of the
administrative reform in the state as well as the rationalisation of public spending
(Al-Qallaf et al., 2006).
The Public Education Strategy in the State of Kuwait 2005–2025 (PESSK) identified three
main issues in education, generating great interest. These relate to the era, the status of
13
Kuwait and its education system, what matters in this context, and how this strategy
addresses globalisation issues (see Section 2.5.5.2; MOE, 2003). PESSK also confirms the
MoE (2014) report entitled “Education for All.” As an active member of UNESCO, Kuwait
has sought to achieve the educational goals for achieving sustainable human
development and the stability of an educated society. Through the introduction of e-
learning in schools, curriculum development has continued unabated, raising the
proportion of spending on education per year from the state budget and encouraging the
private sector’s participation and investment in education as well as participation in
international competitions held by international institutions (MOE, 2014). Examples
include TIMSS, an international assessment of mathematics and science at the fourth and
eighth grades that has been conducted every four years since 1995, and PIRLS, an
international assessment of reading comprehension at the fourth grade level that has
been conducted every five years since 2001 (Mullis & Martin, 2013).
However, despite the MoE’s great efforts, with the support of the government and senior
leaders in the state, and the increased spending on the development of education,
educational output has caused disappointment for those involved in educational affairs as
well as parents. Winokur (2014) confirmed that the TIMSS 1995, 1998, 2003, 2007, and
2011 and the PIRLS 2001, 2006, and 2011 results show that Kuwaiti students performed
in one of the lowest percentages compared to most countries.
2.3 Neoliberalism
Neoliberalism is a complex mix of values, ideologies, and practices that affect the
economic, political, and cultural aspects of society (Ross & Gibson, 2007). The competitive
nature of globalisation is consistent with neoliberalism, which holds that the competitive
14
forces of the market neoliberalism, where individuals and companies compete with each
other, lead to more innovative and efficient practices. In the neoliberal perspective, a key
element of globalisation is to remove barriers to international competition (Shields,
2013). These changes have a positive impact because competition creates efficiency, and
economic growth stimulates technological innovation, leading to improved lives that—as
neoliberals claim—open international companies to individuals (Tooley, 1997).
Public services (such as education and healthcare) were early targets of this neoliberal
ideology. Neoliberal management techniques include increased exposure to competition,
increased accountability measures, and the implementation of performance targets in
management (Davies & Bansel, 2007). Education systems across the world are part of the
ideology and policy of neoliberalist capitalism. Neoliberal educational reforms in schools
and universities stress the need for opening up the educational services market to for-
profit educational management institutions (Ross & Gibson, 2007). In addition, parental
choice of a variety of schools or whether to send children to one school or another
(markets in education), the privatisation of schools and educational service providers, and
the cutting of state subsidies to education and other public services are part of the
educational and anti-public welfare strategy of the capitalist class (Hill, 2007).
Since the 1980s, the neoliberal business agenda has become more extreme, with smaller
countries and bigger markets attacking the public sector through efforts to reduce public
spending through the privatisation of public services and the provision of market
incentives (Lorenz, 2012). New public management has emerged in response to the
requirements of administrative reforms due to the expansion in the application of the
concept of globalisation as well as the principles of neoliberalism, which will be discussed
in the next section.
15
2.4 New Public Management (NPM)
Bureaucracy is a prerequisite for the organisation of the modern state as well as modern
economic systems requiring stability and predictability provided by bureaucracy (Stoker,
2006). According to Weber (as cited in Jain, 2004), bureaucratic organisations are
characterised by three qualities: a formal hierarchical structure unequivocally centring
around power and authority, a textured rationale systematic for the division of labour,
and control through a set of general rules that are formal, clear, comprehensive, and
stable. Many scientists believe that bureaucracy is not very effective (Gajduschek, 2003).
However, traditional public management provides a certain set of solutions to the
challenges facing governance in organisations by means of heavy reliance on the
Weberian concept of the world (Stoker, 2006), which stresses control from the top to the
bottom in a hierarchical monocratic form.
Ideas about NPM have, to a certain extent, appeared in response to the administrative
inefficiencies associated with traditional public management (Stoker, 2006). The main
reason for the collapse of the traditional management model is that it did not work
because of the rapidly changing world, especially in relation to the economy. The
emergence of new methods of public management reform not only affects traditional
public management, but is also considered to be a paradigm change (Katsamunska, 2012).
According to Stoker (2006), NPM is a different solution; its responsibility is to design and
implement programmes that achieve their unique goals.
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2.4.1 Definition of New Public Management (NPM)
Lapsley (2009) defined NPM as an influential set of management techniques based on the
standards and practices of private sector performance. These techniques have been
deployed on a large scale by governments seeking to modernise public management and
achieve global importance. From the offset, NPM entails changing processes of public
management to achieve compatibility with private sector management processes in order
to achieve the goals of both the government and non-profit organisations in the public
services sector while meeting global market needs through the application of the
standards and values of economic globalisation.
Based on this understanding, the NPM definition includes two components. The first is
managerialism, which involves introducing private sector management techniques to the
public sector, stressing hands-on professional management, clear criteria, and standards
performance, and managing by results, value for money, and proximity to the customers.
The second is new institutional economics, which refers to introducing incentive
structures (such as market competition) in the delivery of public services; it emphasises
bureaucracy, increased competition through contracting-out and quasi-markets, and
consumer choice (Rhodes, 1996).
2.4.2 Main Features and Components of New Public Management (NPM)
The main components of NPM include hands-on professional management allowing for
active, visible, and discretionary control of an organisation by managers free to manage
and set clear performance standards, thereby increasing competition and contracts, the
partition of units, and the implementation of private sector techniques (Christensen &
Lægreid, 2001). According to Dunleavy (1994), in such cases, competitive components try
17
to remove supplier monopoly to create multiple competing parties, thereby creating
potential competition if current suppliers fail to maintain working efficiency.
The main features of NPM include focusing on economic standards and values. The
dominance of NPM is linked to strong opinions that economic standards and values have
implications for other aspects of the public realm. This entails an emphasis on efficiency,
including changes in both the formal organisation of the public sector and the necessary
experience of procedures relating to partnership with the private sector (Christensen &
Lægreid, 2001). NPM is characterised by its main properties, which include accountability,
transparency and the provision of a detailed statement of the costs, and the building of
organisations in the form of groups that include director/deputy contractual relations.
These properties may also include the fragmenting of planning and transport services
from the public sector to the private and voluntary sector as well as a policy of
encouraging competition between these sectors and giving more options for service users
to change service providers.
Cope, Leishman, and Starie (1997) described five characteristics of NPM. First, it reflects
an ideological commitment that stresses the superiority of the market over the state and
is often based on simplification—namely, private is good while public is bad. Second,
increased competition between the public and private sectors within the public sector is
encouraged to increase efficiency (value for money) by making public sector agencies
more responsive to the consumer. Third, a centralised policy-making strategy resides in
the hands of the core executive branch within the heart of the government; the strategy
embraces a close, coherent network of senior ministers and officials. Fourth, NPM
involves decentralisation insofar as the delivery of public policy to a large number of
agencies, including local authorities, non-government organisations, and private
18
contractors, whereas managerial and operational actions enjoy a degree of freedom
within the policy strategy limits developed by the centre. Finally, fragmentation takes
place because of the management divide, thereby encouraging client/contractor as well
as purchaser/supplier divisions within the government.
2.4.3 Criticisms of NPM
The civil service has adapted to working with the private sector in order to provide
efficiency and greater efficacy of delivery, such as reducing spending. According to this
thinking, NPM can generate more prosperity and wealth in reforms associated with the
privatisation of the public sector (Marobela, 2008). On the other hand, many NPM
strategies have increased the level of complexity of problems tackled, which has
negatively affected the solution to social problems, reducing welfare and removing the
positive effects advocated by NPM (Dunleavy, 1994).
According to Gordon and Whitty (1997), many governments have recently sought to
restructure and improve the controls in the public education domain to reduce
educational bureaucracy and establish education systems relying on an autonomous form
of school management. These changes have been associated with an increased focus on
the choice of parents and competition, which means the establishment of “markets” for
educational services. They also confirmed that the privatisation of education means that
the private sector provides schooling, thereby making the state a partner in the provision
of education or school through sales to the private sector, which in turn raises the
problem of political legitimacy in communities in the states providing education. It is
difficult to implement compulsory education under this system because parents cannot
pay the cost of sending a child to school (Gordon & Whitty, 1997).
19
Fitz and Beers (2002) argued that public education is becoming a source of profit for
commercial and non-profit organisations through key operations (such as outsourcing and
partnerships between the public and private sector), which may affect the quality of
services, curriculum, and teaching methods in public education. These processes lead to
many questions being asked about the efficiency and effectiveness of these policies or
processes, such as the extent of their contribution to improve management, the use of
resources, the degree of accountability required to organise the learning processes, and
the extent to which education should be accepted as a commodity to be bought and sold
on the market as well as which social objectives are expected to contribute to education
(Balarin, 2014).
2.5 Information about the State of Kuwait
2.5.1 Kuwait’s History
Historically, Kuwait is a peaceful nation, strategically situated for trade and maritime
transport. Kuwait’s rapid growth stems from its use as a station for caravans laden with
goods traveling between Arab states as well as convoys carrying Indian goods by Kuwaiti
ships. The Kuwaitis earned money from the sea and land transportation trade, and Kuwait
emerged as an important trade and economic site in the North Arabian Gulf at a time
when international trade was active in the Arabian Gulf. Interest in Kuwait increased in
the region and internationally because of its geographical location (Aidarous, 2002).
Aidarous (2002) noted that, in 1899, Kuwait’s ruler Mubarak Al-Sabah sought a treaty of
protection with the British government in order to protect Kuwait from the threat of the
Ottoman Empire. This continued until 1961, when Britain and Kuwait’s ruler Abdullah Al-
Salem considered the protection treaty to be inconsistent with the full sovereignty of
20
Kuwait. As a result, it was cancelled, and Kuwait became an independent state. Kuwait
began to take a prominent place and play an important role in international forums. The
main focus was to enhance political and national awareness among Kuwaitis, which
subsequently led to the rise of education, health, public services, and infrastructure
(Aidarous, 2002).
2.5.2 Kuwait’s Characteristics
Kuwait is located in the north-western region of the Arabian Gulf, bordering the Iraqi
Republic to the north and north-west, Saudi Arabia to the south and south-west, and the
Arabian Gulf to the east. Covering an area of 17.818 square kilometres, Kuwait has
commercial importance as a result of its location in the north-east region of the Arabian
Peninsula. Its location in the desert means long, hot, and dry summers whereas winter is
short, warm, and sometimes rainy. Kuwait’s population as of June 30, 2012, was
3,267,431, with approximately 1,128,381 being Kuwaitis and the rest being foreigners.
The most populated areas are concentrated in Kuwait City and its suburbs (Kuwait
Government Online–State of Kuwait, n.d.).
2.5.3 Kuwait’s Economy
The first oil field discovered in Kuwait was in Burgan in 1938. In 1946, Kuwait started
transporting the first shipment of crude oil, flowing smoothly through the pipeline to the
tanker. Over the subsequent three decades, there have been extensive developments by
the Kuwait Oil Company, where Kuwait nationalised the oil industry—a significant
achievement (“Amiri Diwan of the State of Kuwait,” n.d.).
Kuwait’s economy is a relatively open economy. The government sector controls most of
the petroleum products, the generation of electricity, water desalination, and the food,
21
wood, and clothing industries. Although Kuwait is located within a region where
conditions are not favourable for agricultural activities on a large scale, it is making
significant efforts to provide fruit, vegetables, and meat. In addition, Kuwait has played a
prominent economic role among the Arab nations and at an international level. In 1961,
Kuwait established the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, an institution
concerned with the provision and management of financial and technical assistance to
developing countries. Although initially limited to the provision of economic aid to Arab
countries, in 1974 it extended its activities to include all countries in the developing world
(“Amiri Diwan of the State of Kuwait,” n.d.).
2.5.4 NPM’s Influence on Kuwait’s Management
Widespread corruption among the elites and influential groups further aggravates and
deepens existing managerial problems. If governments want to minimise managerial
problems in the developing world, they should first accept an overall reform in the
political and economic systems (Al-Kazemi & Ali, 2002). Because of the changes and
reforms taking place all over the world, it is difficult to keep this strict level of government
or administration. Therefore, the change becomes a necessity to meet the requirements
imposed by the state and globalisation (Alkandari, 2013). The World Bank is a major
player in the reform movement. Kuwait has drawn on its expertise in the fields of
economics and education in order to improve its system and develop a knowledge-based
economy to encourage entrepreneurship and prepare skilled workers (Winokur, 2014).
In Kuwait, the private sector is small, undeveloped, and multiracial, as it depends heavily
on expatriate labour, which is relatively effective and experienced. Kuwaitis are reluctant
to work in the private sector and prefer the public sector, which gives them the best
22
offers (Abdalla & Al-Homoud, 1995). The biggest chunk of the workforce elite in the
country is employed in the government sector, encouraging frantic bureaucratic growth
in reaction to the vast oil wealth in order to keep up with the pace of economic prosperity
(Abdalla & Al-Homoud, 1995). According to Abdalla and Al-Homoud (1995), several
factors contribute to the lack of bureaucratic efficiency in Kuwait, including the
Kuwaitisation of administrative functions in the government sector of the local
inexperienced staff, government policies that ensure job security for Kuwaitis, and
employees being encouraged to perform their duties effectively and efficiently.
Al-Musailim (1987) explained that, in 1970, the government of Kuwait adopted the
Kuwaitisation policy, which promoted a large number of administrators who were not
qualified for higher positions, based exclusively on seniority and personal relationships.
This policy consequently hindered the development of the Ministry of Education. Thanks
to the state’s haste for expansion, Kuwait today is suffering from inflation and
bureaucracy.
In terms of managerial problems in Kuwait, like other Arabian Gulf states, where
managers face various problems that are general in nature and persistent, these
problems stem from the sudden economic prosperity within the existing political system
as well as traditional and personalised relationships at work (Al-Kazemi & Ali, 2002). The
resultant Kuwaiti bureaucracy, like all Arab bureaucracies, has been criticised for being
rigid and sticking to a hierarchy of authority (Abdalla & Al-Homoud, 1995).
Al‐Kazemi and Ali (2002) confirmed that the main administrative problems in Kuwaiti
institutions are due to government policies as well as employees’ cultural traditions,
customs, and practices. According to Al-Rayes and Al-Fadhli (2004), government
23
departments suffer greatly from wasta (the intervention of influential people to achieve
the stakeholders’ goals) despite efforts by constitutional provisions and civil service law in
Kuwait to address this by introducing the principle of equality and justice as well as
preventing employees from dealing with it. Jones (2009) argued that, in many Arab
countries, people in authority “have gained their positions due to being members of an
elite group, rather than through their own merit, qualifications and experience” (p. 264).
Al-Rayes and Al-Fadhli (2004) argued that a large percentage of Kuwaiti citizens use wasta
to ensure that they receive what they see as legitimate and right for them; they also
believe that wasta is a social obligation necessary for strengthening relationships and
ensuring the satisfaction of relatives and friends. Administrative leadership and staff
within various governmental institutions play a key role as mediators to complete
transactions in their organisations (Al-Rayes & Al-Fadhli, 2004). Furthermore, many
elements affect the behaviour of individuals (managers and staff) in their organisations,
such as tribal origins, social and religious issues, and factors related to the government’s
authority (Ali, 2009).
Despite developing countries facing pressure from institutions such as the World Bank
and the International Monetary Fund to privatise the public sector, some governments—
including Kuwait—still provide public services such as health, water, electricity, and
education to citizens. However, the service is generally poor due to the lack of
accountability and responsibility; therefore, the need to improve efficiency is one of the
reasons that prompted the government of Kuwait to consider privatisation (Madzikanda
& Njoku, 2008).
24
These same factors have also led to decentralisation, a dramatic increase in development,
and a need for centralisation. Central governments may lose control as government
authorities feel the need to keep some level of authority (Alkandari, 2013).
2.5.5 Education in Kuwait
2.5.5.1 Centralisation of the Education System in Kuwait
The public education structure in Kuwait has evolved over the last 100 years to include
highly centralised management. Today it consists of a minister of education and an
undersecretary, who work with many assistant undersecretaries and are responsible for
various aspects of the education system. For example, the Assistant Undersecretary of
the Public Education sector oversees the EDs to ensure that educational plans are
managed correctly. However, the result is a cumbersome system, delays in decision
making, and a lack of communication between the minister, undersecretary, and district
offices, which are often criticised by politicians, government officials, and stakeholders
(Winokur, 2014).
The MoE in Kuwait originally established five EDs (a sixth one was established in 1999) to
find a balance between centralisation and decentralisation in educational administration.
The MoE remains responsible for planning, supervision, and control over the
development of education. In contrast, the EDs (decentralisation processes) implement
guidance in schools and supervision and are responsible for evaluating school
performance (UNESCO, 2011).
However, despite the transformation of Kuwait’s education system from centralised to
decentralised through EDs, Winokur (2014) emphasised that, in recent years, the public
education structure in Kuwait has evolved into a highly centralised department
25
overseeing six EDs that ensure the proper management of educational plans.
Decentralisation means reducing the control of the higher authorities in certain decisions
and the transfer of this responsibility to lower levels of management. As a result, a wider
participation of stakeholders can occur in the field of education. Decentralisation leads to
increasing the central government’s efficiency if it has any difficultly in dealing with issues
centrally (Alkandari, 2013).
Hassan (2008) indicated that the degree of implementation of decentralisation in Kuwait
was slightly above average in the public education system, but there were many problems
in applying this process in educational areas, such as the existence of a clear overlap
among specialisms of some departments of the ministry and the school districts.
Furthermore, the powers granted to school district leaders and school principals were
limited, and there had been negative interference in some of the decisions issued by
school districts or schools. As a result, school district leaders and school principals were
not fully independent or able to conduct work within their institutions (Hassan, 2008).
2.5.5.2 Education Policy Reform in Kuwait—Public Education Strategy in the
State of Kuwait 2005–2025 (PESSK)
PESSK provides a strategic and general framework that directs the trajectory of the
education system to meet the needs of the community; it also focuses on determining the
direction to bring about change in the public education system and serves as the basis for
education reform and the development of educational institutional structures. This
strategy was certified by the Council of Ministers for 2005–2025, thereby making it
binding for the MoE and executive government bodies. It is considered the first public
education strategy adopted in the history of Kuwait.
26
PESSK provides a comprehensive strategy which includes a reference frame from which it
was launched, the strategic vision, mission and goals, and the general policies of the
education system (MOE, 2003). The strategic vision is to be seen as an education system
that provides the basis for the preparation of young people to ensure that the objectives
and principles of the state are achieved and with the diversity in styles which provides
multiple opportunities for individuals and the community to develop their skills, abilities,
self-fulfilment and service for the whole community (MOE, 2003). The strategic mission is
to create appropriate opportunities to help learners achieve comprehensive and
integrated growth spiritually, mentally, socially, psychologically, and physically to the
maximum extent of their abilities and potential. This will ensure a balance between
achieving for themselves and their service to the community in a manner that meets the
requirements of the age and social and economic development, whilst maintaining the
community’s culture (MOE, 2003).
The strategy has identified the main policy of the public education system, some of which
can be summarised as follows: (MOE, 2003):
• Ensure that the community needs of public education, such as workforce
preparation and diversifying the learning sources, in order work to respond to
them through ongoing development work.
• Encourage the private sector to carry the largest burden possible from investment
to provision public education services.
• Benefit from the experience of successful models for the development of public
education systems in other countries.
• Benefit from the expertise of international institutions interested in education
(e.g., UNESCO and World Bank).
27
However, like any other project, this strategy has both positive and negative aspects. On
the positive side, the strategy merely outlines plans for education, leaving the more
specific details for those within the educational institution. This makes the strategic plan
flexible and helps the implementers determine the best ways to achieve their education
goals. Lerner (1999) also argued that such strategy is flexible and oriented towards the
whole picture of the organisation to provide a framework to achieve its desired future.
Education strategy is also characterised by its validity for different periods of time. It
should be noted that the strategy was developed around 2003, but fits with this era
despite rapid changes and technological developments in society both globally and
regionally. The strategy has emphasised the importance of keeping up with technological
developments and provides solutions so that these developments can be available to all.
In addition, it emphasises the importance of openness to world cultures and the ability to
learn from the experiences of other countries while still preserving the Arab and Islamic
identity (MOE, 2003).
The weaknesses in the strategy are that it does not include a comprehensive and specific
goal, but merely identifies the strategic mission, which is a duplicate of the overall goal
for education. Because the strategy is unquestionably a significant document, it must
therefore have a clear and specific goal. Furthermore, PESSK does not include an
illustrative interpretive plan for each goal, which may prevent many different
interpretations of the same goal. As a result, the responsibilities of educational leaders
are increased when developing plans that must be concurrent with the objectives of the
strategy as well as with the rapid and continuing changes in the world education systems.
In this study, the educational leadership refers to those who occupy the positions of
leadership at the ministry and district levels of education as well as those who take
28
decisions affecting the education system and participants of educational policy-making. In
Kuwait, there are three educational institutions representing the education system. The
MoE is considered the centre of decision-making and responsible for drawing up
education policy; it includes the most senior leadership. The EDs include the middle
leadership and are considered to be a link between the ministry and schools. Finally,
schools are where the educational policies are implemented. The next section outlines
the administrative levels that constitute the MoE and EDs because the sample was
selected from these two organisations.
2.5.5.3 Ministry of Education (MoE) and Education Districts (EDs)
The education system in Kuwait combines the centralisation and decentralisation of the
educational management. The MoE represents the centralisation mechanisms through its
responsibility of planning, supervising, and controlling the development of education
whereas the EDs represent the decentralisation mechanisms through the implementation
of processes in their schools and the supervision and assessment of their performance
(UNESCO, 2011).
The MoE as an organisation includes three levels of senior leadership: the minister, the
undersecretary of ministry, and eight assistant undersecretaries that chair eight sectors in
the MoE (see Appendix 2), with each sector followed by a number of administration
departments divided as follows (MOE, 2015):
• Public Education Sector: 8 administrations
• Private and Qualitative Education Sector: 2 administrations
• Educational Development and Student Activities Sector: 5 administrations
• Educational Research and Curriculum Sector: 3 administrations
29
• Educational Constructions and Planning Sector: 5 administrations
• Management and Administrative Development Sector: 3 administrations
• Legal Affairs Sector: 2 administrations
• Financial Sector: 2 administrations
Each administration is affiliated with a number of supervision departments, and each one
also includes many administrative sections in the sense that each sector in the MoE is
followed by three levels of administrative (see Appendix 3).
According to the job description, managers of administrators in the MoE have a
supervisory function. They are responsible for overseeing the development of the annual
plan, preparing regulations and standards to regulate the work of the administration,
participating in educational policy-making, and following up on their implementation to
achieve the education system’s goals (MOE, 2015). The manager of each department in
the ministry is accountable to the assistant undersecretary for the sector followed by
these departments.
However, the EDs include four administration departments, and each department
includes a number of supervisors who visit schools to identify their needs and solve any
problems they face. That means each ED includes four managerial levels: general
managers followed by managers of administration, supervisors, and heads of
departments (see Appendix 4). ED managers’ functions are considered supervisory; they
oversee the development of the annual plan for the administration they head in that
district, follow up on the development of the educational process, and work to provide
their needs and find solutions to the problems they face in order to achieve the best
30
results (MOE, 2015). These four managers in each ED are accountable to the general
manager of the district.
2.5.5.4 Professional Development of the Ministry of Education Managers
In Kuwait, three stakeholders provide professional or training development programmes
for MoE staff, including the ministry, EDs, and schools: the Development Department of
the MoE, Kuwait University, and the Public Authority for Applied Education and Training
(PAAET).
Through a 1993 ministerial decree concerning organisational development in the
education ministry of Kuwait, the Development Administration was given responsibility
for the education ministry’s training (Al-Khatib & Al-Enezi, 2008). According to (UNESCO,
2011), through the Development Department the MoE has sought to cooperate with
various scientific, educational, and training institutions and to benefit from experts
providing lectures, workshops, and practical applications as well as development
programmes for the MoE trainees. These programmes include improving work
performance, meeting requirements of professional development, preparing for
management positions, and using information technology. Meanwhile, PAAET has
established a centre for vocational evaluation and development to provide training
programmes for educational trainees in the field of curricula and teaching methods for
their job roles. In addition, the Faculty of Education at Kuwait University has also
established graduate programmes for MoE staff (teachers or managers) to complete their
higher studies and obtain a higher teaching diploma or master’s degree (in disciplines
such as educational administration, curricula and teaching methods) (UNESCO, 2011).
31
Although the training programmes are provided free for teachers and educational
managers to encourage MoE staff to improve their skills, trainees may face some
difficulties, such as not meeting their training needs. In addition, it has been claimed that
training programmes can be characterised by stagnation and a lack of suitability to
trainees’ needs. Furthermore, they have weak methods for assessment and do not take
into account contemporary trends used in the field of leadership training (Mohammed,
2008).
According to Jones (2009), in many Middle Eastern countries, including the Gulf Arab
states, there are few opportunities to attend training courses and acquire qualifications
locally. Therefore, the MoE sought to send some managers to participate in international
conferences and attend various courses to transfer these experiences to the education
system in Kuwait, thinking that this would develop managers’ (or leaders’) skills.
However, those sent to professional development programmes in foreign countries (such
as America and Britain) are mostly chosen based on seniority instead of merit and may
not be prepared for the teaching methods or may face difficulties due to the high level of
English required (Jones, 2009).
2.5.5.5 Selection of the Ministry of Education Managers
In Kuwait, although senior educational leaders understand the importance of preparing
managers to become leaders in the future, the process of selecting candidates for
managerial posts in the MoE or education districts does not include the condition that
candidates have been sufficiently prepared or qualified to be an educational leader.
Rather, they set certain criteria (such as years of service or competency assessment) that
apply to all candidates for supervisory positions, such as a head of department or a school
32
principal. In addition, the MoE forms interviews committees to determine who is entitled
to be a manager and fill vacant positions according to the results of these interviews.
According to an explanatory memorandum for a proposed law from one member of the
Kuwaiti National Assembly about conditions to hold leadership and supervisory positions,
state organisations should abide by the provisions of the Kuwaiti constitution in the
process of selecting leaders to fill the leadership positions of government bodies. This is
due to the spread of wasta and favouritism in leaders’ selection while depriving other
national competencies from taking leadership positions. In addition, candidates for
leadership positions have been accepted from other parties, not from the same bodies or
organisations where there are many eligible candidates to fill those positions in state
ministries. That has led to a deterioration in leadership performance because of the lack
of cooperation of staff in those sectors with their leaders, in principal because they came
from external organisations (Transparency Center of Information, 2013).
2.5.5.6 Performance Appraisal System (PAS)
The MoE in Kuwait adopted the employee performance appraisal system (PAS) based on
a decision issued by the Civil Service Commission (No. 36) in 2006, which sets out criteria
for the evaluation of staff each year by their direct heads. PAS includes four evaluation
groups: individual performance, group abilities, personal abilities, and supervisory
functions. Each group includes several factors (Kuwait Teachers Association, 2010). In
2017, a fifth group was added to include factors measuring the extent of adherence to
the official work term.
Ashkanani (2001) pointed to the inefficiency of the evaluation system in the public sector
due to many shortcomings. For example, its objectives are not clear to the vast majority
33
of staff, where the evaluation process is conducted on non-objective bases and criteria
due to a lack of measurement tools. It also does not guarantee fairness among staff,
meaning that it does not differentiate between the creative employee (excellent level)
and medium or weak performance, and it pays little attention to the future performance
development issues because they do not focus on the strengths or weaknesses of an
employee’s performance to identify training needs. There is also greater emphasis on
disciplinary elements and personal relationships than on the technical aspects, which has
a direct bearing on the employee’s performance. In addition, not discussing the results of
performance with staff can negatively affect their relationships with superiors and may
prevent them from improving their performance because they do not know their
weaknesses (Ashkanani, 2001).
This situation may have resulted in a lack of genuine MoE and ED managers’ performance
assessments. As a result, there is no appropriate development of performance that helps
improve the performance of the organisation or departments they manage. It has also led
to a lack of credibility in selecting the right person to assume supervisory and leadership
positions (MoE and ED managers) because the selection processes depend on the
evaluation of candidate’s efficiency and experience in his/her job.
34
Chapter 3: Literature Review
3.1 Introduction
The purpose of this study is to explore the effectiveness of leadership preparation in the
educational ministry and districts to carry out their functions to lead the education
system in Kuwait. Accordingly, this chapter reviews literature related to educational
leaders’ development that emphasises the rationale of this study, such as management,
leadership, organisational culture, and professional development. Section 3.2 discusses
the key theoretical ideas and related concepts, including an explanation of both
contingency theory and social learning theory adopted to determine the theoretical
framework. Section 3.3 reviews literature about the concepts, functions, and
management levels as well as the management of change. Section 3.4 discusses the
definition of leadership and includes the theoretical literature for leadership preparation
and selection processes for leaders to hold positions where these are related to
leadership development in general. Section 3.5 focuses on the organisation’s culture,
including decision-making processes, centralised education systems, decentralisation,
accountability, performance and both types of power, authority, and influence in
educational organisations. Leadership topics, models, and professional development
cannot be verified without considering the context in which leadership is exercised
because it happens through a group of individuals expected to share the values, customs
and objectives that constitute the culture of the organisation. Section 3.6 discusses
theoretical literature in professional development as well as adult education. Section 3.7
explains the development of educational leaders and includes trends in leadership
development and the strategies used to develop them. In addition, learning through lived
35
experience is examined as it may have had a greater impact on development than formal
learning methods.
Finally, some of the previous studies related to the topic of educational leadership
development are presented in this chapter. These are divided into two groups: Western
studies such as those conducted in the United Kingdom, and Arab studies such as those
conducted in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Most studies have generally focused on schools as
educational organisations, and the way they have been applied in the Western context
differs somewhat from the educational environment in the Eastern context. Accordingly,
although this thesis focuses on the preparation of the MoE and ED managers, in some
cases, some of these studies were reviewed because educational leaders are assumed to
have been department heads and principals in schools before becoming managers in the
ministry or districts. Thus, the development and preparation processes begin during the
early stages of their employment as well as the first years of supervision for those who
are expected to become leaders in the future. In addition, the studies in this chapter have
been adapted to suit the context in Kuwaiti society—in particular, the education system
in Kuwait adopts a global educational policy because it deals with the World Bank, and
education officials believe in openness to other cultures in this era of globalisation.
3.2 Key Theoretical Ideas and Relevant Concepts
A conceptual framework is considered as an anchor for any research and is indicated as
the process of data interpretation and analysis. This study includes many key concepts,
such as management, leadership, professional development, and educational leadership
development. In addition, two theoretical ideas will be adopted (i.e., contingency theory
and social learning theory) because the researcher believes they determine the
36
theoretical framework appropriate for this research. Before reviewing the theoretical
literature of related subjects, the definitions of key concepts as well as the two theories
will be presented in detail.
3.2.1 Key Concepts
This section presents the working definitions for various concepts relevant to the
discussion that follows.
Educational Management: This study adopts Bush's (2011) description of educational
management, which only works to achieve the goals of educational institutions set
earlier. As management’s role is limited to developing and planning steps for its
implementation, as well as to monitoring staff performance and finding solutions to the
problems faced during the implementation of administrative processes, the emphasis is
on the importance of effective and efficient implementation that achieves the desired
goal(s) and satisfaction of the management’s objectives.
Leadership: Leadership involves influencing others’ actions in order to achieved the
desired ends. Leaders shape others’ goals, motivations, and actions. They frequently
initiate change to achieve both existing and new goals; they might also seek to preserve
what is valuable. As such, leadership requires “as much ingenuity, energy, and skill as
starting an innovative programme” (Cuban, 1988, p. xx).
Organisation culture: Organisation culture refers to a set of features and characteristics
that represent the values, beliefs, ethics, and behaviours which distinguish members of
the specific organisation from another; thus, they form an approach of distinct and
independent thinking and address different problems (Al-Hajri, 2013).
37
Professional development: Day (1999) defines professional development as follows:
Professional development consists of all-natural learning experiences and those
conscious and planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect
benefit to the individual, group or school and which contribute through these to
the quality of education in the classroom. It is the process by which, alone and
with others, teachers review, renew and extend their commitment as change
agents to the moral purposes of teaching and by which they acquire and develop
critically the knowledge, skills and emotional intelligence essential to good
professional thinking, planning and practice with children, young people and
colleagues through each phase of their teaching lives. (p. 4)
Leadership development: Bolam's (2003) definition of leadership development is used in
this thesis:
An ongoing process of education, training, learning and support activities; taking
place in either external or work-based settings; proactively engaged in by
qualified, professional teachers, headteachers and other school leaders; aimed
primarily at promoting the learning and development of professionally
appropriate knowledge, skills and values; to help school leaders to decide on and
implement valued changes in their leadership and management behaviour; so that
they can promote high quality education for their students more effectively; thus
achieving an agreed balance between individual, school and national needs. (p.
75)
38
3.2.2 Theoretical Ideas
3.2.2.1 Contingency Theory
Some changes occur in organisations when these are adapted in order to avoid
inefficiency in performance. This is done through the adoption of new organisational
characteristics to suit new levels of contingencies (Donaldson, 2001). The main concept
proposed as a basis for shaping dynamic theory in leadership is situational leadership,
which essentially refers to the situational favourableness dimension of the contingency
model. It is widely acknowledged that this concept gives considerable understanding and
control of the leadership process, which can in turn help develop an effective leadership
training programme (Fiedler, 1978).
According to Fiedler (1978), the effectiveness of a group or organisation depends on two
factors: the leader’s personality and the degree to which the situation gives the leader
power and influence. For the former, the relationship-motivated leader’s personality is
determined through a procedure reflecting the fundamental goals (e.g., support and
esteem from others who are important for them, such as co-workers or staff) of an
individual when acting in a leadership role. If there is a relationship of respect and
appreciation by the staff to their leader, it encourages trust and loyalty among them and
for the organisation (Wong-MingJi, 2013). The other major personality type is the task-
motivated leader, who obtains satisfaction and self-esteem from the more tangible
evidence of his or her competence.
The other main variable of contingency theory is the leader’s situational control, where
the methods used are based on three elements: leader–member relationships (the leader
is supported by group members), task structure (clear-cut, structured, and having
39
appropriate goals), and position power (e.g., the ability to reward and punish; Fiedler,
1978). Hersey, Blanchard and Johnson (1996) explained that, in a situational leadership
model, “there is no one best way to influence people. Which leadership style a person
should use with individuals or groups depends on the readiness level of the people the
leader is attempting to influence” (p. 190).
The main idea of contingency theory is that organisations are complex social systems.
Therefore, their application requires an accurate diagnosis of the specific situation
(Lorsch, 2013). Contingency theory implies that the effectiveness of leadership is only the
result of interaction between two factors: the leader’s personality (relationship-
motivated or task-motivated) and the leadership situation, which differs depending on
the relationship between the leader and the organisation’s members, task structure, and
the power and influence of the leader (Fiedler, 1978). There is a correlation between the
pattern of leadership and contingency variables, which is positively linked with the
effectiveness of leadership and organisation performance; in contrast, the weakness of
this relationship is that it can reduce performance (Wong-MingJi, 2013).
Yet Hersey et al. (1996) asserted that situational leadership is based on an interaction
among three factors: task behaviour which a leader teaches his/her members; the
relationship behaviour that a leader demonstrates; and the readiness level which
members offer (i.e., their assimilation, willingness, and skills) while performing a specific
task or aim. According to Carnall and By (2014), in rapidly changing environments, rules,
regulations, and work procedures might become outdated and irrelevant. In addition,
they may become barriers or excuses that managers use to justify their incorrect
decisions. This theory sometimes indicates a great degree of managers’ choice about how
40
to structure their institutions, with no consequences if the outcomes are unsatisfactory
(Carnall & By, 2014).
According to the contingency theory, leadership effectiveness depends on the
appropriate match between situational control and how to exercise leadership (Fiedler,
1978) because there are many different models. There is some debate as to whether
leaders should have one basic method that is consistent and appropriate for a situation or
whether some leaders can change their style flexibly and conduct task- or relationship-
oriented behaviours, according to their perceptions and assessments of the situation
(Wong-MingJi, 2013). However, some factors may cause a change in the relationship
(Fiedler, 1978), including:
• Experience: It is often the case that the first few months in a new job are very
challenging, meaning it is difficult to deal with any problems. Therefore, a leader
needs to gain help gradually to better understand what is happening and to
increase his/her confidence.
• Training: The impact of training is expected to be very similar to that of
experience, on the condition that it is relevant and reflects the experiences of
others who have succeeded in this post.
• Organisational turbulence: Changes in organisational structure affect a leader’s
situational control (Fiedler, 1978). The bureaucratic structure may be suitable for
a stable and simple environment, but in a complex and changing environment it
should be more flexible and innovative. Thus, inflexible procedures produce
frustrating conditions and reduce managers’ ability to innovate (Carnall & By,
2014).
41
The development of the organisation’s performance through leaders’ training and the
provision of education for dealing with changes in organisational environmental
conditions improves the ability to consistently manage these issues. Applying contingency
theory to human resources management processes helps attract, select, and appoint
leaders with suitable guidance for their specific roles while conforming to these roles and
fulfilling their requirements to the current leadership (Wong-MingJi, 2013).
Therefore, contingency model is the most relevant theory for the purpose of this study
and is best applied when performing a data analysis of leadership to understand leaders’
performance. Fiedler's (1978) contingency theory helps managers understand the
effectiveness of situational leadership, which considers how appropriate a particular
leadership style is when organisations encounter changes or unstable conditions.
3.2.2.2 Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory is based upon various areas, such as cognitive psychology,
behavioural psychology, clinical psychology, and social cognition. It is also concerned with
understanding types of learning that depend on the observation of human behaviour
rather than on direct intervention, which might sometimes indicate imitation,
observational learning, or modelling (Lankshear & Knobel, 2011). It emphasises that
humans’ thoughts and behaviours are influenced by observation and direct experience. It
also confirms that people use symbols to communicate and analyse conscious
experiences, then put them into action. People not only react to external influences, but
also select, organise, and transform motives that affect them (Latham & Saari, 1979).
Social learning effectiveness is based on learners immersing themselves in processes of
induction in different methods in order to become full practitioners and gain appreciative
42
systems. To get hands-on practice with mental and material tools within real contexts,
they are employed with successful practitioners from the beginning (Lankshear & Knobel,
2011). According to Latham and Saari (1979), learning can be achieved more effectively
by informing observers earlier about the consequences of acting out a particular
behaviour rather than by waiting until it becomes clear and then managing it. The authors
added that, through observational learning, the enhanced influence not only shows what
is observed, but also what goes unnoticed. For example, the observer’s learning will
increase from the model if he/she realises “that the consequence of a model’s behaviour
is either a valued outcome or the avoidance or removal of a punishing stimulus” (p. 240).
Modelling is considered a vital technique for social learning theory and is used as a basis
for learning (Latham & Saari, 1979).
The Canadian-American psychologist Bandura, an advocate of social learning theory,
explained human behaviour as a mutual interaction among its three areas, cognitions,
and environmental events (Roeckelein, 2006). Psychological performance is better
understood through continued mutual interaction between behaviour and its controlling
conditions because, as this theory contends, a person is not driven by inner forces; the
person also does not struggle powerlessly with environmental influences Bandura, 1971).
According to Bandura’s theory, humans seek to learn to fulfil their needs and desires by
observing the consequences of behaviours and events. Such observations drive
expectations of what will happen in the future and about the ability of people to act out
behaviours and express affections and feelings. They also help people compare these with
others and then make value judgments (Roeckelein, 2006).
Bandura (1977) emphasised that efficacy expectations indicate a person’s confidence in
his or her capacity to perform a behaviour, while the outcome expectations indicate a
43
person’s prediction of the consequences of this; however, desired performance may not
always be achieved if the person lacks the necessary skills. In other words, if some
managers cannot identify their role (i.e., leader or manager), their expected needs may
be incorrect (Bandura, 1977). In addition, people can do many activities to ensure that
they can succeed, but they might not always carry them out because they have no motive
to do so (Bandura, 1977).
According to Bandura (1977), self-efficacy affects the identification of behaviours. For
example, people might be afraid and avoid situations that they believe will override their
coping skills. Thus, the greater the perceived self-efficacy, the more effective the effort or
time that individuals use to face obstacles and difficult situations. Self-efficacy is
influenced by four factors (Bandura, 1977):
• Performance accomplishments, which have the greatest impact on this efficiency
because they are based on genuine competence experiences (Bandura, Adams, &
Beyer, 1977). In addition, participant modelling helps align behavioural
conceptions with appropriate actions and leads to corrective improvements in
skills acquisition (Bandura, 1977).
• Vicarious experiences are another source of effectiveness because self-efficacy
increases when observing the successes of others (Bandura, Adams, Hardy, &
Howells, 1980).
• Verbal persuasion is used to affect human behaviour because it is possible to
convince people they are able to deal successfully with past frustrations (Bandura,
1977).
• Emotional arousal is another factor that can affect self-efficacy because high
arousal usually weakens performance (Bandura, 1977).
44
Bandura (1977) stated that conventional learning theories are commonly conceived
behaviour as a result of response consequences of direct experience. In fact, practically all
phenomena of learning resulting from direct experience can happen on a vicarious basis
through the observation of others’ behaviours and the resulting consequences for them.
“Man’s capacity to learn by observation enables him to acquire large, integrated units of
behaviour by example without having to build up the patterns gradually by tedious trial
and error” (p. 2). The observation of people as models does not mean that individuals will
learn from these or will necessarily choose from the many characteristics of the model
most suited to them (and to their role) or even that they will fully understand the aspects
they have observed (Bandura, 1971). Observation-based learning has a key function in
relation to the long-term retention of observed activities (model’s behaviour) at different
times, and it is recalled (if needed) despite the absence of that model because memory
for the person who observes others is important for his/her learning. Furthermore,
response patterns are represented in the memory in a symbolic form (Bandura, 1971).
Modelling methods help promote self-efficacy and, thus, eliminate fears because they
teach effective coping skills by showing proficient ways to deal with serious situations
(Bandura, 1977).
3.3 Management
The starting point of the discussion is the working definition of management (see Section
3.2.1). Management helps direct different efforts towards a specific goal, as it is used in
various areas and plays an important role in all kind of jobs, where it develops its own
independent system (Ashima & Naik, 2010). Leadership and management can be
confusing terms despite the differences between them. (Bush, 2003) argued that the
term management is similar in meaning to the term administration. The term
45
management is used more extensively in both British and European countries whereas
the term administration is more often used in the United States, Canada, and Australia.
Both terms can overlap with the term leadership. Bush (1998) confirmed that
management is related to the implementation of operations and technical functions
whereas leadership is related to the driving purpose and values of the organisation.
In general, the management’s goal is to optimise available resources, whether human or
material, to achieve efficiency and effectiveness (Al- Qaryouti, 2006). Efficiency refers to
achieving productivity with the least amount of wasted effort or expense (Alkandari,
2013); meanwhile, effectiveness is concerned with the achievement of the desired results
(Stevenson, 2006).
3.3.1 Functions of Management
Management is not an activity in itself, but a description of a variety of activities carried
out by the members of an organisation who have a role in management (e.g., someone
with a formal responsibility to work with one or more people in the organisation or to
carry out specialised advisory functions in basic management activities; Cole & Kelly,
2011). Furthermore, management is a function that aims to direct both people and
resources to achieve the desired goals and objectives of an institution through planning,
organising, directing, and resourcing (such as human, financial, technological, and natural
resources; Ashima & Naik, 2010; Cole & Kelly, 2011).
According to Carpenter, Bauer and Erdogan (2010), managers are responsible for
operations to get activities completed efficiently with, and through, people as well as
achieving the institution’s targets through the implementation of basic management
46
functions. Cole and Kelly (2011, p. 16) summarised the groups of management activities
as follows:
• Planning: deciding the objectives or goals of the organisation and preparing how
to meet them.
• Organising: determining activities and allocating responsibilities for the
achievement of plans; coordinating activities and responsibilities into an
appropriate structure.
• Motivating: meeting the social and psychological needs of employees in the
fulfilment of organisational goals.
• Controlling: monitoring and evaluating activities, through three steps: developing
performance standards, comparing actual performance with these, and taking
corrective action when needed (Carpenter et al., 2010).
3.3.2 Levels of Management from a Systems Perspective
Cole and Kelly (2011) concluded that it is important to consider some of the shortcomings
of the identified management activities because they focus on the actions (input) instead
of the results (output). They also ignore the role elements of a managerial function and
do not consider different levels of management functions. Ashima and Naik (2010) argued
that management includes a number of different levels in an institution, with each
determining a series of orders, the degree of authority, and the status of any
administrative position (see managers’ role in the education system in Kuwait in Section
2.5.5.3). The principle of linking management tasks and activities to the goals and
objectives of educational institutions is still vital (Bush, 2011).
Ashima and Naik (2010) identified three management categories:
47
• Top-Level Management: Senior management is the ultimate source of authority,
manages objectives and policies, and fulfils the role of planning and coordinating
functions. This level includes a board of directors, chief executive, or
administrative director.
• Middle-Level Management: Some of these roles work to implement an
organisation’s plans in accordance with senior management policies and
guidelines, develop plans for its subunits, participate in recruitment and training
of lower management levels, and interpret and explain policies from senior
management to the lowest level. This level includes branch managers (school
districts) and department managers at the intermediate level.
• Lower-Level Management: This level is also known as the supervisory level
because it includes supervisors, heads, and staff in departments whose tasks
include guiding employees in daily activities, being responsible for quality work,
providing training, ensuring discipline, and motivating staff.
The MoE managers who participated in the current research are classified as top-level
management whereas the ED managers are middle-level management (see Section
2.5.5.3).
In general, a management function relates to the manager’s role in taking the necessary
measures to ensure that members’ work-related activities are contributing to the
achievement of organisational goals (Carpenter et al., 2010). However, these goals and
purposes should be approved by the institution and its community because it may risk
becoming “managerialism” (e.g., when managers focus only on external initiatives; Bush,
2011). “Managerialism departs from the wealth of leadership and management
experience in its unrealistic act of faith that channelling the agency of others, and
48
delimiting its boundaries, can and should be both comprehensive and enduring” (Hoyle &
Wallace, 2005, pp. 68-69). Thus, the shift in the language of educational institutions for
the preference of leadership over management reflects concern about management that
focuses on efficiency rather than values (Bush & Glover, 2014). According to Hoyle and
Wallace (2005), there is a need to distinguish between leadership and management on
the one hand and managerialism on the other. Bush (2011) stressed the importance of
effective management, but managerialism without values would be unsuitable and have a
destructive impact on an educational organisation. Hoyle and Wallace (2005) argued that
effective leadership and management produce pressure to create structures and
implement processes to allow teachers and staff to participate as much as possible in
their core function of managerialism. Furthermore, managerialism refers to excessive
leadership and management beyond support, which becomes an extreme goal in itself
and will negatively affect the main goal of education (Hoyle & Wallace, 2005).
Therefore, in the next section, the theoretical literature on leadership will be reviewed in
more detail.
3.4 Leadership
The working definition of leadership is presented in Section 3.2.1. Considerable attention
is being paid to educational leadership in the 21st century because of the prevailing belief
that the quality of leadership has a significant impact on school results (Bush, 2007).
Harris and Jones (2017) predicted that, in the next few years, educational administrations
will face unprecedented and unpredictable challenges because of the political and
economic transformations taking place at the global level, requiring leaders to reshape
education systems. They added that this development also requires leaders to assess the
49
current status of the educational institution while simultaneously making use of available
resources that help to revitalise and develop it. This means taking actions such as
emphasising vision and values, reshaping important goals, and rearranging priorities
(Harris & Jones, 2017) to achieve the desired educational goals. Institutional aims can be
achieved through leadership and supervision and provide the skills to initiate structure. In
addition, leadership gives clear directions for institution members to help them perform
their tasks. The setting of an institution’s direction is considered a fundamental task in
leadership (Ayub, Manaf, & Hamzah, 2014).
3.4.1 The Concept of Leadership
Leadership is the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to
participate effectively to achieve organisational success, as leadership should be able to
deal with the members of the organisation, not just as workers who execute orders (Ayub
et al., 2014). According to Yukl (2013), leadership may be facilitated by people who have
been formally selected or perhaps by more informal measures, where some decisions and
plans are made, by interacting among a group of people who influence each other.
Accordingly, it seems difficult to define a specific term for leadership because it involves
multiple factors, relationships, and attitudes that lead to differences in precise
identification. Nevertheless, the distinctive characteristic of leadership is the process of
influencing others. OECD (2001) concluded that “leadership means a variety of things.
Sometimes it refers to the possession of personal properties such as courage, stamina, or
charisma. At other times, it means a position which dispenses power, authority, and
responsibility” (p. 11).
50
Starting from the working definition of leadership presented in Section 3.2.1, an
alternative definition was presented by Bush and Glover (2003, p. 8), who described
leadership as follows:
The process of influence leading to the achievement of desired purposes.
Successful leaders develop a vision for their schools based on their personal and
professional values. They articulate this vision at every opportunity and influence
their staff and other stakeholders to share it. The philosophy, structures and
activities of the school are geared towards the achievement of this shared vision.
Bush (2008) identified three major characteristics of leadership: influence, values and
vision. These are the basis for developing a working definition.
3.4.1.1 Leadership as Influence
Leadership definitions vary according to several factors, such as who exercises the
influence and purpose of the influence process, how it is done and its results, and where
these differences reflect profound issues about the identification of leadership processes
and leaders (Yukl, 2013). The notion of influence does not provide or explain what aims or
procedures are to be followed; therefore, it is neutral (Bush & Glover, 2014).
Furthermore, influence aims to achieve particular results or purposes and does not
depend on the official authority of positional leaders such as managers (Bush &
Middlewood, 2013).
Bush (2008) argued that influence includes several key elements:
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• Influence instead of authority, where influence can be exercised by any person at
a school or college, while authority is linked with official positions such as school
director.
• Intentional process means those seeking to influence are doing so in order to
achieve certain purposes.
• Influence practised by groups or individuals; this idea emphasises the concept of
distributed leadership.
Leadership does not usually occur unless people are influenced by what is ethical and
useful to the institution and to themselves, as some leadership concepts emphasise the
importance of the emotional aspects of influence more than the cognitive elements (Yukl,
2013).
3.4.1.2 Leadership as Exemplifying Values
Leaders are expected to establish clear personal and professional values from the start
(Bush & Glover, 2014), as leadership is often based on these values (Bush & Middlewood,
2013). Therefore, values are strongly associated with leadership (Bush, 2003, 2008, 2011;
Bush & Glover, 2003; Bush & Glover, 2014; NCSL, 2007) and are considered a moral
compass and the basis for the work of leaders (NCSL, 2007). Leadership qualities are
affected by personal values, self-awareness, and the emotional ability and morals of
leaders (Greenfield & Ribbins, 1993), which means that leaders are adopting the values
(Bush, 2011).
According to Bruno and Lay (2008), values affect the way goals are defined and the
appropriate methods chosen to achieve them. Through the development of
organisational strategies, structures, and processes, as well as the use of appropriate
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leadership methods, the individual decides according to the values system that he/she
adopts (Bruno & Lay, 2008). As leaders influence others, the values they adopt will also
affect the behaviour of those who deal with them.
Haydon (2007) confirmed that, because values are considered as concepts, when they are
agreed upon within a society or organisation, it means that there is a consensus on a set
of values (i.e., rules are formed within that community in accordance with its standards).
This consensus in that community does not mean accepting or justifying these norms
(Haydon, 2007), if people do not agree or conform with these prevailing or accepted
values. Furthermore, it does not mean that anyone who belongs to this institution
espouses the same qualities or values; it is just an evaluation of practice in a particular
institution, where the culture of that institution is linked to the attitudes, practices, and
values that prevail (Haydon, 2007). Through the experience managers gain as a result of
successful professional practice, they form their own values and beliefs which can be
integrated into the organisation’s culture (Bush, 2006).
3.4.1.3 Leadership as Establishing an Agreed Vision
Vision has been regarded as an essential component of effective leadership for more than
20 years (Bush, 2008; 2011). However, it is still not fully understood because it is a more
complex concept and is ethical because of its normative nature (Ndalamba, Caldwell, &
Anderson, 2018). According to Zaccaro and Banks (2001), leaders at the top of an
organisation seek to develop a broad, long-term and sometimes ambiguous vision, but
this can be translated by senior managers into more specific strategic plans that are then
published in the organisation, followed by a process of trying to convince all
organisational components to adopt and implement the proposed plans. These are the
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basis for structural changes in organisational processes, while vision helps activate these
changes in organisational culture (Zaccaro & Banks, 2001).
Changes within an organisation often lead to the re-evaluation of its values, vision, and
mission (Calder, 2006). According to Zaccaro and Banks (2001), the vision provides an
ideal picture of what an organisation should be later on, based on the perceptions of the
leader about the future of this organisation rather than the current situation. Ndalamba
et al. (2018) argue that vision provides clarity, enhances meaning, and helps explain the
contextual link between the components of the organisation while also uniting
participants. Zaccaro and Banks (2001) emphasised that effective leaders form attitudes,
values, and behaviours linked to vision with high expectations and great organisational
goals, engaging in unconventional behaviour and expressing confidence in employees
while also encouraging, training, and empowering them. They added that leaders should
understand how organisational structures evolve in the context of the vision they have
created and develop the strategies required to implement it. Calder (2006) added that
education is built on a positive vision for the future because vision is a description of how
the organisation sees future possibilities for students and the community. Accordingly,
leadership is a process of developing a clear and specific vision for educational institutions
and then influencing, motivating, and enabling others to participate effectively to achieve
this vision by guiding the philosophy, structures, and activities of an organisation
appropriate with continuous changes in education systems.
2.8.5 Leadership Selection
The process of identifying and selecting effective leaders is one of the most important
factors for an organisation’s success. As leadership selection affects the performance of
54
an organisation and all its employees, when selecting leaders, it is necessary to determine
who will be more effective in leading and influencing others (Carnes, Houghton, & Ellison,
2015). (Bush, 2008b) argued that most countries (e.g., Singapore) seem to believe in the
importance of pre-service preparation for ambitious managers, where many of them can
have these opportunities. In other countries (e.g., Denmark), there is little focus on
leadership learning. Organisations in these countries use the selection processes to
prepare people of high quality who are well suited to positions they will occupy and will
carry out their required tasks efficiently while maintaining enthusiasm and commitment
(Conger & Riggio, 2012).
Bush (2008b) argued for using two different ways to select candidates: via a centralised
system or a decentralised one.
• Centralised systems: Selection criteria are formed through the MoE or related
bodies. Although the degree of decentralisation is different, the selection
processes are done through national or local governments rather than by schools,
meaning that the process of selecting school principals is bureaucratic (Bush,
2008b).
• Decentralised systems: The initiative is usually made by the leadership candidate,
and competition is open to those aspiring to be appointed to such positions after
they are advertised. A list of applicants is prepared, including initial criteria such as
qualifications of candidates, their experience, and work standards; the selection
process also includes interviews with candidates, during which time they are
asked to demonstrate supplementary activities such as teaching or performing
some administrative tasks (Bush, 2008b).
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Bush and Middlewood (2013) highlighted the many issues that negatively affect the
selection process. These include:
• The candidate being judged according to intuition rather than facts;
• Decisions being taken in a sudden or rapid manner;
• Focusing and insisting on the stereotype of a good candidate;
• Comparing the candidate with other applicants or with former incumbents rather
than agreed criteria; and
• Evidence of gender bias (Bush & Middlewood, 2013).
However, the most interesting and supportive part of the selection process is the process
of interviewing candidates, although this process is perhaps the most susceptible to bias
for several reasons (Bush & Middlewood, 2013), including:
• The decision being made consciously or unconsciously during the first five minutes
of the interview;
• The judgment of interview committee members being influenced by appearance,
gender or speech;
• If interviews are held for more than one candidate on the same day, they may not
all receive the same focus from the committee; and
• The assessment perhaps not being fair for the candidate who follows a weak one.
Therefore, there should be a system to apply an effective process to selection. According
to Conger and Riggio (2012), this will provide information on candidates to be selected
and trained. There are two criteria for measuring the success of any selection system:
system outputs, such as individual performance of those chosen, and the nature of the
selection system, including whether it is fair and clear to candidates and whether it
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functions efficiently and remains relevant and applicable over time (Conger & Riggio,
2012).
The next section will deal with another key concept in this thesis, which is organisational
culture.
3.5 Organisational Culture
The working definition of organisational culture can be found in Section 3.2.1. According
to Rosete (2006), culture includes a set of perceptions shared by members of a social
unit. It plays a significant role in supporting social cohesion and the mitigation of concern,
especially for people who recently joined the organisational group. It facilitates many
organisational processes, such as control and co-ordination, while also being a source of
motivation for staff within an organisation (Flint, 2000). Glisson (2015, p. 246) described
the complexity associated with organisational culture as follows:
Many writers emphasize that organizational culture is a layered construct
consisting of deeply held assumptions and values which translate into normative
expectations and behaviour. However, several studies suggest organizational
culture is transmitted more through behavioural norms and expectations than
through internalized values or assumptions which may or may not be expressed or
even known to the organization’s members.
Each profession has a set of values and beliefs aimed at achieving certain goals, and these
are shaped by what people consider to be essential to suit the prevailing political and
societal views (Hammersley-fletcher, 2015). Accordingly, there is a presumption that all
people have the same values and beliefs and there is one way that they are supposed to
speak or act. However, within the complex organisational culture, people may behave
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differently because they do not have the same feelings, values, and assumptions as
others.
Bell and Kent (2010) argued that subcultures are also part of the organisational dynamics
that determine the culture format; they stand out as a strong culture and are able to
exercise great social pressure to encourage harmony between these subcultures.
Organisational culture also consists of employees’ values and beliefs, which are formed or
may mutate to fit the manager’s or officials’ organisational values. Over time, these
become the dominant culture in any organisation.
The MoE and ED managers are part of the educational leadership who contribute to the
formation of institutional culture through the values they believe in within the work
environment (Shamsuddin, 2006). If managers are interested in and care about others,
the organisational culture is shaped with the same values, while the managers who do
not have time for others may encourage tacit behaviours and attitudes of selfishness for
the members of organisation (Stolp, 1994). Bass (1999) argued that top-level managers’
behaviours therefore become a model for the organisation’s culture. As a result, the
organisational culture gives them a wider perspective to understand problems and
different relationships among staff by strengthening their understanding of its culture,
which means they will be able to demonstrate good values and beliefs to achieve a stable
educational environment (Stolp, 1994).
Although leaders are able to influence culture within their organisations, this process is
complex, and the leader’s ability to change and transform these cultures may be limited
(Bell & Kent, 2010). According to Reezigt and Creemers (2005), the culture is affected by
the stakeholders who have a significant impact on the culture of the institution. From the
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Western perspective, various government edicts and regulations, as well as constant
changes in policy, can result in a new sense of professional roles, which may in turn mean
the loss of some previous values and virtues (Hammersley-fletcher, 2015).
Al-Hajri (2013) argued that, from the Eastern perspective, if organisational culture is able
to affect employees’ thinking and actions, the need to use authority or formal work
procedures to guide functional behaviour diminishes due to staff’s commitment and
affiliation to their organisation as well as their belief in its culture, of which they have
become a part. However, perhaps this is not related to reality or to what actually happens
in organisations, because staff are not always committed to their organisations, which
need their affiliation. The organisation includes different cultures and therefore various
values and beliefs, which result in varying degrees of commitment to the organisations.
3.5.1 Centralisation and Decentralisation
3.5.1.1 Centralisation
Alkandari (2013) defined centralisation as “the centralised control of a government” (p.
19), which means that organisations receive directions from a central authority and apply
the decisions of the government. The centralisation concept is related to the power
represented by the central administration through different social, cultural, and political
aspects (Alkandari, 2013). The centralised authority means that the government focuses
on the decision-making process for most issues and leaves the implementation of already
decided-upon routine operations to lower levels in the institution. Thus, higher levels of
authority control the decision-making processes while lower levels are not involved in
those processes (Lauglo, 1995).
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In a small country, the districts can be better linked to the central government, which
means decentralisation is not relevant (Alkandari, 2013). However, central governments
and local authorities are moving towards stimulating decision-making by schools, either
through the local management of schools or the establishment of relatively autonomous
reform schools, leading to the authorities’ interest in applying decentralisation in
education systems (Maslowski, Scheerens, & Luyten, 2007). According to Lauglo (1995),
several factors can pave the way for decentralisation, including the complexity of the
education system, the lack of homogeneity amongst those willing to be educated, the
increase in the number of educational institutions, and the financial challenges from
central government. It also gives more power and responsibility to educational
institutions. Whilst most governments in densely populated countries find it difficult to
maintain a certain level of control over their countries (such as Britain and America),
central control is easier in small countries such as Kuwait (Alkandari, 2013).
3.5.1.2 Transition to Decentralisation
In the past two decades, most Western countries have moved towards the
decentralisation of decision-making in schools. This global phenomenon has influenced
developing and developed countries (Maslowski et al., 2007), leading large entities such
as governments and smaller entities such as educational institutions to consider
decentralisation and centralisation when preparing plans and programmes (Alkandari,
2013). In all likelihood, a link exists between the changing power base and concept of
decentralisation (L. Anderson, 2005). A centralisation system does not allow for
participation, whereas decentralisation accepts a broad participation of stakeholders, as
may happen in education. Therefore, decentralisation may reduce the level of higher
authorities’ control on certain decisions (e.g., internal regulatory decisions), transferring
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this responsibility to lower management levels (Alkandari, 2013). However, that does not
mean that decentralisation means shifting power to a subunit (e.g., schools; Anderson,
2005).
Given the various elements of decentralisation outlined thus far, the working definition of
it used in this thesis is as follows: a process of converting some of the decision-making
operations and tasks from senior management to different organisational levels, such as
from the MoE to EDs and from EDs to schools. This is intended to facilitate work and the
achievement of goals, considering the lack of overlap and duplication in the distribution
of tasks as well as the need to control systems and accountability to ensure effective and
efficient performance at all levels of education.
Maslowski et al. (2007) argued that it is difficult to measure the benefits of educational
decentralisation and school or educational districts’ autonomy because the
decentralisation of decision-making to those institutions does not happen in isolation.
Furthermore, the effects that can be attributed to decentralisation policies are difficult to
decode; therefore, it can also be difficult to assess to what extent these results are
attributable to decentralisation or if they can be credited to other policy measures
(Maslowski et al., 2007).
3.5.2 Decision-Making
The decision-making processes and the way in which they are undertaken are at the heart
of the leadership of an organisation (Coleman & Glover, 2010). The key responsibilities of
formal leaders are to make decisions related to strategic and operational objectives and
plans as well as to allocate resources (Yukl, 2013).
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Coleman and Glover (2010) concluded that rules and agreements about decision-making
exist in bureaucratic, formal administrative systems, and collegial methods; therefore,
decision-making processes will be relatively transparent because institution members or
stakeholders know where the authority is. However, if, for example, there are individuals
who have power struggles, this will make it difficult to understand and follow the
decision-making process (Coleman & Glover, 2010). Yukl (2013) asserted that managers
may make many less important daily decisions to solve some problems, with few people
likely to be affected by the decision. However, managers will ideally have appropriate
technical knowledge and possess multiple skills, such as the ability to make systematic
analyses in a quick and decisive way (Yukl, 2013).
Managers with previous experience try to classify problems, whether they are new or
familiar, so that they can apply their past experiences to solve them; however, if the
original problem was not determined precisely, it could result in poor decisions about
how to deal with it (Yukl, 2013). According to Wildy, Forster, Louden and Wallace (2004),
managers find it difficult to make decisions due to a number of factors, including
accountability by educational authorities, collaborative decision-making while
maintaining their own perceptions, and wasting time of participants in decision-making.
Yukl (2013) asserted that, when there are important and complex problems that do not
have good solutions, if there are parties with conflicting interests or if power is
distributed across multiple parties, the decision-making process is likely to take a long
time. Coleman and Glover (2010) argued that it is necessary for managers to assess the
outcomes of decisions and withdraw from them if necessary. They need to be confident
and have the ability and skills to explain this decision when necessary; in other words,
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managers have the moral responsibility for any decision-making (Coleman & Glover,
2010) in their school or organisation.
3.5.3 Accountability
Accountability is the responsibility of carrying out activities in a specific way to achieve
certain results (Thurlow, 2009). Organisations and stakeholders use assessments to check
the accountability of all personnel involved in the formulation and implementation of
goals and plans, comparing them against what has been achieved (Alkandari, 2013). A
practical accountability system should include desired goals (improved performance),
ways to measure progress towards the goal (indicators of performance), and standards
for measurement (Thurlow, 2009).
Thurlow (2009) defined accountability as being required to give an account of events or
behaviour in a school or college to those who may have a legitimate right to know. The
initial motivation for increased accountability is to improve the whole system or part of it.
It may become a substitute for trust, and it can reduce institutional autonomy because
reporting obligations requires shaping or modification to meet external expectations
(Trow, 1996).
Accountability includes the commitment to report to others, explaining and justifying
answers to some questions, such as how resources are used or what the impact is; it can
take diverse forms in various societies in relation to different actions (Trow, 1996).
Leveille (2005) pointed out three key elements for accountability: performance,
transparency, and the evidence culture, which means organising an institution to be able
to monitor or observe evidence routinely at all levels when planning work. “One of the
central aspects of accountability relates to establishing which individuals and groups have
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that legitimacy” (Bush, 1994, p. 310). Therefore, the working definition of accountability
used in this study is that it is a managerial process accompanying the commissioning
process for an individual or group in conducting activities, within the framework of rules
and regulations, to achieve desirable goals. It involves measuring the achievement of
these targets.
According to Bush and Middlewood (2013), accountability is related to issues of integrity,
honesty, and self-denial, which means it includes a moral dimension. Accountability can
prevent the arbitrary use of power, but it can also help maintain or improve institutional
performance standards, and the accountability processes may be used as a regulatory
tool (Trow, 1996).
3.5.4 Performance
Many governments now have a growing interest in the performance of all aspects of their
education systems due to the increasing competition among countries to achieve strong
positions in the global market as well as their increased spending for the development of
education (Anderson, 2005). However, Hanushek (1989) questioned whether increased
spending to improve education systems results in better performance. This has led widely
to more claims to achieve the highest levels of scrutiny in the quality of education,
thereby generating the need for information about the school’s performance through the
implementation of systems of accountability (Anderson, 2005).
Performance is linked to the extent to which objectives are achieved in the institution;
however, in some cases, performance is used to express the effectiveness levels achieved
by the organisation (Mzhodh, 2001). In these circumstances, managers should seek to
review an individual’s performance and evaluate strengths and areas that need further
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development for the employee to be more effective in the future (Ashkanani, 2001).
Hutton (2018) concluded that “personal abilities are also important for leadership
performance” (p. 250), such as inspiring others or building commitment.
Ashkanani (2001) mentioned that performance appraisal programmes may be used for
many reasons, such as identifying training needs, providing information for manpower
and succession planning, and providing a helpful tool to make decisions.
3.5.5 Exercise of Power in Education System
Power exists in the formal structure of the organisation and depends on the history and
traditions of an institution or on external values accorded to the organisation’s activities
(Evans & Gold, 1998). Authority means the right and power of an individual to use
resources efficiently, make decisions, and issue instructions (within the organisation) to
achieve organisational goals (Ashima & Naik, 2010). Power refers to influence and
authority, but there is a difference between these two terms. Authority is used when the
power is legitimate and dependent on official support (Handy, 1993) whereas influence is
the power based on respect for personal achievement and persuasion (Jarvis, 2012). It is
possible that a person has power through his/her influence, such as through authority
(Handy, 1993).
Different forms of power apply directly to managers. Jarvis (2012) argued that “authority
based on force will lead to influence based on fear which is coercive power, —authority
based on respect for personal achievement will lead to influence based on persuasion
which is referent power” (p. 486). The position power is named legitimate power or legal
because it comes from the person’s role or position in an organisation; in other words,
the power resides in the position, not the person (Jarvis, 2012). The types or sources of
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power that a manager may have include socio-emotional, personal/charismatic,
educational (which is relevant to learning and learning processes), and knowledge like
curricula, systems, and organisational structures (Busher, Hammersley-Fletcher, & Turner,
2007).
Ashima and Naik (2010) argued that authority should be applied in managerial positions
because it helps achieve efficiency, manage fears and concerns, and avoid wasting time
and money while also preventing duplication or overlapping efforts. However, it is not
only used to legitimise top-down control because it can be represented in different ways
through various organisational positions, and its meanings can be interpreted and
redesigned (Woods, 2016).
Woods (2016) identified five forms of authority, each with sub forms, that could be taken
to managers in any organisation:
• Rational authority is based on a hierarchical order of rules, rights, and
organisational objectives—that is, a rational legal authority, a clear set of job
descriptions, and well-defined job roles.
• Communal authority focuses on the impact of close social relationships, including
charisma, tradition, respect, and belonging, which leads to the acceptance of
sources of guidance and advice such as values and traditions of community, other
group members, or the managers.
• Exchange refers to governance through rational agreement and cooperative
relationships among organisation members, where power arises from acceptance
of norms, values, and rules of exchange.
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• Democratic legitimisation creates a kind of dialogue, participation, approval, and
agreed-upon rights which give decisions and procedures legitimacy, meaning they
can be used in multiple forms through, for example, consultation or voting
processes. Woods and Woods (2013) argued that this model of authority is the
central practice of democracy and that it gives an opportunity for individuals to
engage in processes based on respect, critical dialogue, and independent thinking,
while also granting a sense of belonging to a community or organisation.
• Interior authority this model of authority represents the emergent force that has
the effect of establishing or implanting power in a person by reshaping his/her
identity. Members of an organisation can also be offered or allowed different
individual configurations of authority to form relationships and interactions with
others (Woods, 2016). Thus, the type of authority possessed by the individual
determines the level of his/her influence, which in turn determines the type of
power he/she exercises over others (Jarvis, 2012).
Authority can be delegated. To illustrate the point, Lyons (2016) argued that, before
embarking on the process of the delegation of authority, the manager seeks to ensure
that the employee (to whom the task will be delegated) understands the task,
accountability, and outcomes. However, accountability remains the responsibility of the
person with the highest level of authority because the delegation of authority does not
serve as a mandate for accountability (Ashima & Naik, 2010).
3.6 Professional Development
Developing leaders in education requires clearly defining their responsibilities, providing
access to appropriate professional development throughout their careers, and
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acknowledging their pivotal role in improving school and student performance
(Schleicher, 2012). Furthermore, educational institutions should develop strategic plans
to prepare and improve quality school management in order to attract and retain current
and future leaders (Shields & Cassada, 2016). An OECD (2008) report underscored the
importance of this aspect and called for the improved recruitment and training of leaders.
In addition, in the context of the educational reform agenda being applied, there are
always government policy initiatives that should be implemented (Earley, 2013).
Earley et al. (2011) confirmed that the problems experienced by newly appointed
managers are very similar, such as time management, financial planning, and efforts to
deal with budgets and ineffective staff. They argued that dealing with staff remains a
challenge faced by new and experienced managers in all contexts and cultures. Therefore,
they need to acquire many qualities and skills to be successful in the performance of their
tasks, including the ability to adapt to rapid changes in education systems as well as
perseverance and emotional intelligence (Earley et al., 2011).
Due to the importance of the professional development of leadership, Section 3.6.2
explains the professional development from a general perspective while Section 3.6.3
examines issues related to it, such as adult learning. Section 3.7 explores leadership
development.
3.6.1 Definition of Professional Development
The working definition of professional development can be found in Section 3.2.1. It is a
process in which learning is encouraged; where managers working in educational
institutions (MoE or EDs) use appropriate knowledge, skills, and values; and where the
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appropriateness of an idea should itself be based on involved and public value
judgements around needs and best clients’ interests (Bolam, 2000).
Evans (2011) argued that the promotion of individuals’ professional competence is a
necessary element in professional development. This can be achieved in many ways, such
as through formal or informal learning, where training is provided through external
expertise in the form of formal courses, workshops, or training programmes, or within
educational institutions where teachers and managers work and through training,
mentoring, and involvement in good practices (OECD, 2009). Fraser, Kennedy, Reid and
McKinney (2007) distinguished between professional learning and professional
development. They explained that professional learning depends on the representation of
processes that lead to specific changes in the knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs, or
professional actions, whether these processes are intuitive, deliberate, individual, or
social. Meanwhile, professional development refers to broader changes that can occur
over a longer period of time, leading to qualitative shifts in aspects of teachers’ or
managers’ professionalism (Fraser et al., 2007). In some instances, they engage with
professional training only to maintain professional registration and employment
purposes; although this is inappropriate, they should be allowed to independently design
their own training methods ((Lloyd & Davis, 2018).
In a school context, professional development could be designed to raise standards and
improve teaching and learning. Furthermore, the essence of professional development
for teachers and managers should include many approaches to learning and practice in
the context of public professional values and accountability (Bolam, 2000). Mitchell
(2013) defined professional development as a process by which an individual obtains
knowledge and skills and promotes attitudes and capacities to improve practice, which
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need to consider how and under what conditions they learn. Development is the process
of learning, gaining skills, and refining an employee’s capabilities to perform his or her
tasks in the most effective fashion.
To illustrate further, professional development refers to many insolvent sets of planned
processes and activities (such as courses, lectures, seminars, and meetings), with a
specific target to measure the extent of achievement at the end of this activity (which
means developing systems of measurement). Deliberate means targeting a certain
category (career level or specialisation), which is then directed towards achieving the goal
(raising the level of performance), with operations or activities repeated before and in-
service at specific periods of time (or perhaps as needed). It is necessary to link theory
with actual practice (provided by those who have experience, knowledge, and ability of
training in the same field) in order to have a clear and measurable effect on managers’
performance.
3.6.2 Adult Learning
Professional development is the training and education before or during the working life,
which therefore means applying adult learning methods. There are two forms of adult
learning: formal and informal learning activities. Zepeda (2012) argued that adults are
practical people and they have previous knowledge and experience gleaned throughout
their lives. Therefore, professional development can be promoted by understanding how
adults learn. According to Wood and Thompson (1980), in-service training might be used
to address particular weaknesses evident in professional practices.
Over the last three decades, many theories have been posited to explain how adults learn
(Zepeda, 2012). Merriam (2001) confirmed that no one theory can illustrate how adult
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learning processes are conducted, but andragogy and self-direction learning are key
issues in this. “Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn” (Conlan,
Grabowski, & Smith, 2010, p. 115). Professional development may be regarded as a kind
of continuous adult learning that happens while in post or during professional learning
processes, such as seminars or training (Zepeda, Parylo, & Bengtson, 2014). It often
includes components of adult learning theories, such as practical learning, experiential
learning, and self-directed learning (Conlan et al., 2010). Zepeda et al. (2014) and
Merriam (2001) identified five characteristics of adult learning: self-directed, learner-
driven, focus on the problem, appropriate orientation, and goal-oriented. However,
Zemke and Zemke (1995) defined only three main areas of adult education: motivation
for learning, curriculum, and classroom design (i.e., creating a classroom learning
environment suitable for adults).
Several essential factors should be considered when preparing adult development
programmes. Weindling (2003) stated that professional development programmes should
adopt theories of learning and be understandable and clear for the mentors and
participants involved. Furthermore, Wood and Thompson (1980) listed a number of ideal
features for effective in-service training relating to adult learning (these can be applied to
managers):
• Managers accept the learning process if it is linked to goals and objectives of work
in-service and are considered to be of direct benefit to work.
• They will learn and use what they learn when they realise it is relevant to their
personal and professional needs.
• Learners need to know the results of their efforts and get feedback about their
progress and achieve goals.
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• When managers learn a new skill, technique, or concept, this may promote a
positive or negative view of the self.
• Any new learning experience acquired by learners is adding to their previous
experience from a range of experiences, knowledge, skills, and self-direction.
• Managers want their learning to be an asset, which means participating in the
choice of targets, content, activities, and evaluation education while in service.
Showing respect and taking into consideration the needs of adult learners help them
grow professionally and personally while helping the school (or entity responsible for the
teachers’ and managers’ development) to approach and understand their community
(Zepeda, 2012). Therefore, it is important to connect in-service work objectives with
professional development programmes by taking into account personal needs and
interests at work. In addition, managers need feedback to enhance the quality of their
learning. They should not only receive information, but also learn in an appropriate way
so they can retrieve and use knowledge when needed while ensuring that programmes
can help achieve their goals.
3.7 Leadership Development
The working definition of leadership development is included in Section 3.2.1. Shields and
Cassada (2016, p. 534) explained that “it is important to consider who is being promoted
to key leadership roles such as principal, the schools in which leaders enter their first
principalships, and how prepared they are to stay in that role.” The same is true for
managers. These factors are critical in the process of hiring leaders (Shields & Cassada,
2016). Earley (2013) confirmed that training and development programmes should
provide the best knowledge to managers and help them realise the challenges that they
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will be facing, with the assurance that no amount of preparation or experience—either
through formal training or experience as a deputy—can provide a sufficient induction to
leadership tasks in such an arduous and complex profession. The everyday experience
school leaders gain by working in a good school with a team of senior leaders will be
useful in their own preparation for headship.
Professional development occurs through daily participation in practice that results in the
accumulation of experience as well as intellectual development (Mitchell, 2013).
According to Hunzicker (2011), in order for professional development to be effective,
managers should be involved in “learning activities that are supportive, job-embedded,
instructionally focused, collaborative, and ongoing” (p. 177). However, organising these
learning activities in a practical way is very difficult and challenging. Hunzicker (2011)
asserted that efforts are increasingly being made to help teachers or school principals
(managers) learn through daily routines because workshops are ineffective in their
development or practice improvement. Moreover, Attard (2017) argued they rely heavily
on courses, seminars, and workshops, which are called “traditional professional
development opportunities” (p. 40), to improve and change their professional practices.
However, such efforts may not meet their training needs or have an effective impact on
their skills development.
3.7.1 Trends in Leadership Development
Most common leadership preparation programmes work to develop a number of skills
and qualities among participants and introduce them to the range of their responsibilities,
including regulatory ones such as information about the most important procedures and
the ability to adapt (Earley, 2013). Therefore, considering the changing roles of school
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principal and managers, leadership development programmes have also been affected.
Consequently, they are to be designed to meet the changing needs of participants and are
also linked with the evolution of leadership phases (Weindling, 2003). According to
Hamilton, Forde and Mcmahon (2018), there are concerns that early stage leadership
development programmes have been designed and developed to a large extent for the
development of technical skills whereas leadership training for senior roles require more
complex development activities. In addition, they argued that each career phase includes
three levels of leadership: ambitious, newly appointed, and experienced. Therefore,
increased skills, advanced understanding, and confidence of practitioners should be taken
into account, and a more precise and strategic approach might be developed that is
appropriate for all leadership levels (Hamilton et al., 2018).
Weindling (2003) identified a number of clear trends in leadership development,
including the following:
• Needs analysis is an important part of leadership development.
• There are more providers and funding bodies than ever before.
• There is a growing use of experiential learning, reflection, and development within
schools by groups’ and communities’ practice.
• An increased interest has emerged in the role of networks and learning
communities.
• Increased attention focuses on using guidance and training.
Slater, Garduno and Mentz (2018) confirmed that formal development programmes for
both developed and developing countries should be expanded and should not be
standardized in all countries (because of the different contexts and cultures from one
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country to another). For example, various activities could be designed in many forms, and
the time required to prepare them might vary depending on a country’s resources.
Therefore, there is growing interest in the development of leadership through a variety of
professional development strategies, such as reflection, learning theories, and mentoring.
Such efforts include many different activities, ranging from short courses and awareness
development through workshops to academic programmes such as postgraduate studies
(see Section 3.7.2 for further discussion; Hamilton et al., 2018).
3.7.2 Strategies for Leadership Development
Earley and Weindling (2004) presented strategies designed to help leaders in education
deal with the problems and challenges likely to be encountered:
• Mentoring and coaching
• Reflection (self-reflection in/on action)
• Problem-based learning and case studies
• Professional learning communities
• Self-directed learning
• Working as part of a team
Although all these activities are likely used in western countries, such as England, they
may not be widely applied in the training of educational leaders in Kuwait. Each of these
will be reviewed separately next as models for professional development applicable to
managers.
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3.7.2.1 Mentoring and coaching
Hobson (2003) and Earley and Weindling (2004) argued that the terms mentoring and
coaching have different meanings. Mentoring is generally used to refer to the process by
which the experienced individual seeks to help someone less experienced. Coaching is
used to refer to forms of assistance more specific to the individual’s job and skills.
According to Tolhurst (2010), in mentoring, counselling can be provided and knowledge
transferred from mentor to trainee, while coaching involves implementing actions to
achieve specific goals. Forde, McMahon, Gronn and Martin (2013) confirmed that
experience is used in mentoring processes in leadership development programmes, but
that coaching aims to focus on developing job-related skills and tasks. Accordingly,
mentoring seeks to develop knowledge and understanding of the whole person and is a
more broadly-based concept that includes cognitive, emotional, spiritual, and moral
needs. In contrast, coaching focuses on skills development (e.g., using technology to
enhance the quality of teaching and learning in the classroom).
According to (Earley and Weindling (2004), mentoring is considered to be a more popular
and useful method of support for education managers in Western countries. There are
many mentoring approaches (e.g., advising and counselling, role modelling), but the most
common is for leaders with experience to work one-on-one with a new leader for a
period of least a year (Earley & Weindling, 2004). It is important to note that mentoring is
considered to be a significant part of leadership development in many countries (Aas &
Vavik, 2015). Meanwhile, according to Eby, Rhodes and Allen (2007), mentoring is a
unique relationship between two parties formed through personal exchanges and
interactional patterns, involving the acquisition of knowledge, understanding, and skills.
The specific tasks characterising mentoring vary and can be classified as psychological or
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emotional (such as friendship and support) and professional (such as information, task,
and coaching). It is also an asymmetrical relationship (because it is a relationship between
two parties, where one is more experienced than the other), although it has been
acknowledged that the mentor can also benefit from the relationship. Furthermore,
mentoring is a process of change whose effect may increase over time (Eby et al., 2007).
Hobson and Sharp (2005) identified two types of mentors: an informal type, such as
colleagues who provide advice, opinions, or support, and a formal type, where there is an
appointment of a specific person to perform this work within the context of a clear
mentoring plan.
Coaching is a performance-oriented function based on previous aims whereas mentoring
is concerned with individual growth (Duncan & Stock, 2010). It is also a collaboration
between the trainer and the trainee, while group coaching is formation of a learning
community that consists of leaders representing many cultures and educational contexts
(Flückiger, Aas, Nicolaidou, Johnson, & Lovett, 2017). Furthermore, a target-oriented
group-coaching process that involves existing and aspiring education leaders may have a
profound and positive impact on the development of the identity of newly appointed
leaders (Aas & Vavik, 2015).
There are individual and organisational benefits of coaching operations. According to
Flückiger et al. (2017), the benefits for individuals are increased levels of personal
confidence and efficiency; meanwhile, the benefits for the organisation are increased
staff capacity to respond to new roles and tasks and improvements in the organisation’s
practices. However, despite many benefits from coaching, it may also be seen as a
potentially challenging task.
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Hobson (2003) explained that mentoring and coaching methods may be affected by a
variety of factors, such as experience and expertise as well as the personal characteristics
of mentors and trainees. A good match between the experienced leader (mentor) on the
one hand and the personality and needs of the new leader on the other hand is
considered very important. There is increased attention on how to form a good and
appropriate working relationship between them as well as the selection process of
mentors and the preparation of mentors and trainees (novice managers), as it is
considered a necessary form of professional development for leaders of both parties
(Earley et al., 2011). Research conducted among headteachers in 2011 found that not all
leaders have the ability to provide training and mentoring for new leaders, which
underscores the need for mentors at different times and for various purposes (Earley,
2013).
3.7.2.2 Reflection (Self-reflection in/on action)
The term reflection refers to the deliberate, purposeful thinking beyond knowledge
and/or the procedures in which teachers (managers, in this context) engage in order to
develop their professional practice (Sellars, 2017). In addition, “reflective practitioners
are those who use experiences as opportunities to consider both their philosophy and
their practice” (Hammersley-Fletcher & Orsmond, 2005, p. 214). According to Miller
(2005), it is becoming increasingly popular as a means of working with groups in different
institutions.
Regularly engaging in reflective practice with an appropriate partner or with a small group
of peers is probably considered to be a successful approach (Sellars, 2017), is because it is
seen as a way practitioners can develop a higher level of self-awareness about the nature
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and effect of their performance level as well as an awareness offering opportunities for
growth and professional development (Okech, 2008). As Sellars (2017) explained,
managers’ genuine participation in reflection helps them identify personal strengths and
improve their professional competence. However, “some levels of reflection are more
complex than others” (Sellars, 2017, p. 8). Educational processes based on reflective
practice lead to the nature of learning being explored through observation and
subsequent interpretation (Belvis, Pineda, Armengol, & Moreno, 2013). Schön (1983)
argued that “competent practitioners usually know more than they can say. This is
because they exhibit a kind of knowing-in-practice, most of which is tacit” (p. viii).
Furthermore, according to Okech (2008), the interactions of practitioners often become
meaningful and raise their awareness of the impact reflective practices have on
professional development, whether they are consultants, supervisors, or co-workers.
Reflective practice is a process that can help people think about their experiences of
themselves and with others in the workplace in order to build insights and awareness so
that they have increased options about potential future action (Miller, 2005).
Hammersley-Fletcher and Orsmond (2005) argued that reflective practice is not only an
evaluation of their performance if those under evaluation are managers, but it also
includes the process of the thinking behind it and the consideration about what is learned
from the process. In other words, those who practice reflection seek to compare the
quality of their performance with their experience and understanding ideas about
leadership and management, as this leads to self-knowledge, which is an essential and
fundamental issue for the professional development of practitioners (Hammersley-
Fletcher & Orsmond, 2005).
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Schön (1983) divided reflection into two types: reflection occurring during the event or
activity and being dealt with immediately (i.e., reflection in action) and reflection
occurring after the event ends (i.e., reflection on action), which builds on past
experiences and leads to the development of practice (it seems to be a process of
evaluating and giving feedback to deal with situations or events that have occurred and
ended). “When someone reflects-in-action, he becomes a researcher in the practice
context. He is not dependent on the categories or established theory and technique but
constructs a new theory of a unique case” (p. 68). In general, according to Okech (2008),
it is a professional development process that might be highly effective in achieving
behavioural change and is aimed at promoting awareness of practitioners’ thoughts and
actions. In order to re-understand and deepen managers’ awareness of their role, it is
necessary to use what happens in each activity or experience, as this actual lived
experience is the basis for learning through reflective practice (Belvis et al., 2013).
According to Hammersley-Fletcher and Orsmond (2005), individuals need to learn how to
be effective practitioners of reflection, not just how to think effectively, because it is
more than just the process of thinking.
3.7.2.3 Professional Learning Communities
Some leadership programmes work as a group of participants who meet regularly during
a period of time. There are many benefits to working as a group rather than as individuals
(Earley & Weindling, 2004). “These professional communities are not ‘chat groups’; they
use structured protocols to look at their own work and at student work, and they push
participants to improve practice” (Moher, 1998, p. 41). Moher (1998) confirmed that any
successful groups should have the following characteristics:
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• The size of the group should be from 6 to 15.
• The presence of a facilitator is important for setting the agenda and coordinating
the members of the group, where participants meet together to build knowledge
by looking at their work.
• The group should use organised protocols to present work and listen for giving
and getting reactions and information.
• In meetings, participants should try to learn how to go deeper into their
understanding and how to become more descriptive and less discretionary.
Although Moher focused on the school context, these ideas could be adopted for the
development of managers. For example, they could be applied in Kuwait to develop a
better understanding of their leadership role. However, they would need to be prepared
effectively with proper consideration of time and the coordination of participants with
different levels of experience (from the education field). Furthermore, participants’ input
on a proposed agenda would help meet their development needs and achieve the
objective of this activity.
3.7.2.4 Self-directed Learning
According to Garrison (1992), knowledge is formed as a result of learners building up new
ideas, perspectives, and values in their present cognitive structures, with justification for
the resulting understandings. Teaching is not a process of transferring ready knowledge,
but rather is a negotiation for meaning. Knowledge can be gained by accepting guidance
and support from others where the responsibility is shared, despite the fact that
understanding new information and integrating it into knowledge structures is expected
to be the learner’s task (Garrison, 1992). The concept of self-directed learning involves a
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great deal of autonomy by the learner to determine what is useful for learning and how
to deal with the learning process, regardless of any contextual factors or competencies
(Garrison, 1997).
However, self-directed learning is also a widespread method of learning that occurs as
part of adults’ everyday life (Merriam, 2001). There are complex reasons for this, but one
of the important causes is the desire to determine what and how to learn, which is in
keeping with the need of the majority of adults to continue learning as they become
older. These human features are rooted in self-directed learning (Garrison, 1997).
However, according to (Merriam, 2001), self-directed learning goals differ, especially
when based on a humanitarian philosophy that assumes that it is aimed at developing the
learner’s ability to do so. She added that it also assumes a critical reflection of the learner
and that this critical thinking is the process of understanding the cultural factors and
biography of the needs and interests of the individual—that is, the “promotion of
emancipatory learning and social action” (p. 9).
According to Garrison (1997), most attention is given to the self-management of learning
processes. Therefore, emphasis is placed on external control processes rather than
internal cognitive and learning processes. However, it could involve both internal and
external activities. “Externally, control may be shared, while internally self-directedness in
terms of constructing meaning is absolute” (Garrison, 1992, p. 141). Learning can be
categorised according to the learner and the extent of self-direction and may be
influenced by many personal qualities and variables, such as educational level, creativity,
and learning style (Merriam, 2001). Furthermore, the context in which learning takes
place needs to be considered because it affects the level of learner autonomy allowed in
this context as well as how resources and strategies are utilised. In addition, the context
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can be a driving force for learning (Song & Hill, 2007). Thus, while dependent learners
need more introductory materials, lectures, training, and feedback, the self-directed
learner can take part in independent projects, discussions, and discovery learning
(Merriam, 2001).
3.7.2.5 Working as Part of a Team
At present, teamwork is a dominant means of doing work because there are many
interdependent tasks (Barczak, Lassk, & Mulki, 2010). Work teams in any organisation
consist of a group of individuals who work and rely on one another to make progress on
tasks, objectives and results (Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006). Given the importance of the teams
and their role in accomplishing tasks, the idea of group effectiveness has been identified,
which indicates the common beliefs of its members regarding their ability to perform
tasks successfully as a key factor affecting the performance of the team (Park, Kim, &
Gully, 2017). Senior management teams usually have larger knowledge frameworks that
help them to develop strategic plans or find different options and decision-making
processes (Li, 2014). Li added that experience, knowledge, and different backgrounds of
senior management teams provide more information and knowledge flexibility to
overcome challenges.
According to Love and Dustin (2014), in teams, members are expected to meet the
aspirations of the group and ignore their wishes; therefore, professional communities
place great importance on organisation and teamwork. Furthermore, despite the team
members sharing different cultures, they are able to operate in an integrated manner
without spoiling the balance and harmony of agreement between the group.
Relationships and interactions within the team can enhance learning, adapt performance,
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lead to innovation, and provide a common vision (Bornay-barrachina & Herrero, 2018)
because the team environment acts as a set of stimuli that can be interpreted and
understood; this interaction and exchange with others in the group influences the
formation of this environment (Aalbers, Dolfsma, & Koppius, 2014). In addition, a
supportive environment promotes behaviour that seeks change and helps encourage and
implement new ideas (Love & Dustin, 2014). Zhou and George (2001) emphasised that
team members play an important role in understanding innovation and learning through
continuous feedback between them.
According to Li (2014), the heterogeneity of team members in terms of their diverse
backgrounds, jobs, and experiences may lead to many more different self-perspectives
than the team’s overall goals; however, this can help create different strategic options for
content, objectives, and development processes. Levasseur (2011) also identified some
factors that help develop team performance, such as recognising the importance of
teamwork, developing a common vision, using the research cycle to guide data collection,
engaging in decision-making, and managing conflict when it arises. These factors help
develop the skills of the team members, making them part of the professional
development methods in which managers participate to accomplish tasks or projects
while gaining leadership skills, such as developing vision or building relationships with
others and refining decision-making processes.
However, despite the advantages of teamwork, there are some difficulties that may arise
during work, such as personal clashes and conflicts due to different styles or methods in
work. Indeed, sometimes it might be difficult to determine where the problem occurred
and who was responsible.
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3.7.3 Leadership Development Programmes
Section 3.7.2 demonstrated that there are many strategies and methods for developing
managers’ leadership skills. However, all leadership development programmes overlap
with each other to varying degrees, where single programmes cannot be applied or used
in isolation without interfering with at least one programme. All these programmes are
useful and provide support for educational managers whether they are new leaders or
have experience, especially when considering the work environment when preparing and
implementing them (e.g., technologies, time, and personal qualities of mentors or
trainees). Additionally, they meet the needs of trainees (such as managers or leaders pre-
or post-appointment; Al-Khatib & Al-Enezi, 2008; NIE, 2013) to achieve the aims of the
professional development.
Yet Crow (2004) highlighted the reservations about using veteran managers for leadership
preparation, asserting that the use of older experienced professionals to provide
professional development programmes is ineffective as they do not promote creativity
and innovation. He proposed using theory and research together as a way of improving
the leadership development programmes provided by experienced managers (Crow,
2004). When programmes are provided in an integrated manner by both the university
faculty, who are better informed and conduct research in their role as lecturers, and
district leadership, who have practical experience (see Chapter 2), participants become
more able to connect theory to practice (Sanzo, Myran, & Clayton, 2011). Many
developmental activities (such as conferences or seminars) have been implemented as
prominent activities, but were ultimately not considered to be very useful (Earley, 2013)
or have a significant impact on trainees (e.g., managers). It is possible these programmes
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did not meet attendees’ needs did not apply to what they learned in the workplace to
benefit from these activities.
Sufficient evidence demonstrates that the impact of training is generally low (Kupritz,
2002). For example, only about 10% of training translates to functional performance
(Cheng & Ho, 2001; Kupritz, 2002). Santos and Stuart (2003) argued that the main reason
for the low transfer of training is the lack of time due to working environments and fast-
paced contexts; thus, managers usually quickly return to old patterns and habits. As a
result, most managers may return to their previous working methods after they end
training and are less likely than other staff to apply what they learned from training at
work (Santos & Stuart, 2003).
In addition, Gilpin-Jackson and Bushe (2007) asserted that situations surrounding possible
implementation in the work environment may affect the efficiency of the process of
benefiting from training. They added that training is effective if it is carried out in such a
way as to make it applicable to the workplace and if trainees actually attempt to apply the
training they have received in their work environment (Gilpin-Jackson & Bushe, 2007).
According to Cheng and Ho (2001), when trainees apply what they have acquired in the
context of a job-related training, both trainees and the institution can benefit.
It is important to recognise the importance of culture and context in shaping education,
leadership, and the preparation and development of leaderships in each country because
there is major diversity in the number and nature of leadership development
programmes in each country, which in turn reflects the prevailing pattern of choosing
what is appropriate to enhance the quality of education (Bush, 2013).
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3.7.4 Learning through Lived Experience
The importance of informal methods’ contribution to the learning about leadership has
generally been accepted, and there is also a recognition of the importance of the learning
processes through involvement in various activities with different leaders; these can often
come with a lack of focus on formal interventions, although both methods are useful in
leadership development (Kempster, 2006). McCall (2004) emphasised that experience is
the main source of leadership learning, not training programmes. Furthermore, Robinson
and Wick (1992) argued that more than 70% of leadership development occurs through
informal experiences during work while only about 10% of leader development occurs
due to training and other formal programmes. They concluded that “experience is the
best teacher” (p. 63). DeRue and Wellman (2009) argued that “there is a growing belief
among scholars and practitioners alike that on-the-job work experience is the most
effective way to develop individual leadership skills” (p. 859).
Learning is considered to be a critique of implicit assumptions in many traditional theories
because it requires acquiring objective knowledge. The best ways of learning are achieved
through educational or training courses (Handley, Clark, Fincham, & Sturdy, 2007)
whereas leadership is learned through activities and events in the context of lived
experience (DeRue & Wellman, 2009). Learning considers learning and knowledge as
operations and is an integral part of daily practice in the family and workplace or even in
other social components; therefore, learning and knowledge cannot be isolated from
daily practice or even separated and then taught as a discrete activity (Handley et al.,
2007). As McCall (2004) confirmed, individuals’ on-the-job experiences have a greater and
better impact on leadership learning than formal training programmes because their role
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is relatively modest. He added that “the main source of leadership learning, to the extent
[of] learning leadership, is experience” (p. 127).
The different levels of leadership may lie in implicit influences that individuals do not
immediately recognise through their lived experience (Kempster, 2006). Although
experience plays an important role in leadership learning, not all experiences are equally
important or have the same impact (McCall, 2004). Learning is more complex and
involves more than just acquiring elements of organisational knowledge. It is very deeply
connected and well established in daily activities and experience as well (Gherardi,
Nicolini, & Odella, 1998). Furthermore, leadership development is not just about an
experience, person, or context; it includes all three elements to support and enable the
development of leaders through experience (DeRue & Wellman, 2009). All people
participate in and contribute to a world that includes their working environment, which is
considered a social and cultural organisation constantly being formed and changed
through the cognitive and practical activities of individuals belonging to it. Thus, these
activities are continuous through a cultural and social network (Gherardi et al., 1998).
Interestingly, to support leadership learning through experience, emphasis must be
placed on individual learner differences (for leaders) as well as cognitive variables
because they affect the processes of learning from experience (McCall, 2010). Leadership
skills are also developed through observation, which in turn is conducted through living
experience, where observational learning plays an important role in the development of
leadership (Kempster & Parry, 2014). Several key aspects influence how leadership is
learnt, such as situated learning, identity development, observational learning, and
structure–agency interaction (Kempster, 2006). These factors will be explained in more
detail in the following subsections.
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3.7.4.1 Situated Learning
Learning occurs primarily during early development for individuals, where they proceed
“through schooling, instruction and training. People usually receive their (professional)
training at the end of their educational careers” (Gherardi et al., 1998, p. 273-274).
Learning often means the ability to participate in new activities, perform new tasks and
functions, and master new concepts or meanings, which are part of broader systems that
arise from and include relationships that develop within societies, where interpersonal
relationships are a key part (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Situated learning may provide a more
centralised view of the learning process, especially in collaboration with observational
learning, identity development, and structure–agency interaction (Kempster, 2006). A
learning model proposed by Lave and Wenger (1991) suggested that learning is a social
activity that results from the involvement of individuals in everyday life. Learning to
become a leader means that there is agreement or legislation between the community
and that individual (Kempster, 2006).
Situated learning theory is an alternative to traditional cognitive theories, which focuses
on relational and structural aspects of learning in addition to the processes of identity
construction (Handley et al., 2007). According to Lave and Wenger (1991), “the person is
defined by as well as defines these relations. Learning thus implies becoming a different
person with respect to the possibilities enabled by these systems of relations” (p. 53). If
this aspect of learning is ignored, it means the fact that learning involves building new
identities is also ignored (Lave & Wenger, 1991).
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3.7.4.2 Identity Development
Day, Harrison and Halpin (2012) argued that the development of identity is an integral
part of a leader’s development because this facilitates critical leadership behaviours and
improves leadership which will develop identity, personal skills, and decision-making.
They added that, in organisations, there is a need for interpersonal skills to provide
motivation and guidance to build a vision as well as interaction with other leaders, where
the development of identity provides a leader with an understanding of his/her words
and actions and how others perceive him/her. The formation of self-identity (of
managers) “is part of an interactive process by which people engage with others to
construct social systems and structures” (Busher et al., 2007, p. 3).
In his empirical research, Kempster (2006) demonstrated that a manager’s identity is
important to understand leadership development processes, particularly when it is
interrelated with the influence of particular individuals (who influence leadership and
management learning, such as senior managers). In fact, belonging and identification
through participation may lead to the development of leadership as part of a manager’s
overall personal identity (Kempster, 2006).
The change and development of identity goes through several stages, beginning with
observation and ending with an evaluation process according to personal considerations
of what is acceptable or rejected by that person and others. Ibarra (1999) stressed that,
during the transition from one level of employment to another, individuals attempt to
form temporary and incomplete identities through three tasks to adapt their personality
to the new role required by a new position, where a complete and consistent professional
identity is developed. These tasks defined by Ibarra (1999) are as follows:
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• Observation: the role models, attitudes, work strategies, and approach to dealing
with others used by those whose own desired role identities are observed.
• Experience: where the temporary identity (which may have been formed initially
from the observation) is experimented by imitating behaviour of good role
models.
• Evaluation: the effectiveness of the personality acquired and the formation of
identity are evaluated through others’ reactions as well as internal assessments to
compare what they want to become and what they think.
Socialisation can facilitate this transition or the development of identity in the workplace
because the efforts of such socialisation can be found in formal programmes within an
organisation or may also be an informal process (Day et al., 2012). According to Kempster
(2006), the leadership learning cycle includes four stages to learning through lived
experience: leadership experience, implicit reflection, knowledge, and participation (see
Appendix 5). Leadership learning arises from the interrelationship with the organisational
situation, which provides the path of learning through roles enabling managers to
communicate with prominent senior managers who form their identity (Kempster, 2006).
Chao, O’Leary-Kelly, Wolf, Klein, and Gardner (1994) confirmed that, regardless of how
identity evolves, organisational socialisation is often the main way in which newcomers
adjust to new jobs or roles within the organisation. Busher et al. (2007) argued that
collective identity associated with work is expressed through the culture that members
form as a result of their interactions, where some are more influential in constructing this
identity than others. Thus, it is considered as a means to help members of society create
their own meaning of the objectives of that community.
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DeRue and Ashford (2010) explained that “leadership development and the construction
of a leadership identity are about the construction of a relationship” (p. 629). Identity
changes may occur through social interactions that include comments or guidance from
important factors such as role models in the field of employment, which means that
identity is forged and modified because work becomes more complex and drives a change
of professional identity to match professional development (Day et al., 2012).
Kempster (2006) stressed that growth through challenging situations in the context of
senior leadership seems to enhance managers’ personal identification with their role and
identity in a leadership. Moreover, there is a strong correlation among leadership
development processes, identity development, and personal development (Day et al.,
2012). The process of becoming a leader may occur sooner for some than for others; for
example, those who invest in self-identity appear more substantial and complementary to
other causal factors that influence leadership learning, such as senior managers and the
role of legislation as a leader (Kempster, 2006).
However, many individuals may not consider themselves to have the qualities of a leader
or be in a leader-like position, although in the social contexts in which they work, they
may be collectively viewed as leaders. Such collective support may come from top-level
managers or the wider social context; thus, they initiate the process of building a
leadership identity (DeRue & Ashford, 2010). The formation of the identity of any person,
whether a leader or teacher, is affected by the position among others, or the place
he/she chooses for him-/herself within the boundaries of the community to which he/she
belongs (Busher et al., 2007). Identity development theories focus on self-awareness,
which is often described as crucial to effective leadership development, because it helps
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change the identity of the leader or aspects of the environment to be a better leader (Day
et al., 2012).
3.7.4.3 Observational Learning
Observational learning is considered to be a process interrelated with situated learning
and salience, as the functional paths within institutions offer diversity of senior managers
(Robinson & Wick, 1992). Kempster and Parry (2014) provided a model for observational
learning to explain the continuous dynamics to the learning process that represent a
temporal perspective; in other words, what is observed will change over time. For
example, parents or teachers may have a significant impact on the pre-employment
stages. However, during different stages of a career, the observed learning becomes
more contextualised to the situation of leadership, such as the focus on the immediate
director or principal (Kempster & Parry, 2014).
Observation is influenced by whether the observer (who is a novice manager) is keen to
observe certain aspects of senior managers. For instance, if the observer has limited
access or stimulus, the impact of significant others will conversely be limited or there may
be no impact, because observing them with motivational stimulus might achieve the
concept of relational proximity (i.e., close observation; Kempster & Parry, 2014). In
addition, managers’ responsibilities gradually increase through different job stages,
leading to improved leadership and more focus on the people observing (Robinson &
Wick, 1992). Kempster and Parry (2014) argued that observing prominent people over
long distances, such as national or international leaders through the media, may have an
impact before embarking on a professional career, while close relational proximity with a
direct manager, for example, may lead to greater impact during different job stages. In
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other words, observational learning from ordinary people in certain stages of a job can
have a greater and better effect than learning from prominent leadership models. The
impact of key people, such as senior managers, is considered extremely significant to all
managers in their lived experience of leadership learning (Kempster, 2006).
Bandura (2001) concluded that observational learning is subject to the following four
subfunctions:
• “Attentional processes determine what is selectively observed in the profusion of
modelling influences and what information is extracted from ongoing models’
events” (p. 272). That is, many factors influence the exploration and interpretation
of what is modelled through observational learning, such as cognitive skills,
preconceived notions, value preferences for the observer, and functional value of
the model activities. Moreover, other factors, such as structural arrangements for
human interactions, largely determine the kind of models to which people have
access.
• Another subfunction related to the process of cognitive representations is
retention, as an active process for transforming and restructuring information
transmitted by events along the lines of rules and concepts for memory
representation.
• This subfunction relates to the process of behavioural production by translating
symbolic concepts into appropriate courses of action through the process of
matching concepts, which guide those of building and implementing patterns of
behaviour that are then compared against conceptual models of appropriateness.
• Behaviour derived from observational learning is influenced by three main sorts of
stimuli: self-produced, direct, and indirect. Bandura (2001) added that individuals
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are more likely to show exemplary behaviour if it produces valuable results than if
it has no rewarding effects.
The reactions generated by individuals according to their self-approving and self-
censuring regulate the activities or skills they have learned from observational learning.
They implement activities that give them self-satisfaction while rejecting those they
personally deprecate (Bandura, 2001).
Learning from experience is to some extent limited by two concepts: structure, which
deals with individuals’ roles within organisations, and agency, which means being able to
exercise control over what actually happens in the workplace within the organisation.
These ideas are discussed next.
3.7.4.4 Structure and Agency
Kempster (2006) argued that the processes of identity development as well as situated
and observed learning are influenced in various contexts through historical precedents of
relationships between structure and agency. Interaction between structure and agency is
usually based on the influence of senior managers through observational learning
processes, which can explain how the meaning, practice, and identity of leadership
change over time (Kempster, 2006).
Biesta and Tedder (2007) commented that the role of structure is to achieve agency,
which depends on the interaction among agentic orientations, resources, and broader
contextual and structural factors. A greater understanding of the potential impact of
leadership learning may be derived from an estimate of structure–agency interaction in
specific contexts because, if the manager is more powerful, this leads to the greater
influence of these structures (Kempster, 2006).
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Biesta and Tedder (2007) affirmed that agency is realised through the active participation
of individuals within their contextual aspects of action; this participation is characterised
by certain configurations, such as routines, purpose, and judgement. They proposed that
learning occurs through a certain configuration of the manager’s orientations and what
their impact on one’s life can be. Therefore, learning plays an important role in achieving
agency. As far as the implications of learning and pedagogy, individuals’ learning
requirements differ from their needs in the place where they work (Wheelahan, 2007).
Education is a particularly useful topic for understanding the interaction between
structure and agency through the consideration of multiple and complex structures,
multiple stakeholders, and the continuing need for improvement (Rigby, Woulfin, & März,
2016).
Agency requires self-direction and self-efficacy as well as opportunities to practise
autonomy and create a particular context (Ecclestone, 2007). Through this perspective,
Ecclestone argued that the manager’s understanding in different contexts and times
demand focus on the dynamic interaction between different previous influences and
experiences shared with the present and orientations towards the future. Thus, it is clear
that agency is rooted in past achievements, transactions, and working patterns in the
sense that desires are derived from their participation and experience in the natural,
practical, and social worlds, which will format the participation of individuals in
education. However, agency is not a thing or property owned by individuals, but actions
in different contexts (Ecclestone, 2007). According to Biesta and Tedder (2007), agency
can be considered as the ability to control and give direction to one’s work life.
Wheelahan (2007) emphasised that pedagogy should consider the experiences of
individuals in life, how these experiences shaped and influenced them, their wishes and
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aspirations, and how these experiences helped develop their sense of identity and
agency. The individual’s identity, actions, and hopes require an understanding of how
these experiences are adapted through social relationships of privilege and deprivation
(Wheelahan, 2007).
3.8 Review of Relevant Studies in the Field of Leadership Development
This section will provide a review of five separate research studies that examined the
issue of leadership development in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan (as an example for
the Arab states), where the focus will be on showing the relevance of these to the subject
of this research.
3.8.1 NIE (2013)
Commissioned by Kuwait’s Ministry of Education, the Advisory Group from the National
Institute of Education (NIE) in Singapore conducted a diagnostic analysis on different
aspects of the education system over a 6-month period from 7 January to 7 July 2013. The
most significant results about school leadership, which are relevant to the current
research, were as follows:
• 45.7% of MoE employees consider that the preparation programmes for school
leaders are not sufficient
• 65.2% consider the current leadership skills of principals to be weak
• 88.1% consider the leadership training programmes to be insufficient
• 83.3% consider the quality of the existing school leadership training programmes
to be low
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Possible reasons for these findings are the lack of awareness of the importance of the
development of educational leadership, the lack of a comprehensive training and
development plan for managers, and no clear criteria for selecting candidates for
manager positions where leadership has special features that managers need to have, not
to mention the lack of requirement for the candidate to attend leadership development
courses. In addition, the managers themselves might not try to develop their leadership
skills, perhaps because they do not believe in their importance or they already have
expertise (which certainly had an impact on their leadership skills), yet formal learning
activities also play an important role.
Furthermore, 21 variables that affect the education system were organised in order of
importance from the viewpoint of MoE officials. Effectiveness of pre-principalship
preparation programmes was ranked first (88.1), effectiveness of in-service professional
development programmes for leaders was second (87.2), quality of the pre-principalship
preparation programme was third (83.3), quality of in-service professional development
programmes for leaders was sixth (77.5), and current leadership skills of leaders was
twelfth (65.2).
3.8.2 Al-Khatib and Al-Enezi (2008)
This study aimed to examine and identify the training needs of educational leaders in
Kuwait (managers, observers, and heads of departments in the MoE and EDs) in five
areas, including leadership administrative processes; policies, strategies, legislation, and
targets; monitoring and evaluation; organisation and management development; and
leadership models. All of these areas have significant needs, such as educational policies
(areas of policies, strategies, legislation and targets), administrative regulations (areas of
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organisation and management development), and managerial decision-making (areas of
administrative leadership processes).
There were differences in the perspectives of the study’s sample regarding the training
needs for educational leaders in the Ministry of Education in Kuwait, including variables
such as qualifications, experience, and location of workplace (Ministry of Education and
school district). The findings showed that ED leaders have a higher level of training
requirements which are fundamentally different from those of leaders in the MoE. The
researchers attributed this result in part to ED leaders being far from the responsibility
centre in the MoE, which may negatively impact their abilities as leaders. Perhaps also the
MoE leaders’ functions are purely focused on leadership, while supervisory functions
dominate in EDs.
3.8.3 Al-Duaij (1994)
Al-Duaij examined leadership functions that evaluated the management of school districts
in Kuwait from the perspective of technical supervisors (in specific subjects) and school
managers in primary, intermediate, and secondary levels in public education. The most
significant result was the relatively poor performance in some functions, such as the use
of appropriate leadership styles, decision-making capacity, and the ability to provide
training programmes for staff.
3.8.4 Mohammed (2008)
Mohammed assessed leadership training programmes and how goals are achieved from
the perspective of leaders and deputy school principals at all levels of public education in
the Al-Ahsaa area in Saudi Arabia. She argued that training programmes often use group
discussion, problem-solving, seminars and workshops, seminars between trainers and
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trainees, and the style of co-operative education. The study identified both strengths and
weaknesses of the training programmes. The strengths included improved trainees’
performance in planning skills in school administration, the exchange of management
experiences, and how to address problems and regulate conduct of educational
administrative processes in the workplace. The weaknesses included development and
training programmes not being able to achieve development of the managerial decision-
making process as well as the application of modern trends in educational supervision
and the development of educational evaluation skills. These programmes also did not
consider the needs of trainees when determining the content of training programmes;
furthermore, there was no assessment of the impact of the training programmes upon
the participants.
Criticisms of Mohammad’s work indicate that she was focused on management activities,
not leadership.
3.8.5 Amro and Awawda (2016)
Amro and Awawda examined the effectiveness of the training programmes provided to
the educational leaders in the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) in
Jordan from their point of view during service and clarified how to develop these
programmes in the future. The sample was the entire study population, which includes all
educational supervisors who attended the supervision sessions, all managers who
attended school administration courses, and all teachers who attended courses related to
their specialisms. The results showed great effectiveness in the training programmes of
educational leaders in UNRWA in Jordan during service.
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Thus, despite the recognition of the importance of educational leadership development
as well as the MoE’s attention on the development of leadership skills, developing
countries, such as Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, have to some extent failed in providing
support and assistance for those who participated in leadership development
programmes.
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Chapter 4: Research Design and Methodology
4.1 Introduction
This chapter outlines the research design and methodology used to address the research
questions of the present study. Section 4.2. presents the rationale for the research
methodology chosen—namely, ontological and epistemological perspectives, research
paradigms, and methodological perspectives, which include qualitative research and case
study. Section 4.3 examines the justification for the use of the chosen research methods
(questionnaire and semi-structured interview). Section 4.4 discusses the research sample
and explains its composition and nature. Section 4.5 covers the methods of data
collection, including the pilot studies for both the questionnaire and interview, and the
first and second phases of gathering the data. Section 4.6 presents the issues of the data
analysis methods used to analyse the quantitative and qualitative data. Section 4.7
discusses the reliability and validity data to improve the research quality. Section 4.8
focuses on ethics issues, and Section 4.9 concludes the chapter.
4.2 Rationale for the Research Methodology Chosen
4.2.1 Ontological Perspectives
Many views represent different ways to explain the social world, including implicit and
explicit assumptions (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2018), and are based on four
underlying concepts of the social world: ontology, epistemology, human nature, and
methodology (Burrell & Morgan, 1993). Pring (2015) argued that the social world is
comprised of social actors’ intentions and meanings, where each person is within a
subjective world of meaning through which he or she can interpret the social world.
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According to Thomas (2013), the social world is “constructed by each of us in a different
way. It’s not simply ‘out there’; it is different for each of us, with words and events
carrying different meanings in every case” (p. 108). The key concern of the social world is
not just with the intellectual or knowledge area, but also with social and subjective
aspects people identify and define for others. So the focus is on how individuals perceive
their social world (El-Aswad, 2014).
Accordingly, the working definition of social world in this study is different from one
person to other according to each individual’s perceptions and judgement as well as
his/her interpretation of events. This interpretation is based on the previous experiences
and knowledge that have been built in the mind of that person. Thus, the social world is
the result of humans’ interpretations according to their own knowledge.
Ontology discusses what people’s perceptions are about the nature of reality and
whether this actually really exists (objective reality) or is a fact established in the minds of
people (subjective reality; Flowers, 2009); it revolves around “enquiry into the ultimate
nature of being, or what there really is” (Wegerif, 2008, p. 347). Ontology (reality) can be
interpreted as being objective, rational, as well as external and independent from the
observer; therefore, it needs to be discovered (Burton, Brundrett, & Jones, 2008). As a
result, people have a number of inherent ontological assumptions that affect how they
recognise reality as well as whether that existence is the result of one set of things and
not another (Flowers, 2009). These assumptions of an ontological nature are highly
relevant to the very core of the issue under investigation in this study. However,
sociologists have also identified many basic ontological questions (Burrell & Morgan,
1993), such as:
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whether the “reality” to be investigated is external to the individual—imposing
itself on individual consciousness from without—or the product of individual
consciousness; whether "reality" is of an objective nature, or the product of
individual cognition; [and] whether “reality” is a given “out there” in the world, or
the product of one’s mind. (p. 1)
There is a contrast between the two perspectives in ontological assumptions. First, the
objective reality of physical things, the public world of outer reality, and the quantitative
methods are based on a scientific model (Pring, 2015). Second, the subjective reality of
“meanings” refers to the private world of inner thoughts and qualitative methods based
on a kind of phenomenon exposure (Pring, 2015). The alternative perspective of social
reality is subjective, with its emphasis upon the significance of individuals’ subjective
experience in the creation of the social world. Furthermore, it seeks to understand and
interpret the different issues and utilises various methods (Burrell & Morgan, 1993). This
explores and interprets the experiences, skills, and knowledge built through interactions
with others, as evident in the question “how do you deal with a principal who is not doing
their job properly?” According to Burrell and Morgan (1993), the main concern for this
perspective is to attempt to understand the manner in which the individual creates,
interprets, and changes the world around him/her. This view tends to focus on the
explanation and understanding of what is unique and particular to the individual instead
of what is comprehensive or general.
However, the current study seeks to understand the leadership development process
more clearly for MoE and ED managers and identify the skills and abilities MoE and ED
administrators demand (a subjective response), how they use what they know in the
performance of their functions, and how they develop their own leadership skills and
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performance in the educational institution. MoE and ED administrators deal with reality,
structures, and individuals and require specific abilities, skills, and knowledge that enable
them to do their job and are often gained through experience or education which leads to
changes in behaviour and performance. Therefore, they and their knowledge are not just
names for physical structures; rather, they are humans (objective) who can interact with
this reality in a constantly changing environment (subjective), where individuals differ in
their interactions with others according to their previously acquired awareness,
knowledge, and expertise. This, in turn, constitutes their identity. According to Northfield
(2011), “each individual constructs his or her own version of reality but is influenced in
determining this construction by the culture and context within which he or she resides”
(p. 36). This leads to other questions about how to measure this reality and how to form
knowledge of this reality, which in turn leads to the consideration of epistemology
(Flowers, 2009).
4.2.2 Epistemological Perspectives
Epistemology is about the nature of knowledge and the relationship between the knower
and the known (Northfield, 2011). The assumptions of an epistemological nature relate to
the basis of knowledge as well as about how one can understand the world and transfer
knowledge among humans. Furthermore, these assumptions include ideas such as what
types of knowledge can be obtained and how they can be separated from what is true to
what is seen as false. This divide assumes a certain epistemological stance (Blaikie, 2007;
Burrell & Morgan, 1993).
These assumptions can be based on two perceptions of what knowledge is. First, if it can
identify knowledge as being factual, real, and possible to provide in concrete form, it can
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be defined as positivism (Burrell & Morgan, 1993). Second, knowledge may be seen as
soft, more subjective and spiritual, or transcendental in nature, based on the experience,
natural vision, and personal basis; such knowledge is considered anti-positivist. This
perception considers the social world as fundamentally relativistic and unable to be
understood only from the perspective of individuals involved in the activities that will be
verified (Burrell & Morgan, 1993).
People obtain, accumulate, and store different types of knowledge in their minds and
then use this knowledge when dealing or interacting with the social reality in which they
live. Eraut (1994) argued that people store knowledge in their minds (or probably exclude
it from memory completely). He divided knowledge into the following six categories:
• Knowledge of people can be obtained by others unwittingly as a by-product of
meetings or dealings that have other purposes, such as directly facing the person
interested or encounters with other parties that may provide indirect information
about that person.
• Situational knowledge is related to how people interpret or understand the
situations in which they find themselves.
• Knowledge of educational practice is considered as the knowledge and ability to
reference possible policies and practices.
• Conceptual knowledge involves many concepts, theories, and ideas stored in the
conscious mind and then used in various situations.
• Process knowledge is the knowledge of how to do things, which is often known as
“know-how” (p. 81).
• Control knowledge means controlling one’s own behaviour rather than others’.
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Eraut's (1994) categories of knowledge are considered to be divided knowledge, where
each part has a function or role in the formation of human personality (subjective). For
example, knowledge of people can be obtained by others. However, there are differences
in the way this knowledge is accumulated in the memory and indeed how it is combined
with previous experience and with the situational knowledge and/or conceptual
knowledge they have, where complement each other. Thus, a person’s character is
formed and changed according to how that person interacts with the attitudes and
experiences of other individuals. Furthermore, human beings use knowledge in
combinations of categories almost simultaneously.
Eraut (1994) mentioned some types of knowledge that differ in their content according to
the field or profession practiced by a person. This may refer to conceptual knowledge,
which is made up of different concepts (e.g., medical, educational, sports), as well as
knowledge of educational practices, which is necessary for those who work in education.
Therefore, this knowledge can be considered as a skill and reference for educational
issues. Those who have significant experience in a specific job often possess many of the
concepts acquired through interaction with the social world as well as in professional
training. Individuals receive information consciously, then arrange and construct this
information in their mind with previous experiences. This new knowledge is added to the
previous, which may modify existing knowledge and, in turn, increase process knowledge,
which might enable them to perform tasks in an appropriate way.
The current study investigates the leadership skills required of MoE and ED administrators
and how these skills can be developed through training and development programmes
that increase individuals’ knowledge. Different types of knowledge are necessary to
exercise effective leadership for educational leadership because they deal with various
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levels of people, such as school principals, parents, and teachers (knowledge of people).
Moreover, they need to be aware of how to act in different positions (situational
knowledge), be a reference to the policies and practices acquired by experience and
learning (knowledge of educational practice), acquire concepts of education to help them
to understand and analyse policies and educational issues (conceptual knowledge), apply
them in practice through know-how and knowledge (process knowledge), and control
self-behaviour (control knowledge).
Based on the above, the researcher believes that knowledge is objective or subjective,
depending on how knowledge is acquired—namely, through people’s perceptions,
experience, and the abilities they possess. In theory, this might mean that the person has
tangible structures or former units of knowledge (objective/positivism) and, accordingly,
he/she can construct new knowledge in a personal way (subjective/ anti-positivist), which
in turn may be affected through interactions with others. Thus, epistemological questions
which might relate with this study are: How can this knowledge be acquired? How can
MoE and ED administrators build their knowledge? How can they be sure their knowledge
is genuine?
4.2.3 Research Paradigms: Positive and Interpretive Approaches
Positivist approaches start with a theory, but in interpretive approaches, theory is
generated or developed inductively or derives a particular meaning (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). According to Cohen et al. (2018), naturalistic, qualitative, and interpretive
approaches are alternatives to positivist approaches. These approaches possess particular
features, as summarised and further clarified next:
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• Events are in constant change over time, and are affected according to the context
in which they occur (Cohen et al., 2018) because people acquire new skills which
change their views and how they deal with different situations.
• “Events and individuals are unique and largely non-generalizable” (Cohen et al.,
2018, p. 20)—that is, events are located in different contexts and are interpreted
according to previous experiences and concepts.
• There must be accuracy and fidelity in the issues that are being studied (Cohen et
al., 2018); they should be studied in nature and, in a sense, interpreted according
to the context in which they are found or appeared.
• There are many interpretations of the same event or situation (Cohen et al., 2018)
because individuals interpret the attitudes and events based on their past
experiences and current expectations, which in turn leads to diverse
interpretations for different people in the same position. Thus, “reality is multi-
layered and complex” (p. 21) because it varies depending on participants’ views.
• Many events cannot be reduced to simplistic explanations (Cohen et al., 2018)
because they do not arise from nothing. Although there are multiple aspects that
affect events, such as the profile of the participants or the environment and
context in which this event occurred, there may not be a simple explanation
comprehensive of all aspects.
• Researchers should examine situations from the perspective of the participants,
not from their perspective (Cohen et al., 2018). A researcher seeks to explain an
issue and interprets meanings according to the participants’ experiences and
performance; as such, the examination of situations must be from the perspective
of participants, not the researcher.
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However, some criticism of the interpretative approach has emerged (e.g., Bernstein,
1974; Mead, 1934; Rex, 1974), principally because it has been claimed that it includes
only participants’ activities, experiences, and expectations. As a result, it has limitations in
judging issues and positions because of its focus on participants’ experiences (Cohen et
al., 2018). This criticism might be accepted because, regardless of participants’
experience, their attitudes will unquestionably vary due to their different backgrounds
and experiences. This is likely to lead to uncertainty about their judgement, not to
mention the potential unreliability of the interpretation of the researcher, who is also of
course affected by personal experiences and backgrounds.
Therefore, a qualitative rather than a mixed approach will be used in the current study,
despite two tools being used for data collection: a questionnaire (quantitative) and an
interview (qualitative). Further explanation of these tools is provided later in this chapter.
The data collected from the questionnaire will be interpreted and analysed as qualitative
rather than quantitative data (e.g., as a percentage) because the objective of using the
questionnaire is to explore certain issues related to the subject of study while preparing
relevant interview questions.
4.2.4 Methodological Perspectives
4.2.4.1 Qualitative Research
Through a qualitative approach, the researcher seeks to understand the cultures,
individuals, and issues rather than analyse the relationships between variables or
examine the relationship between cause and effect. She also intends to question cases in
their natural environment, which are usually interpreted in context (Savin-Baden &
Major, 2013). Researchers who apply a qualitative approach often rely mainly on
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constructivist perspectives to make claims about knowledge (i.e., they believe there are
multiple meanings of individual experiences and that meanings are socially constructed)
or participatory perspectives—or both (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
However, there are many concerns about qualitative research. For example, Higgs and
Cherry (2009) argued that “diversity of qualitative research approaches is a weakness and
there is a lack of credibility in the quite different claims the various approaches make as
to what counts as knowledge or as ‘good’ or even ethical research” (p. 8). A qualitative
approach in practice may consist of many approaches, such as naturalistic inquiry,
interpretive inquiry, and phenomenology; these might reflect a desire in the researcher to
use a name that is more conceptual or theoretical. Despite being somewhat vague, such
an approach is broad and inclusive enough to cover a variety of groups of research
practices that scholars have developed (Preissle, 2006) and is still regarded as a powerful
and credible tool because it discovers and understands meanings and experiences of the
human world in different ways (Higgs & Cherry, 2009).
The current study adopts a qualitative approach because it allows a better understanding
of the meaning and interpretation of events and issues in the context in which they occur
(i.e., identifies, explains, and understands the expertise and skills of educational
administrators). The information and data will be gathered from the practical and
professional reality of these administrators; this could be through an interpretive
approach in qualitative research to gain a deeper understanding of what is occurring.
4.2.4.2 Case Study
This research applies a multi-site case study approach because this often follows the
interpretative approach of research by seeing the situation from the perspective of the
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participants (Cohen et al., 2018). As such, it guarantees the exploration of an issue
through a variety of perspectives while allowing for many different aspects to be revealed
and understood (Baxter & Jack, 2008). Hitchcock and Hughes (2008) argued that a case
study approach has many features that can be advantageous. For example, it is
concerned with a rich and lively description of issues relevant to the case, concentrates
on individuals or groups of people trying to understand their perceptions of issues, and
highlights certain events relevant to the case. According to Merriam (2014), the case
study approach is considered to be a way of exploring complex social units consisting of
many variables of possibility and importance in understanding and interpreting the issues
under study.
Case studies are shaped through temporal, geographical, organisational, institutional, and
other contexts and can be defined by the individuals and groups concerned or by the
participants’ roles and functions to create a border around the issue to become a case
study (Hitchcock & Hughes, 2008). In addition, they can include the research of a case or
issue in its real-life context and typically use various types of data (Robson, 2002).
According to Dyer (1995), these can be descriptive, detailed, subjective, and objective
data. Merriam (2014) explained that “a case study is an in-depth description and analysis
of a bounded system” (p. 40).
Accordingly, a multisite case study was applied in this research to explore the experiences
of managers (group of individuals) in the MoE and EDs (geographically, multiple sites) and
to explore the effectiveness of the professional development of these managers (the case
concerned) to help them exercise their leadership role and carry out their functions in
Kuwait’s education system. The researcher sought to obtain a rich description and
profound interpretations of the issue under study to help the exploration of the issue
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within its context through the use of different data sources. According to Baxter and Jack
(2008), researchers can collect and integrate quantitative survey data with other data
from qualitative research sources, such as interviews, to achieve a more comprehensive
understanding of the issues under investigation.
Having reviewed all the possible approaches to research using an interpretive, qualitative
approach, it would seem that a multisite case study approach is the most appropriate for
the current study. The next section discusses these possibilities in terms of particular
research methods.
4.3 Research Methods
Having examined the background approaches, the discussion will now focus on the use of
mixed methods (section 4.3.1), and Section 4.3.2 presents the issues of the data
collection instruments, such as the questionnaires and interviews which were used in this
research.
4.3.1 Use of Mixed Methods
The traditional mixed methods approach is a method whereby two types of data are
used: quantitative, which is collected from questionnaires, in order to test out hypotheses
through a statistical analysis of the data; and qualitative data, which is obtained through
interviews to complement quantitative data (it is one from many ways for collecting
qualitative data), In order to provide more detailed findings to help answer the research
questions. That is, the interviews results complement the survey data. Therefore, it is
evident that this approach focuses on gathering and analysing both qualitative and
quantitative data in one study (Leavy, 2017). It can provide a better understanding of the
responses to research questions than any single approach can (Cohen et al., 2018).
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In contrast, embedded mixed methods are used if one set of data (quantitative or
qualitative) is inadequate and does not answer different study questions. Therefore,
qualitative data is embedded in quantitative research design, or quantitative data is
embedded in qualitative research (Cohen et al., 2018) - as is the case in this study - in
order to obtain a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of issues related to the
development of leadership skills of the research sample (managers). According to Fetters
and Freshwater (2015), embedded quantitative and qualitative data provides the
researcher with more information than what each type of data can provide separately.
Therefore, despite the use of surveys and interviews to collect data, traditional mixed
methods have not been applied in this study, because the purpose of the questionnaire
was to gather preliminary information on issues related to the topic of the study. In
addition, no statistical tests were performed on the quantitative data collected.
Conversely, the embedded mixed methods approach was used, where interviews were
the main tool for collecting qualitative data, and quantitative data was embedded (using
the questionnaire). Qualitative data was collected using semi-structured interviews to
obtain more details and a broader understanding of the processes of preparing and
developing leadership skills from the study sample’s perspective.
Cohen et al., (2018) stated that there are reasons for mixing data types. For example,
qualitative data can be used to validate the quantitative data and to understand the
opinions of the participants involved in the research, and also the context which it is in.
Therefore, the approach of this study is mainly a qualitative one, and as a result, the
researcher has collected data using two different methods to provide an in-depth picture
of the leadership development of these managers.
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4.3.2 Data Collection Instruments
4.3.2.1 Questionnaire
In the interpretative paradigm, qualitative methods are considered as the main features
for investigation. However, these methods are not linked only with those paradigms (Foss
& Ellefsen, 2002). Therefore, researchers can gain descriptive, inferential, and
explanatory information from survey methods where data can be collected by using
surveys that aim to describe the nature of existing conditions in a specific time period,
develop standards to compare current conditions, or identify relationships between
certain events (Cohen et al., 2018). In survey studies, researchers ask participants many
questions about their opinions, but these are commonly only about factual issues.
Furthermore, surveys have different methods of gathering data, such as conducting
interviews or distributing questionnaires to a particular group (Bailey, 2008). Whilst this
has the advantage of being capable of collecting standardized information by using the
same questions and tools with each participant (Cohen et al., 2018), “surveys may vary in
their levels of complexity from those that provide simple frequency counts to those that
present relational analysis” (p. 205) as well as perhaps being different in terms of scope
(Cohen et al., 2018).
Many types of question forms can be used in questionnaires. This study includes types
such as closed questions and open-ended questions. For closed questions, the
questionnaire was designed using a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 represents “strongly
agree”, 2 represents “agree”, 3 represents “undecided”, 4 represents “agree”, and 5
represents “strongly disagree”. A Likert scale provides a set of responses built into a
rating scale as an answer to a given question (Cohen et al., 2018). This type of question is
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easier and faster to answer and does not need to be written. Furthermore, the questions
can be designed and presented clearly and directly while enabling comparisons to be
drawn between the groups in the sample (Oppenheim, 1992). According to Cohen et al.
(2018), closed questions enable participants to answer according to what they want while
being particularly appropriate for an investigation of complex issues that cannot rely on
simple answers.
Open-ended questions are appropriate when the researcher needs to collect data from a
small number of respondents or for those parts of the scope of the questionnaire which
may require a personal or honest comment from the participants (Cohen et al., 2018).
Open-ended questions can also be used if possible answer categories are not known or if
the researcher wishes to see what the participants’ opinion is before deciding on
appropriate answer categories (Bailey, 2008). They also allow for participants to answer in
their own way while avoiding the restricting of responses by preparing options
beforehand (Cohen et al., 2018). These types of questions are preferable for complex
issues which the researcher cannot summarise into smaller categories; they also allow
participants to answer adequately and clarify their answers (Bailey, 2008). They leave
freedom for the participants to respond and, therefore, may include valuable information
the researcher had not previously considered or included the topic or area of
consideration in the questionnaire (Cohen et al., 2018; Muijs, 2011). Ultimately, the
researcher puts the responsibility for data into the hands of the participants (Cohen et al.,
2018).
However, open-ended questions may be more difficult to analyse and deal with than
closed questions as “the answers will first need to be coded and quantified using some
form of content analysis” (Muijs, 2011, p. 46). Furthermore, they may be more time-
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consuming for respondents, which may, in turn, lead to participants giving incomplete,
uninteresting, and irrelevant answers (Muijs, 2011). Therefore, the researcher has tried to
identify a certain number of questions that lead to achieving a stated purpose (i.e., collect
basic information) while helping the researcher identify important items for the semi-
structured interview questions.
The questionnaire was designed in several stages. First, the literature related to the topic
of professional development (e.g Mitchell, 2013) and how to prepare educational leaders
was reviewed (e.g Bush & Middlewood, 2013 & Bush & Glover, 2004) in order to devise
questions which were relevant to managers who work in education districts and different
sections of the MoE. This was to gain a deeper understanding of important areas of study,
and then devise accurate explanations of some of the themes. Second, the researcher
tried to make sure that the survey questions related strongly to the research sub
questions. During this step, the researcher also attempted to predict possible answers to
these questions to ensure that they would explore the relevant issues and provide data
which answered the main research question (and therefore achieve the goal of the
study). Thirdly, these questions were reviewed and revised to ensure that each category
in the survey was correct and that there were no duplicates included. Finally, the
questions were designed as either open or closed, depending on the type of information
required and the best and easiest way for the participants to provide the required data.
4.3.2.2 Interviews
Interviews in qualitative research essentially mean a discussion between two individuals
in which the interviewer asks questions and the interviewee responds (Cohen et al., 2018;
Savin-Baden & Major, 2013). Furthermore, they are a targeted form of data collection
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which provides information to answer the specified research questions directly and are
used to investigate and follow up (Savin-Baden & Major, 2013). It is an important method
when the researcher wishes to conduct an in-depth investigation into participants’
experiences. Moreover, it is ideal when the researcher seeks to follow up on the initial
responses to gain additional information that could help further clarify or shed light on a
specific issue (Savin-Baden & Major, 2013) while allowing more depth in the
interpretation of information (Cohen et al., 2018).
However, qualitative interviews also have some weaknesses. These include being prone
to subjectivity and bias on the part of the interviewer (Bell, 2014; Cohen et al., 2018) as
well as wasting time (Bell, 2014; Savin-Baden & Major, 2013). In addition, their success
depends on the cooperation of the interviewee, his/her sincerity, and the quality of
questions in the interview (Savin-Baden & Major, 2013).
Many types of interviews can be used as research tools, including structured interviews,
where the content and procedures are organised in advance; unstructured interviews,
which use an open situation with greater flexibility and freedom (Cohen et al., 2018); and
semi-structured interviews, which were used in the current research because they allow
for questions to be formulated in a more flexible way, creating “a mix of more or less
structured questions” (Merriam, 2014, p. 90). As the researcher sought to obtain specific
information from the participants, these questions were shaped in a more structured
interview. However, during the interview, a number of different issues or aspects of the
topic emerged and needed to be explored. As a result, in this part, the researcher did not
select or order the questions in advance to ensure access to new ideas and discussion of
information in greater depth (Merriam, 2014).
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A great advantage of the semi-structured interviews is that they help researchers
determine how best to use the available time to focus more on interaction (Bryman,
2012). They are also considered as a good strategy when the researcher has only one
opportunity to interview participants, particularly if they are preoccupied in their tasks
(Merriam, 2014), which is unfortunately sometimes a feature of the work of the MoE and
ED managers. However, a weakness of this approach is that it sometimes does not
provide the opportunity for the interviewees to present their own unique perspective
(Bryman, 2012). To address this weakness, the interviewer prepared open-ended
questions, which Bryman (2012) explained help interviewees express their perspectives
through discussion.
Based on considerations discussed in the previous sections, this study used
questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to collect information for interpreting the
issues and exploring leadership skills, experiences, and knowledge of educational
managers in MoE and ED in order to identify how they build this knowledge in their
context.
4.4 Research Sample
The sample is considered purposive because the researcher sought to select a sample of
experienced personnel expected to hold senior positions (e.g., undersecretary or assistant
undersecretary of ministry). According to Savin-Baden and Major (2013), “purposeful
sampling means [the] careful selection of members of the community who are likely to
provide the best information” (p. 314). Generally, in qualitative research, purposive
sampling occurs when researchers select cases to be included in the sample, based on
their appreciation of the particular characteristics required in their research. As a result,
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they can build a sample meeting their specific needs without representing the general
population (Cohen et al., 2018). Purposeful selection is the strategy used to choose
particular settings, persons, or activities to obtain information appropriate to the
research questions and goals that cannot be obtained in other ways (Maxwell, 2012).
The researcher chose a sample to complete a survey. From the responses, a number of
managers were chosen to be interviewed in greater depth about the preparation for their
role as leaders of the MoE and EDs. The chosen managers were those involved in the
formation of educational policy guiding the public education strategy implementation and
could thus indicated whether the vision and goals of the MoE are being achieved.
The survey sample included 30 managers in the MoE who work in 8 sectors (see Section
2.5.5.3); each manager’s job varied according to the sector to which he/she belongs. For
example, the Public Education Sector includes eight administration departments: religious
education, coordination, and six of the EDs (Al-Asmaa, Hawalli, Al-Farwaniya, Al-Jahra, Al-
Ahmadi, and Mubarak Al-Kabeer). There were 24 managers in those EDs, and each district
included four administrations—educational, administrative, activities, and engineering
(each chaired by one manager). In short, the research sample in the first stage included
54 MoE and ED managers. Thus, the sample size was appropriate for enabling the
research to be carried out.
For the interview sample, managers who agreed to participate in the interviews were
selected from those who completed the questionnaire (they were asked in the last part of
the questionnaire if they agreed to participate). Ultimately, 15 managers accepted this
invitation. The researcher studied the open answers carefully and then selected eight
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managers to ensure a purposive sample, and where the focus was on those who tried to
raise important issues, and could fully answer all of the open questions.
From the original fifteen, eight participants were selected to ensure there was a good
representation of different experience and roles within the study sample. This included
those who had experience as a teacher or administrator before reaching their current
position, and in turn meant that there was good diversity amongst the study sample.
Managers and acting managers (because there were vacancies in these positions), and
managers from the ministry's departments and educational districts were also selected.
In addition, the researcher tried to include managers from departments with different
disciplines (e.g. educational, administrative or engineering). Participants were also
selected from both genders; three females (the only ones who agreed to the interview)
and five males.
The rationale for sampling from managers of administration in the MoE was to better
understand the effectiveness of preparing them to exercise their leadership role,
especially when leaders have an influential role in the formation and development of
strategic plans and education policies. These individuals are considered future candidates
for the post of assistant undersecretary for any of the eight sectors in the MoE through
their nomination and approval by the Civil Service Commission (CSC) and Council of
Ministers. Thus, they are expected to exercise leadership in this sensitive and important
position in the MoE based on the experience gained while fulfilling their role as managers
of administration in the MoE as well as from professional development and training
courses. Such courses should help refine these experiences and develop them for the
benefit of the educational process.
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ED managers were also sampled because they were closer to the educational field due to
their role in managing the supervisors who deal directly with school administration. These
managers play an influential role in educational practice in schools and follow up on the
implementation of educational policies and public education strategy in the real field of
learning directly. Consequently, they can measure their success in achieving educational
goals and the transfer of the real and clear picture to the senior leaders in the MoE about
the reality of the problems facing the educational process in schools (see Section 2.5.5.3).
Furthermore, these managers are potential candidates for a position as a general
manager of an ED or manager of subsidiary administration to the MoE; therefore, they
need to meet the required conditions of CSC resolution No. 25/2006 (CSC, 2006), such as
number of years of experience and conducting assessments within the last two years as
manager of one of the district administrations. Upgrading to a general manager in one of
the administrations in the MoE means increased responsibilities and tasks; individuals
must prepare for such requirements so that they can achieve the education system’s
goals through the implementation of PESSK 2005–2025.
This research adopted an interpretive approach to study the identified issues, explore and
interpret the managers’ experiences and skills from their perspective, and investigate the
effectiveness of their preparation for their educational leadership role, which they
obtained through training and professional development and from their previous
professional experience. Thus, the researcher assumed that the selection of the sample
from the MoE and ED managers enriched this study based on the experience they
obtained during their work as heads of departments and supervisors, managers of
administrators in ED, and ultimately general managers of ED or managers of
administration in the MoE.
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4.5 Data Collection
The researcher collected data from the original study population (i.e., MoE and ED
managers) in two phases. In the first, a questionnaire was used (quantitative method; see
Section 4.5.2); in the second, a semi-structured interview was used (qualitative method;
see Section 4.5.3). However, before beginning the first phase, pilot studies were
conducted to assess whether the tools to be used could provide the data to answer the
main research question as well as to improve their validity.
4.5.1 Pilot Studies
The results of the pilot studies will be presented for the questionnaires and interview
questions. The questions were modified according to the three participants’ comments in
the pilot study of the survey questions. Interview questions were also adjusted according
to the preliminary survey results. The first pilot study of the interview questions was then
applied and followed by the second. Further details will be provided in the following two
sections.
4.5.1.1 Pilot Study of Questionnaires
The pilot study was conducted by distributing the questionnaires to four participants from
the original study sample. These were managers in different educational districts, three of
whom were department managers in different educational districts while the fourth was
a general manager of one educational district (two males and two females). The goal of
the pilot study was to ensure that questions were clear and credible and to determine the
time required to complete the questionnaire. After the pilot study was completed, the
researcher noticed that one participant’s responses included two unclear answers (Q23
and Q24). The questions were therefore redrafted (in the Arabic version only) and
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returned to the same participant for completion (see Appendix 6 for the final version of
the survey questions). Finally, the response time (which was estimated to be between 25
and 35 minutes) took an average of 30 minutes; the researcher considered this to be an
appropriate period of time for responding to the questionnaire.
The purpose of these procedures was to identify the extent to which the questionnaire
represented the research aims and to identify the weaknesses of the questionnaire in
terms of the clarity of questions. They also aimed to obtain proposals for improving the
questionnaire items. As a result, the participants’ feedback was considered and
appropriate modifications made.
4.5.1.2 Pilot Study of Interview Questions
This pilot study was carried out in two phases, with the first applied to only two
managers. The second was applied to a third manager from the pilot study sample.
For the first phase, appointments were made to interview two managers, with the
questions being sent by e-mail several days before the interview date so that they could
review them prior to the meeting. A prompt card (see Appendix 7) was attached to the e-
mail and included an explanation of some of the vocabulary or terms used in the
interview questions (see appendix 8) so that they would be clear to the participants. The
interviews were then transcribed from the recording (see appendix 13), and the questions
revisited based on the respondents’ answers and observations of the questions as well as
the calculation of the time taken. The number of questions was reduced, and some were
modified. They were then sent to the supervisors to help verify their credibility and
suitability for the study.
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The second pilot study was applied to a third participant to ensure that the revised
questions were clear. It was ascertained that the questions were appropriate for the
interview time (45–60 minutes, depending on the interviewer’s interaction and
explanation). In addition, there was no repetition of the questions, and the purposes of
the study were achieved. The interview questions to be used in the interviews were then
finalised (see Appendix 9 for the final version of the Interview questions).
4.5.2 First Phase: Questionnaire (Quantitative)
The main purpose of using the questionnaire as a tool for data collection in this
qualitative study was to collect basic information and public perceptions for the seven
items surveyed to help the researcher develop semi-structured interview questions,
which were the main tool for collecting the study data. The information was used to
answer the main question of the study by obtaining explanations and a deeper
understanding of the issue under investigation through respondents’ perceptions. The
questionnaire included closed questions, which require specific answers to specific
statements, and open-ended questions that give respondents the freedom of expression.
These answers revealed new issues related to the research topic. They also provided an
explanation and interpretation of some of the issues, which may be the most important
issues from the perspective of the respondents and not the researcher. Indeed, according
to Cohen et al. (2018), the space provided for open-ended answers is an opportunity for
participants to highlight an issue or topic.
The questionnaires were distributed by hand for the sample during the official work
period in the MoE and EDs (i.e., from December 2016 to January 2017). The
questionnaires were distributed in two stages. First, the researcher started the
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distribution for the general managers in 6 EDs and also for the department managers
inside EDs (Department of Educational Affairs, Department of Administration,
Department of Activities, and Engineering Department) during their official work hours.
The questionnaire distribution process took about one week due to the different
locations of each ED and the absence of some managers (one of the obstacles faced, as
discussed in section 7.5). In some cases, the researcher had to arrange direct personal
interviews with certain managers before they received the questionnaires to explain the
purpose of the study and respond to their enquiries, even though the researcher had
submitted an information sheet for each member beforehand (see Appendix 10).
Second, the questionnaire was distributed to department managers in the MoE, which
took another week due to some departments being in different locations from the MoE
headquarters (before moving to the new ministry building in December 2018). Some
managers were not available in their departments due to out-of-office tasks or because
they had been assigned to other departments that had no assigned managers (sometimes
the manager was assigned to two departments at the same time). In addition, some
departments in the MoE and EDs are administrated by a deputy manager, although their
job description was only “supervisor”, as the manager position was vacant, meaning they
were “acting managers” (for detailed numbers and percentages, see Chapter 5).
The researcher prepared a list for the departments, including the contact information for
each one, and determined a collection date for each manager, as per their individual
circumstances.
The data collection process from the MoE and EDs took about one month (there was an
overlap period between the questionnaire distribution and data collection processes). In
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some cases, the researcher distributed the questionnaire in certain departments while
collecting data from other departments where questionnaires had been distributed some
days previously. In addition, in some cases, the researcher had to review the same
department back and forth several times to urge them to complete their questionnaire so
the data could be collected. Table 4.1 shows the numbers and ratios of the questionnaires
distributed, collected, and rejected as well as the vacant manager positions in both the
MoE and EDs.
Table 4.1
Numbers and Percentages of Questionnaires Distributed, Collected, and Rejected
Questionnaires
Vacant
Sample
Positions Distributed Rejected Returned
n % n % n % n %
54 6 11.10 48 88.9 6 12.5 42 87.5
4.5.3 Second Phase: Semi-Structured Interviews (Qualitative)
This phase aimed to get a deeper understanding and interpretation of the experiences of
managers in the MoE and the EDs through semi-structured interviews. After compiling
the questionnaire responses, the researcher examined the frequency and percentages of
the main themes as well as quickly scanning the answers to open-ended questions to
explore the most important issues raised by respondents. The interview questions were
subsequently revised and modified accordingly.
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A list of eight managers (the interview sample) was prepared along with the names of
their administrations and telephone numbers so that interviews could be scheduled
according to the circumstances of each participant. The interview questions were also
sent with a prompt card listing some of the terms used in the interview questions (see
appendices 7& 9) to each manager by e-mail several days before the interview so the
participants could read them in advance and prepare answers, if they wished.
At the beginning of each interview, the objective was clarified to each manager, and
permission was requested to record the dialogue. Participants were also asked to sign the
approval letter. The information paper was presented, including the purpose of the study
and interview, and participants were informed of the right to withdraw at any time. The
confidentiality of the information was also emphasised, and it was explained that no
reference to their identity would be made in any way.
This stage took two weeks: four interviews per week and one interview per day.
4.6 Data Analysis
The process in qualitative research is primarily an inductive process (Merriam, 2014;
Savin-Baden & Major, 2013) that moves from small units of information to reveal the
whole picture that emerges from the data (Savin-Baden & Major, 2013). An inductive
analysis is a process of coding the data collected without trying to fit the information into
a coding frame that already exists or the previous assumptions of the researcher’s
analysis.
A qualitative data analysis involves the organisation, interpretation, and explanation of
the data; therefore, it tends to be more detailed and richer in information (Cohen et al.,
2018) and is gathered via different research instruments. As the majority of this study’s
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data was text-based (through the responses to the open-ended questions in the
questionnaire as well as the answers to the interview questions), the study adopted the
method of organising the data for analysis through the research questions. According to
Cohen et al. (2018), this is a very useful method of organising data because, in addition to
collecting all the data related to the issues, it also helps maintain the consistency of the
topic (information).
Cohen et al. (2018) argued that the researcher needs to brings together data related to
the questionnaires and interviews to provide answers to the researcher’s sub-questions,
which in turn provide answers to the main research question. The data included two
types: numerical data (quantitative) collected from the closed questions of the
questionnaires and qualitative data collected from participants’ answers to open-ended
questions on the questionnaires or during interviews. Cohen et al. (2018) argued that the
presentation of numerical data for specific issues in the research, followed by qualitative
data (or qualitative followed by numerical), facilitates the identification of patterns,
relationships, and comparisons between the data types for easier exploration.
Information technology has a great capacity for organising massive amounts of data and
facilitating their analysis (Merriam, 2014). Therefore, the researcher used Microsoft Excel
to calculate the percentages of repetition of responses for quantitative data and NVivo 11
from the CAQDAS package to organise the qualitative data. Walsh (2003) explained that
NVivo organises raw data, such as interview responses and observations, and enables the
researcher to link the data to databases created by the researcher when making codes
and analytical notes; The researcher can also rework ideas as the project progresses.
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In qualitative research, data analysis can be very systematic. It can be considered as an
interpretive process; therefore, it may be less accurate than a numerical data analysis but
is more reflexive as an important attribute when qualitative data is analysed (Cohen et al.,
2018).
This study adopted two approaches for analysing the data because it included both
qualitative and quantitative data. The first method was numerical analysis to analyse
quantitative data, showing the percentage of answers according to theme. According to
Cohen et al. (2018), the enumeration process is the categorisation of groups of
frequencies or codes, which are then counted as units of analysis, terminology and words,
or ideas; this process in turn enables phenomena or cases to be recorded and also
facilitates the steps of the statistical analysis and its application to qualitative data.
The researcher deliberately divided the questionnaire into many themes informed by the
literature review, including the impact of any training in preparation for the role of
educational manager, engagement in leadership development activities, and the
experiences of leading and managing. This approach facilitated the data analysis process,
thereby giving a comprehensive picture of the issue under investigation by maintaining a
text correlation for each theme.
The second approach involved organising the data through the main research and sub-
questions. In this approach, all relevant data from different data streams (interviews and
questionnaires) were collected to provide a collective answer to the research questions
while maintaining the consistency of the material. This approach also enabled the
exploration of patterns, relationships, and comparisons across data types in a convenient
and clear manner (Cohen et al., 2018).
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Furthermore, for the qualitative data analysis, several steps were taken, such as
transcription (see appendix 14), bracketing and condensing data, a review of the
interview, to get an overall impression, the delineation of units of general meaning or
those relevant to the research question, removal of redundancies, integration, selection
of themes of the relevant units, and contextualisation of themes (Hycner, 1985).
Therefore, questionnaire and interview data (including observations, comments, and non-
verbal expressions) were analysed in their context after separate coding according to
each theme (see appendix 16), thereby ensuring the integrity and coherence of the data.
Following this, all texts were examined in a comprehensive manner in order to answer the
main research question.
4.7 Validity and Reliability (Credibility and Trustworthiness)
Savin-Baden and Major (2013) defined validity as “ensuring that the experiment is
designed effectively to measure the subject variables” (p. 473). They defined reliability as
“ensuring that the experiment can repeatedly measure these variables accurately” (p.
473). According to Merriam (2014), in qualitative research, it is important to understand
the views of the participants related to the issue being investigated to reveal the
complexity of human behaviour in its context and provide a comprehensive explanation
of what is happening. Merriam added that, if human beings are the main tool of data
collection and analysis in qualitative research, the researcher can access interpretations
of reality by observing and interviewing participants directly. According to Creswell (2013)
and Merriam (2014), validity is a distinct strength of qualitative research.
Although reliability and validity are generally dealt with independently in quantitative
research, it is not necessary to apply these methods in qualitative research; terminology
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such as credibility and trustworthiness can be used instead (Golofshani, 2003).
Researchers can use many strategies to increase the credibility of their findings. Perhaps
the most well-known and best strategy to support credibility (validity) in studies is
triangulation (Merriam, 2014).
Triangulation is the use of two or more data collection methods (Cohen et al., 2018). That
means using multiple sources of data and comparing and examining the data collected,
such as through questionnaires or interviews or by conducting follow-up interviews with
the same people (Merriam, 2014). Therefore, a triangulation approach was adopted in
the current study by examining and comparing the data obtained from interviews with a
group of managers in the MoE and EDs. As each participant had a different experience
and perspective from which to judge the issue in a different context for the other
participants, this information included different viewpoints that enriched this study.
Furthermore, the researcher sought to ascertain the credibility and trustworthiness of
each instrument separately. First, questionnaires were distributed to three Kuwait
University faculty members—two from the Business Administration College (Department
of Public Management) and one from the Education College—to ensure the
questionnaire’s validity. This procedure encouraged suggestions for improving the quality
of the questionnaire. It was also piloted (see Section 4.5.1.1) by four managers who
answered the survey questions, where it was ascertained that all question were precise
and clear and the questionnaire is valid. Bell (2014) mentioned that a pilot study is an
approach testing how long it takes respondents to answer a questionnaire while ensuring
that all questions and instructions are clear and helping the researcher recognise any
items which do not give usable data. To ensure that participants understood the purpose
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of this study, the researcher enclosed an information paper with the questionnaire that
clarified the study topic and aims.
Second, the researcher improved the credibility of interview questions by conducting a
pilot study (see Section 4.5.1.2) with three volunteers from the questionnaire sample.
According to Cohen et al. (2018), the most practical way to achieve greater interview
validity is to reduce the amount of bias as much as possible. Possible sources of bias
include the interview properties, the characteristics of the participants, and the
questions’ substantive content. Thus, the researcher tried to avoid biases and gave the
participants the opportunity to express their views.
Trustworthiness was confirmed by taking the interview data and tentative interpretations
back to the people from whom they were derived and asking if the information was
plausible (Merriam, 2014). In addition, data obtained from the questionnaire were
compared with data obtained from the interviews, particularly when the questionnaire
themes were the same as the interview questions. Trustworthiness was also confirmed
and improved by gathered detailed field notes, such as using a high quality tape (or digital
format; e.g., MP3 recorder) for recording and then transcribing the recording while
ensuring the inclusion of any trivial issues that may arise, such as pauses and overlaps
(Creswell, 2013).
As human beings were the main method for gathering and analysing data in the
qualitative research, the interpretations of reality were gained directly through their
responses to interview questions. Therefore, the researcher should be able to glean a
closer and more accurate understanding of the reality than might be the case if just using
instruments to collect data from the participants (Merriam, 2014).
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4.8 Ethical Considerations
According to Savin-Baden and Major (2013), “ethics are the moral principles that govern
behaviour” (p. 319). Furthermore, the British Educational Research Association (BERA)
concluded that researchers in education must apply their research within an ethic of
respect for any persons who participate in the studies they are undertaking (BERA, 2018).
Accordingly, the researcher in this study sought to apply the procedures outlined by the
policies at the University of Reading regarding the ethical requirements of research. This
involved completing the approved Ethics form which explains the research processes to
be followed, and the Risk Assessment Form for Research Activities (see appendices 20 &
21). Information Management and Policy Services tests were also reviewed such as the
Data Protection Act 1998 and Information Security Training.
Cohen et al. (2018) argued that social research requires the consent of individuals
participating in investigations and of others in the institutions providing the research
facilities. Therefore, the researcher also prepared two forms of consent to be submitted
to the participants, whether in the questionnaires or interviews, in order to obtain the
written consent of the participant (see appendices 11 & 12). The information sheet
includes the title, purpose of the study, and the procedures followed to save data and
maintain confidentiality and assurances about the anonymity of each participant. This
was particularly important because the demographic data section in the questionnaire
was also used as background information of the interviewees.
In addition, the researcher prepared a first draft of the questionnaire, as well as semi-
structured interview questions, through reading theoretical literature in the educational
leadership preparation field. This helped to reflect on the research questions themselves,
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and in turn try to answer them to determine the data which needed to be collected.
These drafts were then presented to the study’s supervisors and revised based on their
comments (more details in section 4.3.2). The ethical models and data collection tools
were then submitted to the ethics committee of the Reading University to obtain the
necessary approvals to conduct the study.
Before the pilot study, the questionnaire and interview questions were translated from
English into Arabic as it is the mother tongue of the sample in Kuwait. To ensure the
accuracy of the translation into Arabic, it was presented to a specialist in English and
Arabic languages. The feedback gained from this preparation stage were taken into
account to ensure that the Arabic translation was an accurate translation of the
questionnaire and interview questions in English. Following this, the researcher then
sought to ensure the reliability and validity of the questionnaire (see section 4.7). For
example, the questionnaire was piloted (section 4.5.1.1) and adjustments were made,
based on the participants' comments.
The researcher obtained approval from the Department of Research within the MoE in
Kuwait — the relevant authority that grants permission to researchers in education. All
the pages of the questionnaire were stamped, and permits were issued wherever
necessary. For example, each district manager issued a permit to the managers under
their administration to participate in this study. This depended whether the participant
was filling out the questionnaire or being interviewed.
After obtaining the necessary permits, the data was collected through the questionnaire
in the first phase (see section 4.5.2). The answers were then read, with particular
attention being given to the open questions, in order to explore important issues from
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the point of view of the managers. Then, after taking on board the suggested
amendments of the supervisors on the preliminary results of the questionnaire, the
interview questions were further refined and developed, and then finally piloted (see
section 4.5.1.2) before the actual interviews were initiated (second phase - see section
4.5.3).
In addition, before conducting each phase of data collection, the researcher asked the
participants to sign the consent form to indicate that they had officially agreed to
participate in this research, with an emphasis on their right to participate or not.
The British Educational Research Association (BERA, 2018) confirmed that participants
must be informed that they have the right to withdraw from the research without any
reason and at any time. The participants’ right to confidentiality and anonymity was
ensured by using pseudonyms when referring to them in all research stages. In addition,
all research records were stored securely in a locked filing cabinet and on a password-
protected computer. All related files will be destroyed after the research journey is
completed.
After completing all of these processes and collecting the data through the study tools,
the qualitative data in the questionnaire and interviews had to be translated into English.
With regard to the interviews, the transcriptions also had to take into account any
mumbling or pauses. The written notes taken by the researcher for each participant were
also included as part of the overall data collection.
The final translations were then presented to a specialist to be validated for inclusion in
the NVivo 11 program from the CAQDAS package to organize the qualitative data (Section
4.6). In addition, all quotes used in Chapter 5 were presented to a colleague at Reading
136
University (fluent in both languages) to ensure that the English translation is in full
conformity with the statements of the participants in Arabic – this is called inter-rater
reliability – and was done to increase the credibility and assurance of research ethics and
honesty in data transfer and use.
4.9 Conclusion
This chapter has outlined and discussed the research design and methodology as well as
the actual steps and processes that the researcher followed to collect the data to achieve
the aims of the study. The researcher conduced a purposeful sample of the MoE and ED
managers using research tools (questionnaire and semi-structured interview)
commensurate with a multiple-site case study in qualitative research. This chapter also
reviewed some of the different techniques that the researcher used to increase the
validity and reliability of the questionnaire and interview questions as well as how the
data were handled and analysed through triangulation after being collected and
transcribed.
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Chapter 5: Research Findings
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the study collected through the use of the research
instruments in order to answer the main study question—namely, to what extent is the
preparation and ongoing professional development of education ministry and district
managers effective in Kuwait? The purpose of this study is to explore the effectiveness of
leadership preparation in the educational ministry and districts to carry out their
functions in leading Kuwait’s education system.
The data are presented in four sections. Section 5.2 contains the analysis of the
questionnaire data through five subsections: demographic data from the questionnaire
sample, managers’ self-perceptions, engagement in different types of professional
development, the importance of previous and relevant experience, and leadership
development. Section 5.3 includes the analysis of interview data in five subsections:
demographic data from the interview sample, managers’ self-perceptions, engagement in
different types of professional development, the importance of previous and relevant
experience, and leadership development. Finally, Section 5.4 summarises the survey and
interview data.
Participants’ ages were all 40 years and over because they did not occupy this position
until obtaining many years of experience in different stages of their careers. These stages
vary according to the type of their initial professions (i.e., teachers or administrative
officers; see Section 4.4).
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5.2 Results from Phase One: Questionnaire Findings
Data were entered and analysed through the Excel statistical programme to find
frequencies and percentages for the closed questions. Answers to the open-ended
questions were also collected and classified into four categories to facilitate the analysis:
• Positive responses that expressed participants’ satisfaction with these
programmes;
• Neutral responses which may be considered positive but with the participant
adding comments to express his/her desire to develop weaknesses in these
programmes;
• Negative responses that expressed participants’ dissatisfaction with these
preparation programmes; and
• Unable to respond, including phrases that indicated the participants did not know
about the existence of such courses or knew, but did not attend.
When a direct quote of a written comment from the survey is used, the respondent is
identified by a number in brackets (ranging between 1 and 42). Full details of each
respondent who participated in the survey are included in Appendix 15.
5.2.1 Demographic Data from the Questionnaire Sample
All 42 managers involved in the study were affiliated with the MoE, although some of
them were located outside the MoE in six different EDs (in addition to other
departments), according to the geographical distribution of schools throughout Kuwait.
These EDs each have a general manager (see Appendix 4) and four departments, each of
which has a manager who was also included in the study sample (see Sections 2.5.5.3 and
4.5).
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As Table 5.1 shows, 47.6% (N = 20) of managers worked in the administration of the MoE
while 52.4% (N = 22) were managers in the six districts, representing the highest
percentage. Although the study sample includes only managers of the departments in the
MoE and the EDs, one third of them were acting managers during the study period (see
Section 4.5.3). The majority of the sample were male; only one third of managers in the
sample were female.
Table 5.1
Characteristics of the Research Sample
Variables Type N %
Manager 33 78.6
Job
Acting manager 9 21.4
Education Ministry 20 47.6
Workplace
Education District 22 52.4
Male 28 66.7
Gender
Female 14 33.3
Table 5.2 shows that the experience of all managers since the beginning of their
employment covered more than 15 years. In addition, more than half of the respondents
had no experience as a teacher and, therefore, did not have experience in teaching
processes, curricula, or student issues. In other words, they did not have previous
experience related to how things are done in schools, what challenges a student or
teacher might face, or school management issues and how to deal with them.
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Table 5.2
More
1–4 5–9 10–14 Missing
None than Total
Years of Experience years years years data
15 years
N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
Years of experience since appointment N/A N/A N/A N/A 0 0 0 0 42 100 42 100 0 0
Years spent as a teacher 23 54.8 4 9.5 7 16.7 3 7.1 4 9.5 41 97.6 1 2.4
Years spent as an administrator 5 11.9 0 0 3 7.1 1 2.4 33 78.6 42 100 0 0
Years of experience since appointment to the supervisory

N/A N/A 0 0 4 9.5 13 31.0 20 47.6 37 88.1 5 11.9
position
Years of experience in the current post N/A N/A 28 66.7 5 11.9 4 9.5 5 11.9 42 100 0 0
Amount of Time Spent as a Manager and Teacher or Administrator
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As most of the sample did not have any teaching experience, all of their experience was in
administrative work. Thus, most managers had plenty of administration experience as
well as considerable supervisor experience, and some of them started in the school as
headteacher. The majority of the respondents had only 1–4 years of experience in their
current position. This may be due to the early retirement of a large group of MoE
employees—a decision taken by a former Minister of Education to force all those who
had served more than 35 years as of the beginning of September 2015 to retire.
Table 5.3 shows that, in terms of the training courses attended during pre-appointment
to the manager position to prepare themselves for an educational leader role, the highest
ratio was equal for the 1–4 and 5–9 categories. These were followed by those who had
answered that they had not attended any training programmes to prepare for their job.
Furthermore, more than one third of the respondents had attended 1–4 professional
development and training courses over the last 5 years. A small number of managers did
not attend any courses to develop their leadership skills in the 5 years after they were
appointed, despite the importance of professional development to develop their skills.
Did this mean that they did not believe in the importance of professional development?
How did they develop the skills staff in the same department required if they did not
develop their own leadership skills?
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Table 5.3
Preparation, Job Training, and Professional Development
More
Number of Training Courses Missing
than
data
None 1–4 5–9 10–14 15 Total
Statement
N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
Number of training courses attended pre-appointment as a manager 9 21.4 10 23.8 10 23.8 6 14.3 2 4.8 37 88.1 5 11.9
in preparation for educational leadership role
Number of professional development and training courses attended 4 9.5 15 35.7 10 23.8 3 7.1 5 11.9 37 88.1 5 11.9
over the last five years
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5.2.2 Managers’ Self-Perceptions
Managers’ perceptions of themselves as leaders are influenced by four factors: their
understanding of the term management and leadership, their understanding of the skills
leaders must possess, their ability to work with others, and the challenges they face.
5.2.2.1 Managers’ Conceptual Understanding of Management and Leadership
After classifying the responses into three categories (see Appendix 17) to determine the
extent of participants’ knowledge of the meaning of management and leadership,
participants showed “good understanding” of management, which achieved the highest
response rate, whereas approximately two thirds of respondents believed that
management was the exploitation of available resources or that its functions or tasks
were applied to achieve management objectives (see Table 5.4). In addition, fewer than
half of the respondents were able to determine the meaning of leadership as the process
of influencing others through motivation, encouragement, and motivation.
The proportion of responses showing “some understanding,” where respondents could
not distinguish between management and leadership, was less than one tenth when
defining the management term. For example, one respondent mentioned that
management means “leading and influencing others to achieve goals”. In addition, almost
one fifth of participants could not distinguish between the two terms when defining
leadership. Furthermore, several participants repeated the same answer when defining
both management and leadership. Examples of these responses include “directing all
individual and collective efforts by using the available tools to achieve the desired
objectives” and “is an active and administrative supervision”. The number of participants
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Table 5.4
Meaning of Management and Leadership
Good understanding Some understanding No understanding Total Missing data

Terms
N % N % N % N % N %
Management 26 61.9 3 7.1 12 28.6 41 97.6 1 2.4
Leadership 18 42.9 9 21.4 14 33.3 41 97.6 1 2.4
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able to accurately define management was greater than the number able to define
leadership.
Participants’ responses indicate that almost one third of them were unable to define
management clearly. For example, one respondent stated that “management is an art”;
another considered it to be “a general term that represents many aspects”. In addition,
more than one third of managers showed no understanding of the meaning of leadership,
using general terms such as human relations, cooperation, or a process of issuing orders.
Table 5.4 showed that one group had a good understanding of both management and
leadership, but another group did not know the difference between the two terms. The
latter group was confused and mentioned vague terms that did not really mean anything
obvious (e.g., art, science).
The inability of most managers to provide a clear definition of both terms may lead to
questions about their ability to determine the training needs of leaders or the
professional development programmes required to develop their skills. Therefore, the
researcher sought to clarify the difference between these two terms for participants
during the second phase of data collection (interviews) so that their answers were more
reliable (interview findings are discussed further in Chapter 6).
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Table 5.5
Leadership Skills that Respondents Believe They Have
Strongly Strongly Missing

Disagree Undecided Agree Total
No Statements disagree agree data
N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
Q2 I have the skills and abilities to be able to lead my department. 0 0 0 0 1 2.4 9 21.4 30 71.4 40 95.2 2 4.8
I have the skills to deal with the different personalities of the

Q5 0 0 0 0 1 2.4 13 31.0 27 64.3 41 97.6 1 2.4
employees of the administration.
Q7 The leadership role requires special skills. 0 0 0 0 1 2.4 9 21.4 32 76.2 42 100 0 0
My experience and skills enable me to achieve the educational

Q12 0 0 0 0 1 2.4 17 40.5 22 52.4 40 95.2 2 4.8
goals.
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5.2.2.2 Skills Required to be an Effective Leader
Table 5.5 shows whether respondents have the necessary leadership skills from their
point of view. The data in this table show that most respondents either agreed or strongly
agreed that they had the leadership skills to succeed in leading staff. It is interesting to
note that the statement about a leadership role requiring special skills drew the strongest
support from the managers themselves. This perhaps shows their awareness and need for
these skills to be able to succeed in their role as leaders.
5.2.2.3 Working with Other People and Leadership Skills Learned from Them
The data presented in Table 5.6 represent the respondents’ views concerning their work
with others. Most managers either agreed or strongly agreed with the statements shown
in this table, thereby indicating positive outcomes from working with other people.
Experience gained from working with previous managers was perceived by most
managers in a very positive way. This was reinforced by statement Q41, with which most
managers disagreed or strongly disagreed.
Interestingly, only about one tenth of respondents reported that they did not learn any
skills from their former managers, and the same proportion noted that their former
managers did not help them carry out their current role. This may be due to the type of
relationship between these respondents and their former managers. If the relationship
was negative and uncomfortable, it would certainly affect the former manager’s ability to
educate and train the employee as well as the employee’s ability to learn and gain skills
from that manager (for further details on the second phase, see Section 5.3.3.3).
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Table 5.6
Managers’ Perceptions of the Value of Previous Leadership Experiences and Working as a Team

N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
My relationship with my previous managers developed my knowledge as a
Q39 0 0 3 7.1 0 0 20 47.6 18 42.9 41 97.6 1 2.4
leader.
Q40 I learned some leadership skills from my former managers. 0 0 5 11.9 0 0 21 50.0 16 38.1 42 100 0 0
My experience in dealing with my former managers has not helped me in

Q41 13 31.0 23 54.8 1 2.4 4 9.5 0 0 41 97.6 1 2.4
my current role as a leader.
Q42 Learning from the experience of others develops leadership skills. 1 2.4 2 4.8 0 0 21 50.0 18 42.9 42 100 0 0
Discussing work problems with colleagues develops my knowledge as a

Q43 0 0 1 2.4 0 0 19 45.2 21 50.0 41 97.6 1 2.4
leader
Q44 Dealing with team members enriches my experience as a leader. 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 35.7 26 61.9 41 97.6 1 2.4
Q45 I share information and knowledge with my staff to develop work. 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 40.5 25 59.5 42 100 0 0
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Table 5.7 shows the most important leadership skills learned from others. The majority of
respondents believed that the most important leadership skills they learned through their
interactions with others were decision-making and problem-solving skills. These skills are
the main tasks of any manager or leader; they are obliged to make decisions to
accomplish tasks and to find solutions to any problems that arise. Moreover, these are
skills that can be developed further by working with and dealing with others.
“Sharing a vision” and “influencing others” were selected as important by nearly a quarter
of respondents, suggesting that they considered these skills to be some of the most
important they had learned from others. However, this relatively low percentage may be
due to the fact that former managers believe that following up on the implementation of
policies was their responsibility; therefore, they did not involve any others in it.
Furthermore, the ability to influence can be considered a personal skill or quality that
should be possessed by managers and then developed through others.
Table 5.7
Important Leadership Skills Learned from Others
% of
Specific Leadership Skills N
sample
Decision making 29 69.0
Problem solving 27 64.3
Sharing a vision of how to implement current educational policy 10 23.8
Influencing others 10 23.8
Leading a team of colleagues 9 21.4
Number of respondents 41 97.6
Missing data 1 2.4
Total 42 100
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Table 5.8

N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
I sometimes experience real challenges and difficulties as an
Q6 2 4.8 5 11.9 1 2.4 18 42.9 15 35.7 41 97.6 1 2.4
educational manager.
I need help to understand and deal with the different
Q11 6 14.3 12 28.6 3 7.1 15 35.7 6 14.3 42 100 0 0
personalities of the team members.
Difficulties and Challenges Faced by Managers as Leaders
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5.2.2.4 Difficulties and Challenges Faced in the Role of Managers
Table 5.8 shows that the majority of participants faced difficulties in their role as
managers. In addition, half of them needed help to understand and deal with team
members’ various personalities. This may indicate that they needed to learn some
leadership skills to meet those challenges (for further details, see Chapter 6).
5.2.3 Engagement in Different Types of Professional Development
This section covers the formal programmes and activities of professional development
that managers have received during their careers since they were appointed to a
supervisory position. It also includes their views on the effectiveness of these
programmes in developing their leadership skills and whether the programmes were
provided by the Ministry of Education or the private sector. In addition, this section
reviews their perceptions about informal professional development programmes that
have played a role in developing their skills from their point of view (see Section 5.3.3 for
more details).
5.2.3.1 Different Development Activities
In response to statement Q21 (see Table 5.9), more than half of the sample agreed or
strongly agreed that the programmes were designed in accordance with a prior
assessment of their needs. However, nearly a quarter of the sample disagreed (or strongly
disagreed). Furthermore, the same percentage did not know whether the programme
was designed for that or not. In addition, all of the respondents except one strongly
agreed (or agreed) that professional development in service is necessary for the
development of educational leaders. Therefore, the managers had sought to develop
their skills by participating in many activities.
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Table 5.9
Respondents’ Views about In-Service Training Programmes to Develop Leadership Skills

N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
The training programmes for educational leaders
Q21 were designed based upon a prior assessment of 3 7.1 7 16.7 10 23.8 18 42.9 4 9.5 42 100 0 0
their actual needs.
Professional development (in service) is

Q24 0 0 0 0 1 2.4 7 16.7 33 78.6 41 97.6 1 2.4
necessary for educational leaders
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The survey results summarised in Table 5.10 show that the most important of these
activities is “membership in a work party”. The majority of participants agreed with this,
as it helped them develop their leadership skills—probably due to the fact that most
managers participated on teams according to their experience, which is considered
additional work. Although this activity may sometimes occur at the same time as official
work, managers often receive a financial reward for participation, not to mention the
experiences gained through their participation on these teams (through the exchange of
ideas and information among members). They therefore considered it to be one of the
most important activities that helped them.
“Self-study” was also a popular activity among three quarters of the participants,
indicating that the majority of participants depended on themselves to develop their
skills. This may be because of their constant preoccupation with their tasks, which
prevented them from committing to training courses; therefore, they may have chosen to
develop their skills according to their own circumstances and time commitments.
Approximately three fifths of managers considered “training courses or workshops” and
“seminar or presentation” as the best activities for developing their skills. Such activities
were often organised by the MoE (sometimes managers sought to attend private sector
courses on their personal initiative) and were free and during official work hours, which
meant that participants’ rest time with their families or for personal matters was
protected. The sessions were also used to exchange views and discussions between the
attendees; therefore, the majority of the managers considered these programmes to be
helpful in the development of their leadership skills.
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Table 5.10
Activities that Developed Managers’ Professional Knowledge, Understanding, and Skills
% of the
Activity N
sample
Membership in a work party 33 78.6
Self-directed study 31 73.8
Training courses or workshops 25 59.5
Seminar or presentation related to your role as leader 24 57.1
Personal reflection 23 54.8
Collaborative learning 23 54.8
Receiving on-the-job coaching, tutoring, or mentoring 17 40.5
Job shadowing 17 40.5
Using distance-learning materials 11 26.2
Action research 9 21.4
Missing data 2 4.8
Total 42 100
More than half of the participants considered “personal reflection” and “collaborative
learning” to be the most important activities, perhaps because these two activities did
not need to be arranged and deducted from work hours. “Personal reflection” can occur
during work time, perhaps in the form of discussions with experienced colleagues, the
revision of a previously set plan, or the re-evaluation of achievements and goals achieved.
“Collaborative learning” can also occur during departmental meetings and other more
155
informal settings, such as lunchtime discussions; this kind of learning enables managers to
discuss problems or issues with others, without restrictions or functional obligations
because the discussion take place outside of work time.
Fewer than half of the participants thought that “receiving on-the-job coaching” and “job
shadowing” helped them develop their abilities. This result may be due to the
unpopularity of these activities among managers because they were not applied
correctly. They only received on-the-job coaching, tutoring, or mentoring during work
hours from the manager or senior officer to employees (these employees later became
managers). In other words, their learning depended on the relationship between them
and their former managers as well as on the abilities and skills of the managers to
develop employees.
Nearly a quarter of managers thought that “using distance-learning materials” and
“action research” influenced their professional development. This is probably due to the
fact that most participants did not know how to use distance-learning materials because
half had more than 15 years of experience and nearly one third of them had 10–14 years
(see Table 5.2). Thus, more than three quarters of the sample had been in a supervisory
position for more than 10 years, not to mention the years of experience before the
supervisory post. During this time, they may not have become familiar with using
technology in their work, which might have led them not to have preferred to use
distance learning. In addition, managers may be preoccupied with various tasks that keep
them from doing studies or action research, which can take a lot of time and effort.
Yet managers’ responses changed when they identified the most effective programmes
(see Table 5.11). Approximately half of the sample considered “self-directed study” to be
the most effective in the development of their leadership skills. Some considered it a
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convenient way to get knowledge; others believed that technological developments
helped managers organise and determine the appropriate time to spend on learning.
Furthermore, the participants could choose an interesting subject to develop their
leadership skills. One participant wrote, “it is self-reliant and helped me learn a lot of
skills” (1); another comments, “this approach depends on self-effort that corresponds to
our own abilities, so it is an easy and attractive method for us, as we are searching for
means and programmes to achieve a better level of development” (17).
Some of the respondents considered using social media and relying on it to develop
themselves encouraged their autonomous learning; thus, they concluded that it was the
best way to develop their skills and knowledge: “developing my practical performance
and leadership, not only as an administrator in work, is based primarily on the different
‘social media’, and relying on readings in how to develop myself and my performance”
(25).
Nearly a quarter of respondents considered “membership in a work party” to be the most
effective for developing their leadership skills because this activity allowed them to
exchange experiences and ideas with others during meetings. Furthermore, some of them
believed that participation in this activity at the international level enriched their skills
through the opportunities to interact with leaders of different nationalities. Participants
noted that it “helps to collaborate, form opinions and reach goals after gathering the
ideas of all team members to achieve what is needed” (7) and “the person gains from
others’ experience through thinking, participation in and preparation for future meetings,
[and] planning and programming work time, and becomes keen to accomplish the tasks
to the fullest extent" (26).
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Table 5.11
Activities that Helped Managers Develop Professional Knowledge, Understanding, and
Skills (including the two most important activities in Table 5.10)
% of the
Activities N
sample
Self-directed study 20 47.6
Membership in a work party 10 23.8
Training courses or workshops 9 21.4
Personal reflection 7 16.7
Job shadowing 5 11.9
Collaborative learning 4 9.5
Using distance-learning materials 2 4.8
Seminar or presentation related to your role as a leader 2 4.8
Receiving on-the-job coaching, tutoring, or mentoring 1 2.4
Action research 0 0
Missing data 6 14.3
Total 42 100
Note. Participants chose two activities each.

However, more than one fifth of the sample thought that “training courses or workshops”
were most effective; some considered these activities to an opportunity to discuss the
issues at hand whereas others considered them more effective because they met their
needs in both theoretical and practical ways. Some considered these activities to be an
opportunity to benefit from the experiences of others: “it was a great chance to acquire
new skills and information for discussion and deliberation" (3), and “I learnt a lot through
dealing with people who had different experiences and were able to perform their role”
(30).
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Most respondents did not consider “personal reflection” to be an effective activity, and
only a minority of them believed that they had developed their skills effectively because it
helped them gain a deep understanding of attitudes. As they explained, it “deepens my
understanding and consciousness of attitudes and facts more comprehensively” (19), and
“it gives an opportunity to re-evaluate achievements and targets achieved, revise the
objectives and identify shortcomings” (21).
Although “job shadowing” is an effective form of job training for managers, it obtained a
relatively low percentage considering the importance of this activity. Few respondents
mentioned that this activity developed skills and knowledge according to their potential.
For example, one participated noted that “the managers who I was accompanied by and
worked under their leadership had the greatest impact in developing my capacity” (13);
another states, “it assesses the trainee’s weaknesses in job requirements and builds new
knowledge with experience related to work skills” (37).
Perhaps because they had no time to practise this activity due to their busy workloads or
had not been given an opportunity to work with another manager. Had they been given
such an opportunity to experience it, they may have felt that it was an effective and
practical activity for learning and developing leadership skills. In addition, working with
those who had more experience or responsibility might have prevented them from
performing freely and comfortably. This may be due to the mechanism of its application
which is not commensurate with the Kuwaiti context, as this activity requires observing
an experienced person to identify some skills required for the role, causing
embarrassment or distress for those who are monitored for many hours or days.
In addition, the majority of respondents did not consider “using distance-learning
materials” to be an effective activity, perhaps because they had not used it or had not
159
attended training programmes based on distance learning. Yet remarkably, one
respondent mentioned the reason for using this activity was not because of its
effectiveness in the development of skills, but because she had not been nominated to
attend any training session by the MoE to develop her leadership skills. As a result, she
sought to use this activity (i.e., technology), which was available to everyone: “Although I
had not been nominated for any courses continuously, the self-learning and distance
learning resources contributed to develop my thoughts and reading about the latest
methods of leadership and successful management” (40). This answer confirms what
Table 5.3 indicated—namely, that a small number did not attend professional
development programmes during the last 5 years. Furthermore, a significant minority of
respondents did not attend any educational leadership preparation programmes before
being appointed to supervisory positions. In other words, ministry officials did not require
candidates for supervisory positions to attend any training programmes, so many
resorted to developing their skills through their own personal efforts, which may not have
been according a systematic plan because of their lack of experience in this area.
Finally, “action research” did not receive any responses, indicating that participants did
not consider this activity effective for developing their leadership skills, despite its
importance in revealing strengths and weaknesses in the way a leader works with teams
or management groups they lead and through which they can assess their performance
and development. Perhaps this result stemmed from the fact that this activity needs
effort and time, which many managers simply do not have because of their constant
preoccupation with other tasks. Therefore, the majority preferred to participate in easier
activities and develop their skills with less time and effort.
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5.2.3.2 Effectiveness of Professional Development Programmes
5.2.3.2.1 Programmes Provided by the Ministry of Education (PPMoE)
Table 5.12 shows that more than three quarters of participants agreed or strongly agreed
that PPMoE were available to develop their skills. In addition, nearly two thirds of them
agreed or strongly agreed that these programmes met managers’ needs to develop their
leadership skills. Their subsequent responses to statement Q27, which is the opposite of
statement Q26, reinforced this result. Interestingly, approximately one third of the
respondents agreed or strongly agreed that these activities did not meet their training
needs (statement Q27), suggesting that they did not benefit from professional
development programmes for leaders. The MoE spends money and effort on these
programmes, but there is an imbalance in the development of almost a quarter of these
managers, which may in turn negatively affect the performance of their tasks and lead to
consequent repercussions in the educational process.
To present participants’ views about professional development programmes provided by
the MoE to improve educational leaders’ skills, the responses were divided into four
categories (see Section 5.3) and will be displayed as follows:
• Positive responses: Respondents expressed their satisfaction with the PPMoE.
Some believed they helped develop their leadership skills and raised their level of
performance. For example, the commented that “successful courses which help
educational leaders to develop their skills" (17) and “these programmes have
increased my skills and changed my way of managing groups and employees and
developing strategic and operational plans” (28).
161
• Neutral responses: In these responses, the participants mentioned that the
courses are excellent or good, but that they have shortcomings in some aspects,
such as not applying to educational reality or needing to be developed to deal
with changes in the educational field. Two comments in particular demonstrate
these neutral responses: “The programmes offered at that time were appropriate,
but need to be developed with different leaderships, and development of
managerial [and] educational skills with rapid technological development” (26),
and “it is not bad but it is distorted by its non-conformity with reality and its lack
of connection with what is happening at the level of performance of departments
and work” (34). One participant felt that these courses were limited to only
strategic planning courses provided by the ministry: “Effective strategic planning
courses are provided but they are limited, where the leader must use that
information in actual reality and the practical application of his/her job by reading
in-depth topics on how to develop strategic plans” (19). Strategic planning is an
important skill that must be mastered by the leaders, but there are other aspects
and skills that must also be provided by the MoE to develop the skills of
educational leaders. Nevertheless, according to the participants, such efforts were
limited, which suggests that they had a limited impact on the development of
planning skills because the courses did not apply to actual reality. As a result,
participants were forced to do extra research and reading to prepare strategic
plans.
• Negative responses: These express participants’ dissatisfaction with the level of
the PPMoE. For example, participants noted that the programmes “do not reach
our level of ambition, and the courses must be more intensive and continuous” (7)
and described them as “random programmes without a real need for them and do
162
not aim to develop skills” (11). The respondents called for these programmes to
be intensified and continuously monitored and evaluated. Some also stated that
these programmes were not linked to educational processes, even though they
were provided by the MoE, which is of course supposed to design programmes
according to the needs of educational leaders. This may be due to the fact that
there were programmes offered by the MoE, but designed and implemented by
the private sector (according to participant 32), that were more about general
leadership skills and not sufficiently focused on educational leadership. “The
courses offered by the Ministry of Education come mainly from private companies
contracted by the MoE” (32).
• Unable to respond: Examples of such comments include “I do not know” (1) and “I
did not participate in professional development programmes when I was
appointed to a leading position” (42).
The responsibility of developing their leadership skills should be borne by participants,
not just by the MoE. They had reached this position and had years of experience, which at
least in theory should make them realise how important professional development
programmes are in developing skills and achieving goals. Therefore, it is important that
they seek to develop their skills and leadership abilities.
5.2.3.2.2 Programmes Provided by the Private Sector (PPPS)
Half of the sample indicated that there were programmes offered by the private sector
(PS) to help managers develop their leadership skills; however, more than one third of
participants did not know about these programmes. In contrast, more than one third of
the respondents also agreed that these activities met their needs as educational leaders,
while more than one third did not know if they met them. Furthermore, fewer than half
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of them agreed that PPPS developed their leadership skills effectively, whereas another
one third did not agree (see Table 5.12).
As Table 5.12 indicates, although some managers sought to develop their skills through
the private sector, perhaps because of their dissatisfaction with the PPMoE, some of
them did not know about the existence of such programmes or they did not try to find
out about them. They may have lacked interest in such programmes due to them being
seen as ineffective or perhaps because they did not wish to develop their skills; they
might have been unable to identify their actual training needs. The effectiveness of these
programmes will be discussed in more detail in the presentation of the interview data
(see Chapter 6).
Participants’ views about the private sector’s professional development programmes to
improve the skills of educational leaders are presented below in four sections:
• Positive responses: Phrases such as excellent, very good, and suitable were
repeated to evaluate professional development programmes provided by the
private sector, but at different levels. Some participants saw the PPPS as
successful, strong, distinctive, and comprehensive: “They are presented
comprehensively and distinctly and offer a range of executive workshops” (27),
and “I find that, in my view, they were successful and achieved the goal and have
been developed to serve educational leaders” (34). In other words, the private
sector offered successful and strong professional development programmes that
helped develop leadership skills from the respondents’ point of view.
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Table 5.12
Effectiveness of Professional Development Programmes Provided by MoE and PS

N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
The Ministry of Education provides professional development programmes

Q25 1 2.4 5 11.9 3 7.1 23 54.8 9 21.4 41 97.6 1 2.4
to improve educational leadership skills.
The Ministry of Education’s professional development programmes of
Q26 educational leadership have met my needs as an educational leader (in 1 2.4 10 23.8 3 7.1 23 54.8 4 9.5 41 97.6 1 2.4
service).
The Ministry of Education’s professional development programmes of

Q27 6 14.3 14 33.3 7 16.7 10 23.8 3 7.1 40 95.2 2 4.8
educational leadership do not develop my leadership skills effectively.
The private sector provides professional development programmes to

Q28 1 2.4 5 11.9 14 33.3 16 38.1 5 11.9 41 97.6 1 2.4
improve educational leadership skills.
The private sector’s professional development programmes of educational

Q29 2 4.8 7 16.7 15 35.7 15 35.7 2 4.8 41 97.6 1 2.4
leadership have met my needs as an educational leader (in service).
The private sector’s professional development programmes of educational

Q30 5 11.9 14 33.3 13 31.0 8 19.0 1 2.4 41 97.6 1 2.4
leadership do not develop my leadership skills effectively.
165
• Neutral responses: although some respondents were satisfied with these
programmes, there were some shortcomings. Respondents explained that these
programmes were “very good but not excellent, because [they are] not linked with
work and performance of trainees, however, it is much better than the MoE
programmes” (2); another participant noted the programmes were “good, but
[do] not fit with the government reality or its functions and procedures. Effective
leadership in practical performance must be achieved in government institutions”
(25).
• Negative responses: Respondents indicated that these programmes were
insufficient or did not met their training needs; they also noted that they were not
applicable in the government sector, which means they are intended to serve the
private sector. Examples of these phrases include “very few, and coordination
with the private sector must be done in process of identifying the leader’s needs”
(3), and “it has no practical effect” (38). Two respondents confirmed that these
programmes did not focus on the training needs of leaders. Participant 38
mentioned that they had no practical effect; he could not transfer and apply what
was learned to the education field in order to benefit from these programmes.
• Unable to respond: Participant 32 said, “I have nothing to do with the private
sector. Another said, “I do not know about it” (42). These comments indicate that
these respondents did not attend any professional development programmes in
the private sector and, therefore, may not have known about these programmes
or did not seek to attend them.
166
5.2.3.3 Informal Learning Activities
Table 5.13 shows that the most important informal learning method that was effective in
developing leadership skills from a manager’s perspective was “personal experience”.
This finding is logical because personal experience is a mixture of different skills and
information acquired by individuals during their lives. Thus, experience had a greater and
more influential role in participants’ efforts to learn leadership skills from the
respondents’ perspective.
However, less than one fifth of the sample thought that “discussions with colleagues” and
“reading books and studies” were more important activities. This is consistent with the
results discussed in Section 5.2.3.1 (see Table 5.11), which showed that “self-directed
study”, “membership in a work party”, and “training courses or workshops”, respectively,
were the top three activities respondents considered to be more effective in developing
their leadership skills. “Reading books and studies” is one of the methods of self-directed
study, as the respondents also reported that “membership in a work party” and “training
courses or workshops” are more effective because they provided opportunities for
“discussions with colleagues” on many educational issues.
It was quite remarkable that “the experiences of others” item was only mentioned by a
small minority of managers. Although personal experience is built or formed through
relationships with others and learning from their experiences, only four of the
respondents considered such experiences to be an effective way to develop their
leadership skills. This may be due to the nature of relationships between managers and
others or their ability to learn from others’ experiences.
167
Table 5.13
Most Important Informal Learning Methods that were Effective in Developing Leadership
Skills
Informal Learning Methods N %

Personal experience 12 28.6
Discussions with colleagues 8 19.0
Reading books and studies 8 19.0
The experiences of others 4 9.5
Other 0 0
Missing data 10 23.8
Total 42 100
5.2.4 Importance of Previous and Relevant Experience
Table 5.14 shows how managers perceive themselves based on their previous
experiences that had refined their positions as leaders. Most either agreed or strongly
agreed with statements about managers being able to exercise authority, leading a team
successfully, being a role model, and being able to inspire and influence others.
In addition, most managers agreed that previous experience had helped them succeed as
leaders. This result was later reinforced in statement Q14, which is the opposite of
statement Q1. Thus, respondents were aware of the importance of experiences to
develop their leadership skills (for further details about the role of previous experiences
in the second phase, see Section 5.3.4).
In addition, most of them believed that their relationship with staff had not changed. A
diversity of views emerged among respondents concerning this statement compared to
168
Table 5.14
How Managers Perceive Themselves Based on Previous Experiences

N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
Previous experience has helped me perform my leadership role
Q1 0 0 0 0 2 4.8 6 14.3 32 76.2 40 95.2 2 4.8
successfully.
My current position gives me more authority than I was able to
Q3 0 0 2 4.8 1 2.4 18 42.9 21 50.0 42 100 0 0
exercise in my previous post.
The relationship between myself and the employees of
Q4 administration is different now that I have become a senior 9 21.4 19 45.2 1 2.4 5 11.9 8 19.0 42 100 0 0
manager.
Q8 I see myself capable of leading successfully. 0 0 1 2.4 2 4.8 15 35.7 23 54.8 41 97.6 1 2.4
Q9 I see myself as a role model for team members. 0 0 0 0 6 14.3 14 33.3 21 50.0 41 97.6 1 2.4
Q10 I have the responsibility to lead the team. 0 0 0 0 1 2.4 7 16.7 34 81.0 42 100 0 0
Q13 1 2.4 0 0 2 4.8 11 26.2 27 64.3 41 97.6 1 2.4

I can lead others through inspiration and influence them.
I do not think my previous experience has helped me lead
Q14 24 57.1 16 38.1 1 2.4 1 2.4 0 0 42 100 0 0
successfully.
169
other items in this theme. This diversity may be due to managers’ lack of awareness of
the nature of relationships that must differ between them and their employees because
of their different functions as well as managers’ roles as leaders.
5.2.5 Leadership Development
This section includes the preparation programmes managers attended to prepare for
their role as educational leaders, whether the programmes were provided by the MoE or
the PS and the effectiveness of these programmes (Section 5.2.5.1). It also includes some
proposals to develop educational leaders’ preparation processes from the participants’
perspective (Section 5.2.5.2).
As shown in Table 5.15, most respondents agreed or strongly agreed that pre-
appointment programmes had helped develop their leadership skills. This result was
reinforced in statement Q19, which is the opposite of statement Q20. Perhaps managers
realised the importance of these programmes to prepare them, but did they actually
include specific activities to prepare them for educational leadership? An answer to this
question will be presented in more detail in the interview data in Section 5.3.5.1.
5.2.5.1 Effectiveness of Preparation Programmes for Managers
Regarding PPMoE to prepare educational leaders, Table 5.16 shows that two thirds of the
respondents agreed that there were activities to prepare them for their role as
educational leaders, although more than one quarter did not agree or did not know
whether such programmes existed. Furthermore, almost one third of the sample agreed
(or strongly agreed) that these programmes did not meet their training needs. This may
170
Table 5.15
Respondents’ Views about Training Programmes to Prepare for their Leadership Roles

N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
Attending training programmes has not prepared me as an educational
Q19 13 31.0 20 47.6 4 9.5 3 7.1 0 0 40 95.2 2 4.8
leader.
Preparation programmes prior to appointment as a manager have helped
Q20 3 7.1 4 9.5 4 9.5 20 47.6 10 23.8 41 97.6 1 2.4
develop my leadership skills.
171
indicate that there were some activities offered by the MoE, but managers did not think
they were relevant to the process of preparing them for their role. As a result, some
managers did not know that the programmes existed or did not know or agree that they
met their needs.
To present managers’ views about training programmes provided by the MoE to prepare
educational leaders for their role, the responses are divided into the following four
categories (see Section 5.3):
• Positive responses: Some managers saw these programmes as excellent or very
good, and some believed they were sufficient, comprehensive, and successful.
Example comments included “comprehensive, diverse and adequate” (28) and
“very good especially because it suits our educational role in particular” (32).
Participants also mentioned that these programmes had led to the development
of functional tasks, such as “add work-related skills to the trainee and changes his
behaviour and attitudes positively” (37) and “courses were provided to meet my
needs in the administrative field, through which I was provided with some skills
and information that helped me to perform my functions” (38).
• Neutral responses: Some participants mentioned some weaknesses in the content
of topics, timeliness, or number of programmes provided: “The training
programmes offered by the MoE are good and not excellent, but there are also
very few and public programmes that are linked to field work within educational
institutions” (2), and “good but needs be to intensified and diversified to develop
more skills” (41). Such statements indicate that some of the respondents
considered the programmes to be useful but too general and not related to the
educational field. There was also a demand for specialised courses that would help
172
them prepare for each supervisory function, with an emphasis on courses that
develop the leadership skills needed to exercise their functions. Some of the
participants mentioned that these programmes were good and helped in
preparing them as leaders, but they also needed to be intensified and diversified
to be more effective and develop the skills they need. Some respondents
considered there to be a good selection of quality programmes, but the time
allocated to them was not appropriate or convenient. Therefore, all of the neutral
responses demonstrated that there are weaknesses in many aspects of the
educational leadership development programmes provided by the MoE.
• Negative responses: Participants mentioned negative phrases for various reasons,
such as the programmes did not achieve their goal or there were no efficient
trainers and, therefore, these programmes needed further development.
Examples of these responses included “there were not many courses, and these
need qualified and academic trainers” (9) and “sometimes the five-day session
was not enough, and selection of trainers was unsatisfactory” (34). The
respondents mentioned many weaknesses or negatives in the preparation
programmes which, if taken into consideration, would have had a significant
impact on the development of these managers’ leadership skills. They attended
these programmes, but were disappointed with the level, especially as these are
expected to be at a high level of preparation and professionalism to achieve the
goal of the development of educational leaders.
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Table 5.16
Preparation Programmes Provided by the MoE and PS

N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
The Ministry of Education offers training programmes to prepare me as an
Q15 0 0 8 19.0 3 7.1 25 59.5 6 14.3 42 100 0 0
educational leader.
The Ministry of Education’s educational leadership preparation
Q16 4 9.5 22 52.4 2 4.8 9 21.4 4 9.5 41 97.6 1 2.4
programmes have not met my needs as an educational leader.
The private sector offers training programmes to prepare me as an
Q17 1 2.4 5 11.9 10 23.8 20 47.6 5 11.9 41 97.6 1 2.4
educational leader.
The private sector’s educational leadership preparation programmes have
Q18 2 4.8 14 33.3 15 35.7 9 21.4 1 2.4 41 97.6 1 2.4
not met my needs as an educational leader.
174
• Unable to respond: A few managers did not know how to respond; this could have
been because they were not convinced about the importance of the courses, did
not attend because of other commitments, or lacked interest in the programmes.
According to participant 42, “I do not know if there are training programmes for
the preparation of educational leaders”; participant 30 asserted “there are no
training programmes for educational or administrative leaders at a level that
improves the leaders’ performance or the development of his leadership skills”.
Such statements indicate that managers felt no obligation to the MoE to attend
these programmes, even though it is one of the conditions for promotion for their
supervisory post.
More than half the sample agreed or strongly agreed that private sector programmes
helped them prepare as leaders; however, it is interesting to note that almost a quarter
of the sample answered “undecided” (see Table 5.16). This answer should be carefully
considered because it means that almost a quarter of the sample did not know that the
private sector provided programmes to prepare educational leaders or, perhaps, knew
but did not attend. Therefore, they could not decide if there were educational leadership
preparation programmes or not.
Table 5.16 also shows that more than a third of the respondents agreed that these
activities met their needs to prepare for their role, although more than a third could not
determine whether the preparation programmes in the private sector had met their
needs or not. This confirms the result of statement Q17, as previously mentioned: a
quarter of the sample did not know about the private sector’s preparation programmes.
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Participants’ responses were again divided into four categories (see Section 5.3):
• Positive responses: Some participants described the private sector programmes as
excellent or very good. In addition, some considered them better than the
programmes offered by the MoE. Sample comments included “good and helpful”
(8), “slightly better than programmes prepared by the ministry or equivalent” (28),
and “successful programmes which help to prepare the educational leader” (17).
Such responses indicate that some respondents were comparing the level of
programmes offered by the MoE and private sector; in many cases, they
considered private sector programmes superior to MoE programmes. This may be
because trainees sometimes pay the course fee themselves (sometimes the MoE
paid) so they seek to attend the best programmes to develop their skills. It is
logical to assume that no payment will be made unless they get value for money.
On the other hand, the private sector, whose goal is to profit financially, may have
been trying harder to provide the best programmes to attract the largest number
of trainees to achieve this profit.
• Neutral responses: Some participants considered the programmes good while
commenting on some of their shortcomings: “Private sector programmes develop
capacity but serve the private sector primarily” (22), and “good but need a longer
time so that the quantum of content does not keep pace with time” (29).
• Interestingly, one participant rated the programmes very good, but not excellent;
perhaps this is because these were general programmes and had little relevance
to education. This may indicate that private sector courses were being prepared to
serve the largest segment of staff or managers of all specialties in the state’s
ministries because their objective was material profit. If so, some or perhaps all
176
programmes and courses attended by managers of the MoE to develop their
leadership or administrative skills were non-specialised courses in the field of
education. In this case, MoE officials were responsible for preparing specialised
training programmes to develop managers’ educational leadership skills through
the private sector. As some private sector courses offered to MoE staff were being
paid by the ministry, the majority of managers sought to attend these courses,
despite not knowing if they were related to the educational field or not. One
participant rated the programmes as good but also that he needed more time to
absorb and understand the large amount of information provided during these
courses (according to his point of view). This may be a positive aspect to these
programmes, because the participant believed that the information was valuable
and required more time to process.
• Negative responses: Some participants expressed their dissatisfaction with the
programmes provided by the private sector because their objectives were to earn
money and, as a result, the training did not meet the participants’ needs. The
following comments illustrate this result. According to participant 11, “it looks for
more money more than the real preparation for leadership, but they are better
than the ministry”. Participant 38 argued that “it’s just a business, after I attended
some of them, as they do not measure the personal and administrative aspect of
the supervisory function”. Although participant 11 mentioned that the main
objective of these programmes was money, he considers them better than the
programmes offered by the MoE, which he assessed as “not useful”. Thus, his
comments are considered negative because he basically compared the PPPS to
what was not useful, stating that its objective was money (this was also true of
participant 38). In addition, participant 30 considered that the private sector

177
programmes she attended to be training programmes for development in general,
which means that they were not specialised in the preparation of educational
leaders.
• Unable to respond: Some participants did not attend these programmes, perhaps
because they were not convinced about the importance of the courses. This
indicates a significant problem in the extent to which these managers recognise
the importance of these programmes to develop their leadership skills and
prepare themselves for their role as educational leaders.
5.2.5.2 Suggested Improvements to the Effectiveness of the Preparation of
Leaders
Table 5.17 shows that half of the respondents suggested that providing “courses and
participating in workshops” for candidates of managers before their appointment might
help improve the leadership development programmes. Most of the sample stated that
attendance at sessions and workshops had a significant impact on improving and
developing educational leaders. However, nearly one fifth of the sample (or less)
answered that “participation in decision-making—direct contact with experienced leaders
and the delegation of some powers”, followed by “holding conferences and encouraging
dialogue, discussion, and meetings” may have had a greater role in preparing for
leadership. The first three proposals focused on courses, workshops and meetings, and
the benefit of experienced people. The final two suggestions are to “identify the leader’s
needs” and “setting standards to select an appropriate person”; managers did not
consider these to be as important in their development, despite the importance of these
two factors in the success of the preparation process, especially in identifying the needs
of training leaders. As indicated in the data in Section 5.2.5.1, most participants pointed
178
out that the programmes provided did not meet their needs, which confirms the
importance of this.
Table 5.17
Managers’ Suggestions to Develop Educational Leaders’ Preparation
Activities N %
Attend courses—participate in workshops 21 50
Participation in decision-making—direct contact with
8 19.0
experienced leaders and the delegation of some powers
Holding conferences and encouraging dialogue, discussion,
6 14.3
and meetings
Compelling current leaders to prepare and qualify a second
2 4.8
row of leaders according to clear methodology
Provide curricular materials to prepare leaders 2 4.8
Knowledge acquisition—using technology 2 4.8
Identify the leaders’ needs 1 2.4
Setting standards to select an appropriate person to be leader
1 2.4
and then preparing him/her
Missing data 9 21.4
Total 42 100
All proposals presented in Table 5.17 are claims from respondents to prepare and
develop leadership skills by identifying the needs of leaders; providing courses,
workshops, and meetings; and learning from those with more experience. These results
emphasise the importance to managers of providing further specialised courses and
exchange experiences. However, “setting standards to select an appropriate person to be
leader and then preparing him/her” was based on participant 27’s comment that “prior to
preparation, criteria must be set for selecting a qualified person for leadership—and then
179
he/she should be subject to the practical leadership preparation programmes”. Thus,
before preparing the employee for a leadership position, he/she must meet specific
criteria designed in advance so that candidates for leadership are chosen accordingly. This
person should then complete practical leadership development programmes; training
must be through practice in the field, not only theoretical and non-educational courses
(further detail in phase two, see Section 5.3.5.4).
According to participant 21, “provide curricular materials to prepare leaders” meant:
Providing leadership development curricula; holding leading conferences and
encouraging dialogue and discussion during them; adopting special training
programmes for leaders and leadership learning; to oblige current leadership to
prepare qualified alternatives through training according to clear methodology.
This participant calls for the provision of curricula for leadership preparation and the
adoption of special programmes to train leaders and teach leadership, rather than relying
exclusively on courses that may not be associated with the education field (according to
respondents’ views in Section 5.2.3.2). Participant 21 also called for the preparation of a
second level of leaders who were qualified by the current leadership through training that
is based on clear methodology (for further details, see Section 5.3.5.4).
5.3 Results from Phase Two: Interview Findings
This section details the results of the interview analysis conducted with eight
respondents. After the interviews, the data were transcribed and translated from Arabic
into English. To ensure the accuracy of the translations, they were reviewed by a person
who had mastered both languages. The interview texts in English were then introduced
into the NVivo 11 program to encode data and facilitate analysis. After a number of
180
refinements to the encoding process, some of the responses were merged or separated
into specific categories and then grouped into four main themes: managers’ self-
perceptions; engagement in different forms of professional development; importance of
previous employment experience; and leadership development. These topics are
discussed next, after the presentation of demographic data for interviewees.
5.3.1 Demographic Data of the Interview Sample
Table 5.18 shows the demographic data of the interview sample. It is interesting that four
of them had not gained any qualifications as a teacher, and three of these four did not
have experience teaching in schools. Two others had only 1 to 4 years of experience as
teachers. Two of the respondents did not have experience in administrative work, while
all the participants had experience in supervisory positions starting from the
department’s presidency, ranging from 10 to more than 15 years. In addition, seven of
them had experience in their current position as managers from 1 to 4 years, and one of
them had more than 15 years.
Also striking is the fact that five out of eight had not attended any preparation
programmes for their current position, although they had participated in a number of
courses over the last 5 years to develop their skills as managers (two of them attended
only one course). Some differences in interviewees’ responses were attributed to the
variants in demographic data, which will be elaborated upon at the end of each of the
following theme sections, as necessary.
As this study is based on managers’ experience and skills, it is necessary to discuss their
demographic data in more detail in order to have a clear picture of their professional
backgrounds as their responses were largely based on their backgrounds and experiences.
181
Table 5.18
Demographic Data of Interview Samples
Interviewee Details Heba Sa’ad Noha Fahad Hamad Bader Ali Mona
Gender F M F M M M M F
Education District or Ministry of Education ED ED MoE ED MoE MoE MoE ED
Permanent or acting manager PM AM PM PM PM PM AM PM
Qualification as a teacher No Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes
Qualification degree Dip B B B B PhD M.A B
Years of experience as a teacher None 10–14 5–9 None None 1–4 1–4 10–14
More More More
Years of experience as an administrator None 5–9 10–14 10–14 None
than 15 than 15 than 15
More More More
Years of experience in supervisor position 10–14 10–14 10–14 10–14 10–14
More
Years of experience in current position 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4
than 15
Number of pre-appointment training courses as a manager None 5 None None 6 None 3 None
Number of professional development courses in service over last 5 years 6 1 4 3 7 1 2 7
182
5.3.1.1 Managers’ Professional Backgrounds
Figure 5.1 illustrates participants’ perceptions of themselves according to their teaching
experience or other functions. Six managers believed they were leaders. There was a
significant difference from their professional backgrounds, as some had extensive
teaching experience, some had experience in teaching as well as administrative work, and
some had experience only in administrative work. In addition, two cases believed they
were managers who implemented instructions according to regulations; one had
extensive experience in administrative work only while the other had experience in
teaching and administration.
However, if managers’ experience as teachers helped them to become leaders, what
about those who had this experience but thought they were managers? What about
those who saw themselves as leaders even though they were not teachers? Bader had
less than four years of experience as teacher, so perhaps this was a short period that did
not allow him to gain leadership skills from experience in schools. However, Ali also had
little experience in education but saw himself as a leader. This was due to his obtaining a
master’s degree in educational administration (through which courses are offered on
leadership) and his attendance of some leadership preparation programmes.
Hamad was not a teacher, but he was dealing with students and teachers (Figure 5.1). He
also sought to prepare himself for leadership by attending some leadership preparation
activities (according to his response), which helped him acquire leadership skills (see also
Sa’ad and Ali in Figure 5.2). Fahad’s experience was considered unique and completely
different from other cases; whereas the other seven cases all had experience in the field
of education, whether as a teacher or in administration, Fahad had professional
experience in another ministry before moving to the MoE. He considered this

183
Leadership
Has experience in
schools
Has a master’s degree in
Dealt with
educational administration
military leaders
Mona Hamad
Ali Ali
Sa’ad
Fahad
Noha Noha
Teaching Administrative
experience 10 - 14 5-9 1-4 1-4 5-9 and other
15 10 - 14 15
years experience
years
Bader Bade
Heba
Management
Figure 5.1. Interviewees’ distribution according to their perception of themselves as leaders or managers based on professional experience
184
Leadership
Has experience in teaching Has experience in teaching
Hamad Hama
Ali Ali d
Sa’ad Sa’ad Mona
Fahad
Noha
Professional
Leadership Development
Preparation Programmes
Programmes 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (General)
Bader
Dealt with military leaders
Heba
Management
Figure 5.2. Interviewees’ distribution according to their perception of themselves as leaders or managers based on attendance of
professional development programmes
185
experience to have had the greatest impact on his experience; in other words, the context
in which he worked (dealing with military leaders) helped him gain some leadership skills,
so he saw himself as a leader. Kempster (2006) argued that there is a recognition of the
importance of the learning processes through involvement in various activities with
different leaders.
Figures 5.1 and 5.2 indicate that the eight managers may be similar in some factors, such
as experience or attendance at professional development programmes, but there are also
significant differences in other aspects, such as context, specialisation, qualifications,
years of teaching, and experience types. Therefore, the training provided should be
relevant and reflect the experiences of others who have succeeded in this post (Fiedler,
1978). However, did the providers of professional development programmes for
educational leaders take these differences into account when designing development
activities? Are these effective in the development of leadership skills for managers?
5.3.2.1 Understanding of the Term’s Management and Leadership
In the participants’ definition of the concept of management, they all agreed that the
manager only organises the work and implements the regulations. That was confirmed by
Fahad when he argued that the managers only follow the rules issued by the CSC or the
MoE:
But the manager doesn’t take responsibility; he applies the regulations and rules
of CSC and adheres to them and does not take responsibility for any decision.
His comments were consistent with Noha’s statement that the manager was the person
who managed the work and observed the staff, for example, to determine who was
186
absent or present. In addition, Bader argued that the manager tried to implement existing
regulations and apply them, and he/ she was committed to them and encouraged
employees to abide by them.
However, most managers had a limited understanding of the concept of leadership, and
some could not distinguish between the functions of a manager and a leader. This was
also evidenced when reviewing the skills needed for a leader from the point of view of
the participants. Heba asserted that managerial tasks can take priority over leadership
functions, although she stated that the leader’s role is more comprehensive because
he/she has broader capabilities. She argued that exercising leadership was about
leadership and meant that the person should offer ideas to staff but not work with them
on these, because he/she does not have time to do so. Sa’ad commented that leaders
should not be in conflict or be party to a dispute with anyone so that everyone can come
to him/her for advice. A leader should also be a motivator, encouraging others and having
the ability to discover talents.
Hamad said that a leader should have good rapport with others and be able to identify
strengths and weaknesses in management. He also stressed that the qualities of a leader
may be possessed by someone not necessarily linked to the role:
The characteristics of a leader are not, in any way, linked to the nature of the
position he/she occupies. The leader has the ability to motivate the whole group
by his/her own style and influence... To be a leader, you must have the ability to
communicate successfully with staff, and you need to have a strong sense of
strengths and weaknesses in management.
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In addition, most managers asserted that leadership involves being a visionary, affecting
others, facing challenges, and taking responsibility for the policy he or she formulates,
whether successful or unsuccessful. This was illustrated in the following comment:
Actually, a leader means that a person should attain a goal and have a vision... A
leader is knowledgeable and he/she is the one who takes decisions, is responsible
for them and takes risks... The leader is fully responsible for any taken policy,
either successful or failing. (Fahad)
Notably, there appeared to be no difference in the ability of participants to distinguish
between the term leader and manager according to gender, workplace, or as a
permanent or acting manager. However, managers who could not distinguish between
these terms (Heba, Fahad, Bader) had no experience in education or, in the case of Bader,
just one year’s experience (see Table 5.18).
Although Hamad also had no experience as a teacher and Ali only two years, they were
able to distinguish between the two terms, perhaps because of Hamad’s permanent
presence in the school to fulfil his functions from the beginning of his appointment until
he became a manager in one of the MoE departments. In other words, he had experience
with what was going on inside a school. In addition, he attended 13 courses to prepare
him or help develop his leadership skills (as mentioned earlier). Ali also received a
master’s degree in educational administration, which may have helped him define a clear
concept for both terms.
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5.3.2.2 Skills Required to Exercise Leadership
Most managers were able to mention some of the skills they thought they had as well as
the ones that helped them to perform their role as leaders.
Heba argued that the qualities of a successful leader should be demonstrated when
carrying out tasks—namely, that a leader should understand the administration tasks
he/she leads. This is an inaccurate interpretation, because Heba did not understand
leadership and so did not understand very much about leadership skills. Ali argued that
the leader should have many characteristics:
The leader is the head of the group and must have qualities such as power and
vision and the ability to implement strategic plans and bear responsibilities and to
have the expertise and abilities to analyse and motivate...
Fahad confirmed that the moral aspect is very important to the leader so that he/she can
present a vision and convince others. However, Mona noted that the most important skill
is to be able to form teams that can work well together. Moreover, she thought that a
leader should believe in his/her work because, by applying it, he/she can cultivate this
attribute in those staff members with whom he/she deals and who, in turn, will serve as a
good example for others.
Bader also asserted that he had some leadership skills but lacked others. For example, he
commented that a leader should affect others positively; however, he also argued that
staff who follow instructions issued by him perhaps do so out of fear of the authority he
has as a manager and not because they see him as a leader who is helping them.
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All managers except Heba were able to identify some of the required leadership skills
they thought they possessed, which means there were few differences between their
responses.
5.3.2.3 Working with Others
Noha and Heba agreed that working with others through participation in committees,
teams, and workshops with experienced people was an effective way to develop their
abilities as leaders. Heba commented that a person, no matter how good his/her ideas
were, could not work alone without a team. She also added that working with others
helped them face problems.
Fahad mentioned his experience working with others and how he was influenced by
those with whom he worked. Although this experience was not in the field of education,
he believed a leader’s skills were the same and required in all areas and disciplines.
Therefore, he thought that his dealings with leaders, regardless of their field or lack of
specialisation in the field of education, affected and played a role in his success as a
leader when he became the head of a department and then manager in an education
district. According to Fahad:
I’ve been interacting with leaders of (...), and I have learned regularity, order, and
connectivity from them, and I have learned how to make decisions. I used to
interact with them in harsh conditions in external training camps during the
conflict between Kuwait and Iraq, where there were semi-quick decisions from
leaders. And I have participated in technical work according to my specialisation.
All this qualified me to be a successful head of department.
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In Hamad’s view, working with others who had experience and in the same specialty
affected his experience, largely because he volunteered to work with civil society
organisations in the same specialisation (e.g., Martyrs’ Office and Captives’ Office,
established after the Iraqi invasion to deal with families and children of martyrs and
captives) to increase his expertise. He also asserted that his work with United Nations
task forces after the liberation of Kuwait from the Iraqi invasion (1990) impacted the
development of his leadership skills and his role as manager.
Ali commented that he had developed his leadership skills by working with international
experts from the World Bank and by participating on teams and committees in the
education districts. He emphasised that these jobs and his participation developed his
skills and gained him new experiences. He added:
For example, when I sit with more experienced people than me at the level of
consultants and when we interact with them, we find that they run the work
differently, so I can tell you yes, I benefited.
However, Mona reported that she was looking for people who were already leaders to
work with because she believed they had experiences that would develop her leadership
skills. She also added that she had learned to work with colleagues who were at a lower
functional level and that they benefited from each other because each had different skills.
Overall, all the participants agreed that working with others was an effective informal
way to develop their leadership skills. Although some respondents commented that
working with people with experience and specialisation was more effective, some of
them considered that working with others at different levels of employment and various
disciplines had an impact on the managers’ or leaders’ acquisition of the necessary skills.
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5.3.2.4 Challenges Hindering Managers from Fulfilling their Role as Leaders
The participants stated that regulations and rules limited their ability to act freely. For
example, they claimed that they had to spend their time fulfilling administrative work
and, therefore, could not exercise their role as leaders because of their preoccupation
with these tasks. Furthermore, they felt that they did not have the freedom to do what
they saw as appropriate. For example, Sa’ad argued that:
Our main problem is that we are restricted. Sometimes I tell my manager and
supervisor colleagues that what we do daily during work time is wrong because
our work should not be only with files and papers, but we should motivate, plan,
and put [into action] a vision and message, but we do not have time for that ... but
also do not expect that we have the freedom to do whatever we feel appropriate.
Noha confirmed such comments when she argued that it was necessary to obtain
approval from some officials to complete certain tasks; she argued they did not have
broad enough powers to manage everything in their administration. In addition, she
noted that there was no support from more senior officials because of the lack of
specialisation such officials may have in the same area of the functions of this
department, which subsequently affected the overall performance of the administration.
Noha commented:
Yes. I’ll give you an example: I am the national coordinator for education in
Kuwait, and my responsibility as assigned by UNESCO is to form a national team; I
cannot do that without the approval of assistant undersecretary of our sector...
We encountered problems in this administration because of appointing people
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who are not specialised (...), these people impaired the performance level of the
administration.
In other words, she was tasked with acting as a contact officer between UNESCO and the
MoE in Kuwait to facilitate procedures and processes between the two parties. However,
she did not have authority to carry out her role without permission from the top official.
5.3.2.5 Managers’ Perceptions of Themselves as Leaders
The managers’ perceptions of themselves as leaders differed according to their
understanding of the concepts of management and leadership as well as according to the
skills of a leader that they believed they possessed, despite the obstacles or challenges
that they may have faced. Heba saw herself as sometimes a manager and sometimes a
leader, according to the way she needs to deal with employees or working conditions. She
becomes a manager when she has to work with or alongside them, but becomes a leader
if she had an idea and would like to implement it, leave the execution to her staff, and
then wait for the results. However, she noted that the manager role was dominant over
the leader role. She commented:
I am a manager; because not all staff are experienced, I had to work with them so
that work doesn’t stop. I would like to become a team leader, but it takes time
and needs experience. So, I have to act mostly as a manager because when the
staff make mistakes, I have to work with them.
Three participants did not prefer to describe themselves as leaders, although each of
them had their own reasons. Sa’ad argued that he had the qualities of the leader, but he
could not say of himself that he was a leader because of the reality of his situation.
Meanwhile, Bader felt that he could not evaluate himself because there should be a third
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party to assess him. He saw himself as a manager who applied rules and regulations. In
addition, and because he considered himself new in this position, he argued that, if he
had been in this position for three or four years, he might become a leader. Although he
felt that he had leadership skills, he also believed that he needed help to develop and
refine them with further training:
I think that I have these skills and capabilities, but what about others? Do they feel
that I have these or not? This is the important point…Our performance should be
measured by others... I feel that I have these skills but they should be trained and
developed; also I need to be assisted in this regard.
Ali confirmed that he could not say that he was a leader, but at the same time felt he had
a supervisory side and the ability to influence others, including superiors, to make a
difference when putting forward ideas.
The remaining participants saw themselves as leaders and emphasised this. According to
Fahad, this was because he achieved goals that could be measured through the
satisfaction of his colleagues or staff and because he faced challenges and responsibilities.
Noha also saw herself as a leader, and it was the position that gave her the ability to
make decisions and take responsibility. Hamad emphasised that, because he planned to
become a leader, he knew the difference between being a manager or being a leader and
tried to make employees work with him as a leader rather than as a manager. He felt that
he was a leader when he became a supervisor because he was making plans for the
implementation for those under his supervision:
When I occupied this position, I intended to be a leader, not a manager, because I
realise well the difference between the characteristics of the leader and the
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manager... I worked to be a leader... Yes, I’m I 100% sure that I am a leader
because I would not be able to influence others if I am not convinced of that...
When I was a technical inspector, I was an implementer, not a planner...
He stressed that he is a leader because he had created new projects to care for students.
These were implemented with the help of his staff and achieved good results. He
emphasized that this has had a positive impact on the development of work because of
his ability to share innovative ideas and a vision he believed in.
Mona saw herself as a leader and refused to be a manager because she thought that the
person in her position should have leadership qualities. Mona noted that:
Of course, I cannot see myself as a manager because I have reached this position;
honestly, I reject this idea completely. I hope to be a real leader, because in my
position, I should have a leader’s characteristics, not a manager’s ones... I am here
as a leader, because there is a big difference between a leader and a manager… In
other words, I have a defined goal, message, and vision.
Although some differences in participants’ perceptions of themselves as managers or
leaders emerged, it was not due to any demographic factors (Table 5.17), but perhaps
because of their differing understanding of these two terms.
5.3.3 Engagement in Different Forms of Professional Development
This section gives more details about professional development programmes, whether
provided by the MoE or PS, and the impact of these courses on participants. It also
includes informal development programmes that have helped managers develop their
leadership skills. In order to achieve accuracy and impartiality, the views of the
participants in the training courses and their attendance of these programmes will be
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presented in general, because most managers referred to the courses without specifying
who the provider was or indeed the purpose of their attendance—that is, was it for
preparation or professional development (although the researcher did try to draw their
attention to that).
Many participants emphasised their attendance at several courses that helped them
refine and develop their skills to act as managers, supervisors, and/or department heads.
However, their focus was notably not on leadership development courses, but on the
administrative or technical aspect of the job they occupy. According to Heba:
I have attended training courses... I was trying to choose what suits my field of
work, and I did not choose any course even if it was external... because that is a
waste of time... I mean a course not related to my field or my tasks. I only
attended courses that I can benefit from to serve my administration.
Bader mentioned that he attended courses before he became a manager, such as courses
dealing with planning skills, dealing with individuals, and building and using conceptual
maps. These were often used as educational strategies in the administrative field in which
he was using in his current tasks and which he felt benefited him greatly. He also
attended sessions that he believed would prepare him for functions such as report writing
and management meeting sessions.
Ali tried to explain how courses were announced and provided by the MoE, whether for
preparation or professional development—namely, whether they are courses offered to a
specific class or a certain level of employment and whether they could be rejected or
accepted. He noted that:
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But what actually happens is that there are annual training programmes offered
by the Department of Development and Improvement, and they are sent to all
departments in the MoE, either central departments or even to school
administrations. They specify that this course is for supervisory positions, which
means the heads of department, supervisors, and managers... Of course, the
courses are offered to the target group. These courses are optional… not
compulsory …
Ali commented that anyone who has an ambition to advance to senior positions must
prepare themselves and choose the courses that suit them. This was also confirmed by
Fahad, who stated that the state offers them training programmes and that they have the
freedom to choose their attendance or rejection. In turn, he attended some courses only
for his professional and administrative development. He asserted that:
Yes, because it is being not obligatory, but the government shows us the way, so if
we wanted to be successful leaders it showed us the way … We have the freedom
to choose the way we desire... As for me, by attending these four courses I
learned some techniques which helped me in my work as a technician or in
administration and I benefited from them. (Fahad)
It is noticeable here that the participant has focused on courses aimed at developing
managerial and technical skills rather than leadership. Perhaps that is because of the
ministry's lack of interest in developing the leadership side of these managers (more
detail is given on this in chapter 6).
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According to Ali, the courses offered through the MoE are also provided by the private
sector. They were not directed at educational leaders and were rather removed from
what is happening in the education field.
5.3.3.1 Professional Development In-Service Activities
There were no professional development programmes specifically targeting leadership
development according to most respondents. However, they attended sessions or
courses to develop their general job skills. Some of them were recommended by the MoE
while others were attended through personal effort because individuals were seeking to
develop their career skills. In addition, some participants attended only one or two
professional development activities because they considered the tasks assigned to them
to be the development of their leadership skills:
No, because since I have held this position, I have been directly assigned as a
manager of the Curriculum Development Project, so I have communicated with
experts and this was professional development for me. (Ali)
The next two subsections discuss the usefulness and relevance of professional
development activities organised by the MoE and the PS.
Sa’ad stated that, in general, there were no professional development programmes and,
because of this, no vision for the MoE to develop its staff. When the researcher tried to
draw his attention to the idea that the target was the professional development of
educational leaders, he stressed once again that they were not applicable in this relevant
field, which may be that he means there were no professional development courses or
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that there were sessions, but they did not meet his needs. Therefore, he pointed out that
it was only theoretical.
He also wondered why officials did not go out in the field and use this as a starting point
to create activities for all levels, from a teacher to a general manager position, to meet
the needs of each functional category according to the field needs. He indicated that the
courses with which he had experience were not related to his field, and the MoE needed
to more stringently codify and identify target groups in order to meet their needs.
However, Hamad had another opinion. He mentioned that the MoE had a list of various
courses offered annually, but he claimed that these courses did not meet their needs, so
he declined to attend them because he believed were not useful.
Heba attended only one conference on decision making in 2015 to develop the skills for
her function, and whilst beneficial, she also believed it came too late. She would have
preferred to attend this conference in the early stages of her new role because it would
have taught her how to make decisions in her work as well as life in general. Although her
attendance at this conference was supported by the MoE, it was organised by the
Engineers Society, who are duty bound to invite only two participants from each ministry
of the state; as such, the content is not directed at education, but to leaders in general.
Noha indicated that she attended a course to develop her leadership skills in Malaysia.
She was supported by the MoE, but the organiser was in the private sector. Again, only
two members from each ministry of the state were able to attend, so the course was not
specifically directed to educational leaders. However, she did claim that attendance was
beneficial because it included visits, workshops, and lectures. Furthermore, Bader had
attended only one professional development course in his current position, to which he
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had been appointed six months earlier; the MoE only provides people in the position with
one course each year to develop their skills. Bader described the course he attended:
It was through the Civil Service Bureau, where they choose from various
ministries. It did not address the education field, but it was focused on the
strategic planning of the leader in general. We were informed about the
experiences in Malaysia.
This means that the courses he attended had nothing to do with education because they
were organized by someone else, although it was, in fact the MoE who nominated staff to
attend these. They may be useful in general terms, but the content was not presented in
an education context and indeed the courses were often held outside Kuwait, i.e. in an
environment different from that of Kuwaiti society.
Mona attended a course to develop her skills as a trainer for her role as an educational
affairs manager. However, the course was not aimed at developing skills for educational
leadership. She considered it as professional development because she learned and
benefited from the different experiences. However, she also reported that she had not
received any nomination from the MoE to attend a session to develop her leadership
skills since her appointment as a manager. She argued that:
I have been in this position for only a year, so I cannot claim if the Ministry
conducts such courses for managers or not. Also, since I have been in this position,
I spend my energy and time on my work as I have to accomplish many tasks…
That’s why they do not nominate me to attend any course.
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Most respondents had participated in PPPS through personal efforts to develop their
skills. However, most of these activities were not focused or directed specifically to
developing their leadership skills, but rather supported professional development in their
various supervisory positions and different stages of employment.
Noha stated that she had attended professional development programmes for a long
time before becoming manager; these programmes were not for the development of
leadership skills, but self-development. Hamad sought to develop his leadership skills
after serving as a technical inspector by volunteering in many civil society institutions in
Kuwait and working with committees of the United Nations after the liberation of Kuwait
in 1990. He commented that:
I have participated in seven conferences; I have always been a member of the
drafting committee, which is responsible for drafting the recommendations. In the
last two years, I became the head of the drafting committee for all the
conferences I participate in... It helped me a lot in my professional development
because they involved scientific papers, committees, and work teams.
He stressed that his participation in working with the various committees and in
conferences with different bodies, not only with the MoE, had refined his professional
and leadership skills.
Mona also attended several courses in the private sector, both inside and outside Kuwait,
when she was a head of department and supervisor.
Differences in participants’ responses about professional development programmes were
evident in terms of gender. Female managers attended the PPMoE but did not attend the
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PPPS, except Mona, who was seeking to develop her skills. This may be due to the fact
that most PPPS are held in the evenings—a time Kuwaiti women allocate to their families
(for further details, see Chapter 6). In contrast, male managers reported that they did not
attend any courses offered by the MoE except Bader, who attended only one session.
Males also sought to attend private sector activities, except Bader, possibly because of his
preoccupation with obtaining a doctorate degree.
5.3.3.2 Impact of Professional Development Activities
Participants mentioned that they found little benefit to the training courses in terms of
developing leadership skills. Although they had already stated that there were no
programmes to prepare them for their role as leaders, there were some PPMoE, but most
claimed these had no impact on the development of their leadership skills. Some
participants were seeking to develop their own career or personality skills in general, and
sometimes their leadership skills, through personal efforts and by attending PPPS, which
were not directed to educational leaders. In addition, some sessions were provided by
the Civil Service Bureau to develop the skills of all state employees in general.
Sa’ad stated that, although there were no activities provided by the Ministry to prepare
them as leaders, he believed that they were important in terms of developing skills.
Therefore, he sought to attend several of these in the private sector, or external sessions,
such as attending two in Japan, which he considered had a positive impact on the
development of his skills. He also pointed out that his attendance at these sessions was
not intended to develop his leadership skills, but because of his social circumstances at
that time; still, in his current role he benefited from his attendance. He also attended
another session that affected his practice and had been applied in his administration or
with school administrations under his supervision. As Sa’ad explained:

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Yes, I needed this course. I learned how to manage a project, how to formulate
ideas, how to create opportunities, and how to formulate my programmes as a
leader. I learned how to put together educational and developmental projects for
me and the staff in my department, and now I use this approach in all the schools I
supervise.
Again, Sa’ad’s focus was only on the development of management skills. This may be
because he was unaware of the differences between leadership and management skills,
or he did not believe in the importance of his leadership role (more details in chapter 5).
According to Fahad, many factors influenced the benefit of the programme, but the
courses themselves were necessary for those who wished to develop their skills. He noted
that there was session in which he could interact with from the beginning and that he
noticed positive results during that session because he tried to connect what was
presented with the events and problems he experienced through his work.
However, Fahad also stressed that there are those who say that the activities were not
useful, and that this may be partly true (in his opinion), because the benefit of these
depended on the attendee him-/herself and the content of the session. To illustrate, he
claimed to have learned what is useful for administrative or technical work, but the
courses did not develop or influence his leadership skills. Perhaps this was because most
of the activities he attended were not intended to prepare or develop educational leaders
(as most participants mentioned). Fahad asserted that:
There are courses which encourage you to be a successful leader; you interact
with some courses from the beginning and you see the results during the course,
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because you might start linking what the instructor says with events that
happened to you …
Moreover, he felt he acquired some specific job-related skills from this training, adding:
As for me, by attending these four courses I learned some programmes which
helped me in my work as an administrator or technician and I benefited from
them ... But sometimes we forget what we learned … (Fahad)
Hamad agreed with Fahad that the PPMoE had no effect on the development of his
leadership skills, but that the programmes he had attended through personal efforts in
the private sector or civil society organisations did have a positive impact and helped
refine his skills. He also sought to apply what he had learned from these in his work as
well as transfer the new knowledge and skills to those who work with him by providing
lectures or seminars to develop the skills of staff under his supervision.
Heba reported that she attended only one course and that she was positively affected as
it gave her an incentive to make decisions on any problem she faced. However, she added
that the benefit of all activities is to get out of the work routine in order to share with
others and learn about their experiences. She commented:
Yes... Sometimes you get overwhelmed at work and you feel that it is a routine.
But when I attend a course, having discussions and training, I generate new
ideas... It will affect me only if I want to, and if I don’t, I will leave the course
without any benefits.
In other words, it depends on the participant if he/she wishes to benefit from the
programmes attended by selecting the those appropriate for him/her and applying what
he/she learns in the field of work.

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Some respondents mentioned that they did not attend courses to prepare as a leader, but
instead attended professional development activities when they were a head of the
department and/or supervisor. They considered these as the first steps in establishing
themselves in the leadership role, which positively influenced their current role. For
example, Bader reported that:
After the completion of the session, I conducted a meeting with the staff who are
under my supervision, and I took the role of the lecturer and reported back on the
session... Definitely I was concentrating more on the staff members who I feel
have the capability to be heads of departments in the future; the aim of this is to
prepare the next generation of leaders... Yes, I apply what I have learned and
make use of it in my work; also, I encourage supervisors and heads of
departments under my supervision to apply the ideas I convey to them...
Although as Bader pointed out in his previous comment, what he learned is passed on to
his supervisory staff, indicating that he understands the importance of preparing future
leaders. However, the focus may not have specifically on leadership skills because he
mentioned courses and professional development activities in general.
In addition, Mona sought to attend a session in the private sector through her own
personal efforts in order to develop skills for her first supervisory function as a
department head in a school. She felt that this had a significant impact on changing her
practices and work since become the head of department and currently as a manager in
an educational district. However, she also asserted that she experienced no effective
impact or good training from any courses or seminars offered by the MoE to develop
educational leaders. She argued that:
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Frankly, it is merely information… The ministry considers that as training and
preparation; however, this is not the right mechanism of conducting training…
Additionally, the Ministry conducts some courses that it believes are targeting the
preparation of managers and leaders, but I think that they are inappropriate. They
are maybe related to this field, but why they are not achieving their goals.
Ali argued that his master’s degree studies in educational administration had a greater
impact on the development of his skills than the training programmes he attended, which
were commercial and only provided information and knowledge that could easily be
obtained from books at any time. Such insights suggest that there were activities on
leadership in general, but not about educational leadership, which may have been
provided by different bodies other than the MoE (such as the Civil Service Bureau)
offering programmes for various officials and leaders without specifically targeting
educational leaders. As a result, Ali believed the courses’ impact was limited and that any
possible benefits only applied to some people and not all (e.g., their specific training
needs). He did benefit from the strategic planning session provided by the MoE, even
though he attended it 20 years ago:
The course on the management of teams opened my eyes, and I benefited a lot. It
was given by an American company through the Service Bureau and not the
Ministry of Education, and it was very valuable—and one of the courses that has
continued to have an impact on me up till now. That was 20 years ago and ever
since I have been a head of department. It was at a very high level both in terms of
the subject matter and the lectures; because it was not delivered theoretically,
there were also workshops…
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This emphasizes the importance of workshops due to of its positive impact on trainees,
because it is considered as an active learning process, under the supervision of trainers or
experienced colleagues, and not only lecturers who deliver without interaction from
recipients.
He also agreed with most participants that he applied what he learned and
communicated this to department heads or staff. Furthermore, he felt that the impact
was in the scope of his supervision and management because he tried to make changes
through what he had learned. He tried to transfer and apply the training output at the
sector level, but there were limits and powers that could not be overridden.
As these comments demonstrate, all respondents noted the usefulness and importance
of the courses in general and stated that they had positively influenced their current
practice and roles as educational leaders. However, the majority attended these trainings
during previous career stages in order to develop their professional, personal, or
supervisory skills, not to improve or develop leadership skills for their current role as
educational leaders. Some participants believed that a few of the activities they attended
had helped them develop leadership skills, but perhaps in an unintended way. Most
emphasised that the PPMoE had no impact on their practice and were not aimed at
developing their leadership skills. PPPS had a positive and significant impact on the
development of their skills. Finally, there were no differences in the responses to the
impact of training on developing leadership skills in terms of any of the demographic
variables mentioned in Table 5.18.
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5.3.3.3 Managers’ Use of Informal Learning Methods
Participants mentioned that informal learning methods are many and varied, such as
completing tasks, reading books and studies, learning from others, and discussing with
colleagues. These methods had a significant impact on the development of their skills and
helped them in their current role as leaders because they learned from them. These
methods played perhaps a greater role in developing their skills than formal learning
methods, such as the previously discussed training programmes and workshops.
Practice, task completion, trial and error, and learning from others’ experiences play a key
role in developing leadership skills during work time. Interaction with others also helped
gain experience. Heba explained that dealing with different situations and personalities,
whether a school principal, employee, or parents, helps managers solve problems that
they may face in the future. She noted that:
Meeting others and interacting with them gives us experience. I might deal with a
person who has a problem I haven’t encountered before, but if I face a similar
problem later, I will know how to deal with it because I have already gained the
experience.
She also believed that taking colleagues’ views on many issues or attitudes helps her find
solutions to the problems she may face. However, she was not sure if studying and
reading books would help develop her skills because she may not be able to implement or
apply what she has read. Therefore, she emphasised that work, practice, trial and error,
and dealing with others were the most effective methods for gaining experience for her.
Sa’ad confirmed Heba’s comments that, in the achievement of tasks, trial and error,
interacting with others, and discussing with colleagues improved his leadership skills. He
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also added that reading books and studying were important tasks because they can
enrich a leader’s knowledge and understanding. He stated that, although his former
manager had no influence or role in teaching him leadership skills, he was educated and
influenced by the personality of the Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him), whom he
considers a field leader, and his biography includes all kinds of leadership examples.
Hamad agreed with Sa’ad that all the learning methods mentioned on the prompt card
(see Appendix 7), such as discussion with colleagues, dealing with others, and trial and
error, were effective methods for helping managers develop their leadership skills.
However, he also added the use of social media:
From 2013 to 2017, the mobile and social networks played a very influential role
on polishing my personality. Also, some religious and cultural programmes played
a key role in this field, such as Al Sha’rawi and Dr. Abdulkafi’s programmes. I am
keen on watching all the episodes. Today, thoughts and opinions can reach us
through technology; it is not necessary to attend courses ...
Hamad referred to TV programmes that are concerned with evaluating a person's
behaviour and discipline, as well as his/ her morals and build successful social
relationships and emphasizes respect for other. He also believed he had learned from
others' experiences through social media programs. In other words, Ali believed he had
acquired leadership skills from these programmes that emphasized ethics, and which are
undoubtedly part of a leader's personality.
The completion and repetition of some tasks also helped Hamad in the development of
his skills because he was continuously trying to improve his performance to address the
mistakes that may have occurred previously.
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Finally, he stated that his former manager had an impact on him, albeit unintentionally.
Hamad learned from him only by asking him rather than through any deliberate intention
from the manager to teach or guide him. He added that having an experienced manager
to work alongside employees did not always happen; therefore, he had to ask about
everything and read every paper or bulletin in his field to understand what was going on.
According to Ali, he had learned from three former managers. One applied a chaotic
management model, and another applied an authoritarian management method. Ali felt
both of these models were ineffective, so his learning took the form of how not to
approach management. However, the third manager used a situational leadership style,
which deals with employees according to the situation. This influenced Ali, and he
became strongly inclined to use situational leadership. In addition, he argued that the
most effective methods were to accomplish tasks, participate in task forces, and manage
teams, because these activities require engaging in the actual practice of his role as a
leader.
Noha mentioned that she had learned from her former manager, who offered insights
and worked to educate and develop staff. The former manager worked with the staff in
the department, focusing on those who had leadership qualities to prepare them as
leaders for the future. Noha claimed that this focus and attention, as well as the support
of the assistant undersecretary, significantly impacted the development of her own
leadership skills. Noha added that other informal learning methods (e.g., peer discussion,
reading books, dealing with experienced people) influenced and helped her develop
leadership skills, although she stressed that one of the most effective methods for her
was the impact of her former manager.
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Bader stated that, when he was department head, he learned from his former supervisor,
who encouraged and gave him advice and delegated tasks to make some changes and
facilities in department. Based commented that:
He had a great influence on me… While he helped me, I succeeded in polishing my
personality, and he gave me authorisation in work. So I started to realise when I
can make a right decision after examining it thoroughly. Additionally, I was
consulting highly experienced people to know their points of view concerning the
decisions I would make or the project I would have submitted; generally, many of
them helped and guided me …
He added that he was seeking to develop his skills through self-learning because he did
not have time to attend courses. Therefore, at the end of each week, he read up on
different topics to develop himself and his work, such as planning and influencing others.
He believed that the most effective methods for developing his skills were reading books
and learning from previous experiences. He did not think that peer discussions had an
impact on his role as a leader because those at the same level of his career had the same
or perhaps even less experience as him. However, he emphasised that discussions with
experienced people and those who had a higher-level position were beneficial, so he
sought to maintain contact with retirees to discuss some ideas and proposals because he
believed they had better developed skills than him.
According to Fahad, personal experiences as well as solving problems that occur during
work had a positive impact. He also agreed with Bader, who emphasised that peer
discussion, especially with experienced individuals, was more effective than other
informal learning methods. As Fahad explained:
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But discussing with experienced people is 100% successful and it is the best
method ... not just [for] developing my leadership skills, but I consider it the safety
valve [that] protects the decision I made.
He also learned and was influenced by those in a higher position, either by attending
meetings or engaging in discussions with them in order to learn how to make decisions on
some issues and solve problems. Such efforts developed his leadership skills and helped
him deal with many of the problems he faced when he became a manager because he
already had possible solutions prepared thank to his experience or discussions with
experienced people.
Mona mentioned many informal learning methods, such as peer discussion. She believed
that, through dialogue, she could gain experience or learn something new. She also
believed that she could learn some things without being told by others, but rather by
dealing with them herself. Mona gave an example of this process:
Previously I did not know the best method of handling the bulletins that we
received from the ministry; however, I was reading them and analysing who
issued them, who is the party being addressed, and what is their main topic... I
was looking for new things to learn and was looking for those who have innovative
ideas so I could call them and ask for more clarification of such ideas …
She also confirmed that her assignment helped her gain confidence in upper
management and in accomplishing her desired goals, which had a positive impact on
developing her leadership skills. However, she thought that former managers had no
impact on the development of her skills because, although she may have learned some
things from them, she did not practice and apply what she had learned.
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In summary, differences emerged in participants’ perceptions of the effectiveness of
informal learning methods. A few individuals thought that some methods were more
effective than others whereas others believed that they were less effective or had no
effect. Despite the differences in the perceived effectiveness of these methods, the
participants agreed that they helped develop their leadership skills and had a positive
impact on their role as leaders. They also agreed that the diversity of informal learning
methods, such as working with others or participating in work teams, had increased their
experiences and helped them in their current tasks.
5.3.4 Importance of Previous Employment Experience
Participants’ comments on the importance of previous employment experience can
provide further insights into this area. Heba believed that the experience she gained
during work had a positive impact on the development of her skills and success in her role
as a leader. She felt she had the necessary expertise to deal with different situations
because she had already experienced them. Perhaps as a result of this, she became a
department head and supervisor, so she felt that the work became more comprehensive
because she was overseeing two departments in the same administration. She
commented:
We get the experience from every job and then we gradually become more
responsible and more experienced... I believe that doing our work enhances our
experience... Because of this experience, I had many ideas that I wanted to apply,
so I used to introduce my ideas as projects to the manager of the administration. I
gained all this experience through practice and because I am completely familiar
with my work.
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She asserted the importance of experience as a manager but not necessarily in a
leadership role. Furthermore, she only mentioned the experiences that she learned
through carrying out tasks while in the process of becoming a manager. Therefore, she
did not mention any aspects of her potential leadership role.
Sa’ad also emphasised the importance of a manager’s experience, especially if it is
acquired when individuals begin as a teacher and then progress to become a school
principal. He stressed the importance of this experience, which empowered him in his
role as a manager in an education district, and he considered this experience to be the
basis from which he launched his success as a leader. He claimed that it helped him
understand what happens in a school within “10 minutes” of visiting it, whereas
“sometimes we need hours to explain an issue for an official person if he has not been a
teacher in education before”.
According to Fahad, his previous experience made him more confident. It also developed
his ability to make decisions and to succeed in his current role as a manager, despite the
fact that much of his experience was gained from working outside the field of education.
He was an engineer in one of the ministries and then moved to one of the departments of
the MoE to become an engineering affairs manager in an educational district. He asserted
that the gradual upgrade in the same department and specialisation positively affected
his leadership role because roles required some experience to be familiar with
management.
Hamad believed that his expertise and responsibilities prepared him for his role as leader.
Although he did not have experience as a teacher, his work and daily presence in school
had a positive impact on the development of his leadership skills. He noted that
experience is essential to a manager’s success in this role and that an employee should
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not be promoted to a higher position until at least 8 years had elapsed to gain the
necessary expertise to carry out the tasks required in the senior post. He added:
I have learned how to make good interventions in work. Through this experience,
the results of such interventions are almost guaranteed. For example, if I want to
make a programme, I will make it in the right method because of the experience I
got from the position as an inspector and as a supervisor, and that helped me in
implementing programmes correctly and in preparing proper ones that respond to
certain needs ... This is what I have learned of my previous experiences.
Interventions are the processes that Hamad did to evaluate and correct mistakes during
work, because he had the expertise to do so.
In addition, Hamad stated that it was inadvisable to appoint managers from different
disciplines in a department in which they had no experience. He argued in favour of using
school principals in a management role:
A school’s principal is able to be an educational district manager or assistant
undersecretary of general education, who led a working team and supervised
scientific departments in a school ... and who managed the student affairs[-
related] problems. There was a lot of chaos in the field in the last 10 years,
although it is easy to solve this problem by appointing specialised and experienced
people.
Both Bader and Ali agreed that experience had qualified them for their role as managers
of administrations in the education districts. They had almost two years of experience as
teachers, then moved into administrative work in the educational districts before being
promoted to managers. It is striking that, although Ali had a master’s degree specialising
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in educational management, he commented that the experience gained during his work
as a teacher or administrator in the educational district was more important in his role as
a manager because some of the management theories studied did not fit with the culture
of the education system in Kuwait. Ali asserted that:
But my experiences were the most beneficial for me, and some of the
administrative theories I studied confirmed these experiences, but not in all cases.
I mean some theories do not go in line with our education system... Of course, I
benefited because I worked to match them, but I think that practice and
experiences are more helpful.
Noha agreed with Ali, who felt that the experience gained from people during work may
be more effective than the knowledge obtained from academic study. She began her
career as a teacher but moved to work as an administrative officer a few years later and
was promoted until she became a manager. The experience she gained from working in
the same administration helped her a lot in her role as a leader. Noha also emphasised
the importance of the appointment of a manager with experience in the same
administration that he/she will manage. She believes that if someone who does not have
experience in the same specialisation of management is appointed, it will hinder work
efficiency and performance. According to Noha:
We encountered problems in this administration because of appointing managers
who are not specialised in…, these managers impaired the performance level of
the administration ... because the specialisation of the manager was not related to
the administration … because the work here needs specialisation and expertise, it
is not administrative work … because we have many things that depend on
experience in the field.

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Mona worked as a teacher for more than 10 years before becoming head of department,
assistant principal, and school principal. She then became supervisor and was promoted
to manager of educational affairs in the educational district. She considered this
experience and gradation from teacher to manager had a significant impact on her role as
a manager and leader. Mona noted that:
I started do the work initiatives without being nominated for that. I worked in all
fields. Frankly I was a head of department, but I worked as if I was a school
principal … I was attending courses and was in touch with students’ parents to
solve problems; I was doing everything till I became a school principal … and I
started to feel that I am really a leader, and I started giving courses on leadership
accordingly.
As the comments indicate, all the participants emphasised the importance of the work
experience they gained and their various tasks as practical learning methods that helped
them develop their leadership skills. Although some did not have experience as a teacher,
everyone stressed the importance of gradual promotion in the same specialisation so that
the leader becomes familiar with all the technical and administrative functions of the
administration he/she manages.
5.3.5 Leadership Development
This section reviews participants’ responses and views on how to prepare educational
leaders. The discussion is broken down into four subsections: educational leadership
preparation programmes, strengths of the leadership training programmes; weaknesses
of the leadership training programmes, and suggested improvements to enhance the
effectiveness of the preparation of leaders.
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5.3.5.1 Educational Leadership Preparation Programmes
This section reviews the data about preparing managers prior to their appointment; the
findings about their professional development in-service were presented in Section
5.3.3.1.
Most managers agreed that they did not attend any training programmes to prepare for
their role as educational leaders. However, they did attend some sessions that may have
helped them in their current role as managers, although most were for the development
of technical or administrative aspects in different functional stages. In other words, these
sessions sought to develop attendees as heads of departments or supervisors, but not
leaders.
Mona also commented that she attended a few of courses to develop her career rather
than enhance her leadership skills: “the courses I have taken for this position […] were
more related to technical work; they were not specialised in leadership.”
According to Heba, any activities she participated in to prepare her as a supervisor or
department head may have contributed to her preparation for her current role as a
leader: “I hadn’t attended any preparatory courses before becoming a head of
department. I only depended on my work experience.”
Mona and Heba commented about a lack of preparation to act in a leadership capacity.
This may be because they did not fully understand their role as leaders, or they thought
that doing their management job meant that they were already exercising a leadership
role.
Fahad stated that he had not attended any programme to prepare as a leader because
attending courses depended on the person himself. However, he claimed that he may
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have attended one, which he did not feel was beneficial because the nature of his work
did not correspond to its content or maybe the sessions did not encourage an individual
to become a successful leader. He then said, “but to be honest with you, I never
depended on courses but improved my skills through self-development”.
PPMoE and their role in preparing managers as educational leaders did not exist on the
ground, from the point of view of most of the participants, or the ministry did not
nominate them if indeed they did exist. For example, Sa’ad argued that:
If we want to talk about the role of the ministry in preparing for programmes; it is
nothing, zero... because all these efforts are personal. There is a department
which is called the Development Department in the ministry, but it is very far from
development and improvement.
Fahad explained that MoE publications announced the existence of sessions, meaning the
ministry offered some session from which individuals could choose depending on what
suited their needs and circumstances. However, these activities were to prepare
managers, not leaders, or perhaps did not meet their needs.
According to Hamad, asserted that it was important to attend preparation courses in the
early stages of the job (i.e., before being in any supervisory position). He mentioned that:
he attended one of the PPMoE aimed at developing technical aspects of his specialisation.
However, the topic of this session was how to be a leader, so he benefited from it in his
current role as an educational leader. He explained that:
I attended only one course, but it was at the proper time, just before I became a
technical inspector... It was the only appropriate course... Yes, in specialisation,

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but its focus was how to be a leader and be able to manage a group of employees
in the same job specialisation.
Many interviewees stated that they attended many PPPS that they funded themselves in
order to be better prepared for future leadership roles. For example, Sa’ad noted that:
As for the preparation programmes that I attended, they were all as a result of my
personal quest... Yes, I attended courses in the private sector, but I mean that I
initiated them and sought them myself, I attended a lot of courses... I was trying
my best to attend training courses and I paid money for that.
In addition, Fahad explained that he attended many PPPS, but they had commercial
aspects more than a positive impact on the trainees and were not always related to the
field of education. He asserted that “the private sector’s purpose is always about
business... I mean marketing for their products... We did not know before trying them”.
This may mean that he did not succeed in choosing the course because he may not have
had any experience in this area, despite the fact he was seeking to develop his skills.
Therefore, he attended activities in the private sector, although it was just marketing
courses as products for profit, and did not target educators.
Two managers, Heba and Noha, did not attend any private sector programmes to prepare
themselves as leaders. Heba did not need to attend these to prepare herself for her role
as a leader because she had gradually moved into her position in the same department,
so there was no impediment to her in the performance of her tasks. Meanwhile, Noha
stated that she had not expected to become manager of her department:
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It was not my ambition to be a manager, because after the retirement of our
previous manager and assigning new manager from outside the administration,
we were frustrated. I did not expect that I would become a manager...
Regarding PPPS, participants’ responses differed according to who was currently in either
permanent or acting management positions. Permanent managers stated that they had
not attended any private sector programmes in order to prepare for their leadership
positions. However, acting managers did attend some programmes through their own
efforts (participants expected these programmes to prepare them as leaders, but the
discussions indicated that the programmes were mostly to develop managerial and
technical skills and were not directed to educational leaders). Perhaps they expected to
be permanently appointed to these positions or they were seeking to strengthen their
leadership skills to prove their eligibility for this position.
5.3.5.2 Strengths of the Leadership Training Programmes
This section examines the strengths of the leadership training programmes (e.g., how to
form and lead teams), focusing on preparation before being appointed and subsequent
development in-service that were provided by the MoE, the private sector, and internal
and external programmes in other countries. Only four participants mentioned strengths
in the programmes they attended. They also identified some of the benefits that they
hoped would be in these programmes to be useful for them.
According to Sa’ad, having a professional lecturer was one of the strengths of the sessions
he attended. He also felt that the content was excellent in terms of the practical aspects
and workshops. Yet he asserted that the course should not be merely a theoretical
lecture; rather, there must be diversity through the presentation of information. He also
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noted that a week was an appropriate period of time because of attendees’ need to
complete work tasks.
Fahad also commented that having a good lecturer who could easily provide information
was a strength in the training courses, because there were examples of other lecturers
who could expand on explanations and provide considerable knowledge and information,
but did not have a good impact on the attendees.
Hamad also agreed with other participants that the lecturer must be at a high level of skill
and have knowledge. He added that the presence of attendees who were with him also
played a role and had a significant impact on promoting the strengths of the course he
attended in Egypt, which lasted two months. However, he still felt the influence of this
course because it included many strengths, such as the quality of the lecturer, the
trainees in attendance being in the same speciality, the time period, and the facilitation of
various tests that measured the extent to which participants achieved their goals.
According to Hamad:
The strength was meeting highly experienced and knowledgeable people among
the participants and the presenters—I mean, they had a great level of thinking and
education. I was trying to reach their level diligently. For that reason, I started to
go to the library and look for books to read more and be able to compete with
them because it is not a good thing to meet knowledgeable people while I am not.
He pointed out that this course motivated him to undertake independent self-directed
learning. This is because he was trying to compete with attendees who had greater
experience. If directed to educational leaders in particular, participants will be from the
same field and perhaps share the same experiences, which in turn can help motivate
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managers to develop their leadership capabilities and compensate for a lack of
experience when working with more experienced colleagues.
Bader outlined some of the features that he hoped would be in the training programmes,
such as in-depth information and the duration of the session being extended for one or
two months, according to the quantity and density of information provided. At present,
most courses last only five days. He commented:
If they are related to my need and my tasks... the lecturer should be specialists in
education if he is going to conduct courses in this field; simultaneously, if we
conducted courses for managers of the Finance Ministry, the lecturer should be
specified in the same field... where they speak in their problems and in their field.
Each one should conduct courses that match his/her specialisation.
Perhaps Bader's comment suggests that there was no planning for development
programmes. Therefore, those people delivering the courses were not contracted to
provide suitably relevant content.
Participants’ comments about the training programmes they attended indicated that one
of the most important strengths of a few those activities was the existence of a
distinguished lecturer. Three managers (Sa’ad, Hamad, Bader) attended external sessions
(outside Kuwait), some of which were organised by the MoE and some through the
personal efforts of the participants. For example, Fahad referred to the strengths of one
seminar he attended at Kuwait University before becoming a manager. However, all the
courses they attended were not intended to prepare or develop them for their role as
educational leaders because, as previously stated (see Table 5.18 and Sections 5.3.3.1 and
5.3.5.1), they did not attend any preparation or professional development activities in
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their current position. Rather, they attended professional development courses during
their previous career phases, which influenced their current roles as educational leaders.
Differences emerged in participants’ responses that could be attributed to gender.
Female participants did not mention any positive aspects of the training programmes
they attended, which were often provided by the MoE (only Mona attended programmes
offered by the ministry and the private sector). However, male participants mentioned
some of the strengths that either were or were expected to be present in the
programmes they attended provided by the private sector (as mentioned earlier in
Sections 5.3.3.1 and 5.3.5.1). Of the males, only Ali did not mention any strengths,
perhaps because of his enrolment in the Master of Educational Administration
programme, which he believed was better than the courses he attended.
5.3.5.3 Weaknesses of Leadership Training Programmes
Participants mentioned many disadvantages in the leadership training programmes they
attended and considered them as weaknesses that reduced their positive impact on the
development of their leadership skills or their careers skills in general. In the courses they
attended, their main objective for developing leadership skills was not met (as discussed
in Sections 5.3.3.1 and 5.3.3.2).
Sa’ad believed that the systems and regulations imposed by the MoE limited how he
could apply what he had learned from the courses attended. This may mean that the
courses had a positive impact on his skills, but only on the cognitive side and not in a
practical way; therefore, he could not apply what he had learned. Sa’ad commented that:
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The weaknesses are the rules and regulations that prevent us from applying what
we learn. You mentioned that the leader is looking for solutions, but also do not
expect that we have the freedom to do whatever we see appropriate.
It means that the rules and regulations limit the manager’s power and prevent him/her to
work and exercise leadership according to his/her vision. Some respondents pointed this
out as a weakness, which will be discussed in more detail later (Section 6.6.3).
He also pointed out that there was no deputy to do his tasks if he could not attend for any
reason. This raises the question of why not prepare a second tier of leaders, such as one
of the heads of departments under the supervision of this administration. This lack of
action may be due to managers not adequately training those who work with them and
not delegating at least some of their tasks.
Fahad also agreed that it was not possible to apply what they had learned in the courses,
but for different reasons from those mentioned by Sa’ad. He believed that the courses
were mere theoretical lectures, and the content could not be transferred or applied and
used in practice. He noted that:
One of the weaknesses is that there is no practical application to reality and it
needs practical experience. It is mostly theoretical and we haven’t applied it. For
example, the instructor explains events and we imagine them, but when the event
really happened, I couldn’t apply what I had learned. Some situations need to be
seen in reality.
This refers to implications of too much theoretical input; i.e. lack of workshops, role plays
etc. This reduces the usefulness of training programmes because they only contained
theories that managers could not apply in their working context.
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He added that, although there are programmes for leadership, they were not useful
because they were commercial (i.e., courses provided by the MoE through contracts with
the private sector). Mona confirmed this when she stated that the MoE believed that
there was preparation and development programmes for education leadership skills but,
in reality, these did not exist because the mechanism was wrong. The sessions were just a
means of receiving information. Indeed, Fahad explained that:
There are some leadership courses but they are not useful to the leader and they
are only for profit—and they are just stuffing information. The state pays large
amounts of money for the organisers of these courses, which is just a lecture.
There is no motivation, no development, and no leadership preparation.
These courses were organized by the private sector or the Civil Service Bureau, which in
turn draws up contracts with the private sector, both inside and outside Kuwait.
Fahad argued that leaders should improve the choice of the courses that they plan to
attend because sometimes the lecturer has high skills and capabilities, but there is no
useful content in the topic of the session.
The weaknesses mentioned by Hamad further confirmed the participants’ opinion that
the lecturer may be a reason for not benefiting from the session. Sometimes the time
spent at the session was wasted, without any new or useful information being provided.
Hamad also believed that the courses offered by the MoE were ineffective and played no
role in developing their skills. As for external courses that were held in countries outside
Kuwait (which participants attended through their personal efforts or through the MoE’s
support), Hamad stressed that the different cultural environment between Kuwait and
other countries where the sessions were held was also a weakness, especially if the
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trainee had little experience in supervisory positions. He felt that participants should has
access to information relevant to their own educational environment in Kuwait, but the
examples presented in these courses used education systems in different countries.
Hamad commented that:
While the weakness is the different environments between the Egyptian society
and the Kuwaiti one, I was trying to make a kind of adaptation—that is why I faced
difficulties to some extent because I did not have enough experience at that time.
Bader believed that the courses were a waste of time, so he refused to attend because
they were not the same specialty, despite the fact that he was encouraged to attend
these programmes to change the routine of work and take a break from functional tasks.
He also felt that the information in these courses was brief and lacked depth because of
the short duration of the session:
Not all the lecturers were professional, although some of them had PhDs, but they
did not present the information in depth, or sometimes you can feel the gap
between the information presented and facts on the ground... The majority of
them are not targeting the education field; they are talking in general. Sometimes
I really feel that I am intentionally wasting my time.
This was confirmed by most participants, i.e. that those who provide these courses were
not specialists in education. As a result, activities were not relevant to the course
participants. Perhaps this is because there was no interest or planning to prepare
managers for a leadership role in education.
Ali confirmed that the commercial objectives of these courses overwhelmed their goals
and influential role in developing their leadership or functional skills. In addition, he
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thought these courses were not at the required level because the providers presented
information and contexts from outside the educational field or even the government
sector. The education system in Kuwait is government-organised and applies the same
conditions and mechanisms of work in other sectors of government. Therefore, what is
provided through these courses does not benefit the field of education altogether. This
was also confirmed by Mona:
When I was a supervisor, I entered the strategic planning course but it was very
far from the educational field; that’s why I did not benefit from it. I was so bored
to the extent that I could not wait till this course ended... Sometimes the course is
about leadership, but it is delivered by an academic lecturer who is not
knowledgeable about the educational field and who could not apply the theories
and situations in those related to this field. These are some of the things that
weaken the effectiveness of such courses.
She also identified the timing of the sessions as well as their short durations weaknesses
impacting the effectiveness of these courses. For example, most courses were held in the
morning, which had a negative impact on the field of education and the level of
educational achievement of students. To illustrate this point further, she implied that not
only teachers, but also the educational field at large needed to be the leader in charge of
the workplace to help manage different matters and solve contingency problems. She
suggested that all courses be held in the evening. She did acknowledge that there were
those who would object because of family obligations, but she believed that educating
future generations was a priority for her, especially if the MoE paid the fees for these
courses. As for the duration of the course, she considered that, in a short period, the
lecturer cannot present what he/she deems appropriate for the trainee because of time
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constraints. According to Mona, it would not be acceptable to shorten the length of a full
course.
Some participants referred to this issue previously, when they stated that the short
period of time was a weakness of the courses they attended. In these instances, they
were referring to courses that lasted approximately five days, although they argued this
was not long enough. Most of them preferred to attend over a period of one to two
months.
In short, the most important weaknesses from participants' perspective were the lack of
correlation between the courses offered and what was happening in the field of
education and their inability to apply what they learned from the training programmes to
their work for various reasons. For example, the courses focused too much on theory and
not practice, which in turn could not be applied because of regulations that limit the
possibility of transferring what they had learned to reality. These deficiencies have been
classified and summarized as the following six items:
• rules and regulations, leading to limited influence
• no succession planning
• course content often too theoretical or irrelevant
• private sector courses are too business oriented
• externally run courses do not take account of different contexts
• course duration and timing problems
They also reported that the lecturer was one of the weaknesses in the courses they
attended, although some participants previously mentioned that lecturers were a
powerful and positive factor in taking advantage of the courses. At first glance, this might
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suggest a contradiction in participants’ views; however, ultimately, they are all agreeing
that the lecturer is key player—whether negatively or positively.
5.3.5.4 Suggested Improvements to Enhance Effectiveness of Leaders’
Preparation
This section builds on Section 5.2.5.2 by examining how to qualify educational leaders and
prepare them for their role to lead in the education system and exploring the process of
selecting leaders, from participants’ point of view. Some argued that selection might
come before qualifications—that is, a person is identified as having leadership qualities
from an early stage and is then developed accordingly. However, others believed that
selection must come after the qualification process because they believed that those who
met the conditions for nomination to a leadership position must be adequately developed
so that the person who successfully passes the qualification process is selected.
5.3.5.4.1 Leadership Qualification
According to Heba, that there was no preparation for leadership, so appointment in
leadership positions depended on experience in the post only. She argued that there
should be courses for the preparation of educational leaders, offering different options in
terms of duration. She added that courses were necessary for leaders because they may
have been nominated by another administration whose functions are different or their
previous experience may not have been in the MoE.
Sa’ad noted that the qualification of leaders was not an easy process because it needed to
include both theoretical and practical aspects. As a result, there should be a practical
training plan linked to education, not only a training file which includes a theoretical plan
and is provided to the Council of Ministers but then not implemented. Noha also
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emphasised the importance of a specialised centre for the preparation of leadership at
the state level to offer courses and workshops that simulate the reality of leadership. As
she explained:
We need to establish a centre specialised in the preparation of educational and
non-educational leaders. The courses are offered in many levels, and no one can
apply for the interviews unless they pass a certain level which is determined by
the people in charge, and the period of the courses in the centre should at least be
for three years.
Despite the existence of a training centre affiliated to the MoE, Noha believed that there
should be a specialized centre for educational leaders, and not for all employees of the
ministry. She also suggested that candidates (for supervisory positions) should not be
interviewed unless he/she had already achieved certain stages in this centre. That means
attending many activities at different stages and levels, where participant learns and
exercises leadership skills through, for example, providing working paper about education
leadership, or solutions to some educational problems etc... Thus he/ she would have
qualified (according to her view) to apply for the vacancy through interviews.
In Fahad’s view, candidates could attend courses before being appointed to leadership
positions. After appointment, they should be assigned a task such as studying an issue or
problem and submitting proposals to solve it. If any candidate does not pass that test or
the job is not properly completed, he/she should not be installed in the leadership
position. He commented:
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Training courses play a big role but they represent no less than 50% to a person
we want to prepare and who we think is suitable, and the other side of the
preparation is to accomplish the task.
He means that attending courses represents only 50% of the required preparation for
candidates for supervisory positions. However, the other 50% must be through assigning
candidates some tasks to complete. For example, leading a team to achieve specific goals,
or writing an essay, discussing one of the educational issues, and explaining his/ her vision
and views on this topic.
What Fahad mentioned is, in fact, close to the current system applied to any candidate
appointed manager after passing an interview in which he/she presents a draft of ideas or
proposals for the development of work.
Hamad argued that it is not advisable to require the candidate to attend a training
programme for one or two years to prepare as a leader because, in his view, there should
be tasks delegated to the staff before they apply for a higher position and exchanges of
experiences with others, which could be considered training for them. Therefore, he
stressed that promotion in the same specialisation is important when an employee is
nominated for a leadership position.
On the other hand, Bader argued that the training process should be set up in an
academic manner including theory and practice so that there is a renewal of the
candidate’s knowledge when education systems change and develop. They could be
provided with educational and administrative developments and thus be prepared
academically; they would then be better able to train in a practical way through
workshops, dealing with different situations and how to make decisions. After completing
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these steps, the appropriate candidate can be appointed to leadership positions whereas
those not selected can reapply for the post next time. He noted that:
However, unfortunately, what happens on the ground is that the manager attends
training after assigning him; this is called “disorientation”. He may succeed or fail
after that. The reason behind the failure of some management, either in the
Ministry of Education or in others, is the assignment of managers before attending
preparatory courses.
He emphasised that the problems facing the educational field were due to the presence
of managers who have not been prepared for their role.
Ali stated that the candidate should attend activities to train educational leaders which
include all the skills needed, such as strategic planning, problem solving, and
communication skills. Ali assumed that the selection process was based only on the
scientific and personal criteria; therefore, he asserted that educational leadership should
be developed through leadership qualification programmes. Then he added:
Since we want to qualify a leader, he/she must obtain a diploma in educational
leadership for a period of no less than one to two years. Thus, we re-qualify and
equip him/her with skills and knowledge so that he/she is fully capable.
He added that there were currently no such programmes to qualify as educational leaders
in Kuwait. This is in the sense that there were no programmes to prepare managers for
their leadership role before appointment to the post, and that the development activities
in-service also did not target the development of leadership capabilities for them.
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Meanwhile, Mona commented that a leadership programme should be developed
according to a specified time plan, where the necessary leadership skills were developed
in a specific chronological order. She stated:
Then I can focus more on the nature and the mechanism of the programmes set
for those leaders: are they supposed to have certain characters and leader
characteristics? … have planning and problem-solving skills (i.e., all leaders’
characteristics and skills)? After identifying them, I should set a timetable for
implementing the programme; for example, at which stage should he/she learn
how to set a vision and plan to execute it? Maybe this should happen at the very
beginning, or should I start with changing and improving his/her character?
In other words, she proposes to focus on the way leaders' development activities are
implemented after setting targets. She added that development programme designers
should consider what the appropriate criteria for selecting candidates for these positions
are; what qualities they should have; and whether they have leadership skills.
Accordingly, a timetable could be set up to assist candidates with acquiring the required
skills, depending on a predetermined arrangement of their training needs.
She added that training programmes were necessary for the head of the department but
not for managers because she thought that the manager obtained this position after
learning from previous practice and experience and becoming familiar with all the skills
needed for the position. However, she also noted that the leader may need to attend
some sessions if there are new issues or ideas in education.
All the participants commented on the need to prepare and develop educational
leadership and made several suggestions, which are summarised as follows:
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• Establish a specialised centre for the preparation of leaders to provide courses and
workshops that simulate the reality of leadership
• Prepare them academically and provide them with educational and administrative
developments
• Ensure the qualification of leaders includes theoretical and practical aspects
• Provide courses for the professional development of educational leaders to
include all the necessary skills and provide different options in terms of duration
• Identify the needs of candidates according to their career level (e.g., school
principal, stage supervisor, manager of administration)
• Assign the candidate to perform different tasks, such as studying a problem and
making suggestions for solving it
5.3.5.4.2 Leadership Selection
Some participants mentioned the current process for announcing the selection of
managers for departments in the MoE or education districts as well as the conditions
required from candidates to participate in evaluation interviews. They also presented
their views and criticisms of these conditions as well as their proposals to amend them to
help in setting criteria for selecting leaders in a realistic and impartial manner, without
the involvement of other parties such as stakeholders (e.g., member of the National
Assembly or senior members of the tribe to which the candidate belongs).
According to the managers, the mechanism begins with the announcement of those who
wish to run for the vacant post (manager) on the terms of a competence report,
experience, training courses attended (without specifying that the course should be in
leadership), and proficiency in using computers. If all of these conditions apply, the
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candidate will be interviewed and present a 10-minute presentation on any idea to
develop or project he/she wishes to implement in the future.
Sa’ad, Bader, Ali, and Noha agreed that the current mechanism should be completely
changed, because it depends only on number of years of experience and the extent to
which the members of the committee interviewing the candidate know him/her (i.e.,
personal knowledge or wasta [the intervention of influential people to achieve the
stakeholders’ goals]), without any consideration for the requirement of efficiency,
experience, or certificate. They added that there are criteria such as competence,
experience, certificate, interview, and courses, but certification and courses are “rubbery”
(meaning these criteria may not always be applied).
Sa’ad argued against the candidacy announcement process for leadership positions
because he thinks its goal is only to discharge committee members’ responsibility rather
than choose the best staff. He also did not think that presenting a new idea or project
during the interview was a real criterion for choosing the best person because it may have
been prepared by others, not the candidate him-/herself.
Bader confirmed that a reference could be held for the candidate who meets the
conditions, but then candidates should be tested to measure their technical skills. If they
pass this exam, they will be interviewed. However, Ali argued that the reference process
does not work because it is may be influenced by people’s emotions and feelings, so their
evaluation of the candidate is not real or accurate. He recommended the use of a test
that measures the candidate’s personal aspects as well as technical and leadership skills.
Ali also objected to what currently happens in the interview process, because the
interview questions do not always measure the suitability of the candidate. In addition,
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he and Bader raised questions about the process of the interview committee when
selecting members:
The interview is an attempt to explore one’s personality and identify abilities, but I
wonder if the committee is qualified to conduct interviews? Do they have certain
specifications? … There have to be criteria for selecting the members of the
interviewing committee. One of them should be a specialist in management,
another a specialist in technical matters, and the third a specialist in psychology.
(Ali)
Heba and Bader explained that any employee who had been subject to administrative
sanctions due to some administrative or functional errors would not be nominated
(officials impose administrative penalties on employees when they discover irregularities
that may lead to administrative or financial problems; this is considered a deprivation or
impediment that results in the person not being nominated for a higher position), but this
condition had recently been removed. Thus, staff members may be nominated for
leadership positions even if they have administrative or financial penalties. Heba
commented that:
This is the wrong decision because this means choosing a person to lead a group
of individuals even if he/she has a penalty! How do I feel privileged? When there
are two people interviewed and one of them has a penalty and is chosen, it would
not be fair for the other person who has no penalties and has achievements but
has not been lucky to succeed in the interview.
She explained her view of the decision to allow anyone who had administrative
punishment to run for office. This is because whoever breaks the law cannot be a leader.
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Which means candidates that have administrative penalties cannot be qualified for
supervision (an example for these penalties is receiving notices for excessive
unauthorized absences). In this case, if this candidate succeeds in the interview, the other
candidates who did not have administrative punishment may feel this is unjust.
Noha suggested that candidates be nominated by their administration because they know
the extent of their efficiency. Furthermore, if the general conditions such as experience
and specialisation apply to the candidates, they must attend a course that includes a test
to measure the skills they possess; if they pass this test, then they will be interviewed.
She added that there was a need for specialists in this area to set standards because
unfortunately there were no criteria for the selection of leaders.
According to Hamad and Fahad the current criteria were preliminary conditions for the
selection of leaders, with an emphasis on the requirement of specialisation and
progression in the same field. Mona agreed that the existing standards were good, but
only provided that the wasta does not intervene in the selection process. She also
explained that what actually happens are that the candidates’ names are presented to
the head of the interview committee, who communicates with candidates’ officials and
work colleagues to ask about the candidates’ personality and how they deal with others.
She noted that:
One of the things that we wish were part of the selection process is that the
candidate’s CV should not be identified by oral conversations, but there must be
documentation of the CV from the people who have interacted with the
candidate.
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She confirmed that the criteria of certificates, experience, absence of previous penalties,
and the interview are important. In addition, candidates’ curriculum vitae and
achievements during their careers should be considered through the selection process:
They currently do not take into consideration achievement of the tasks and do not
include them as a standard. Also, they do not include the training courses among
the standards ... If the wasta does not intervene, then our affairs are generally
good. (Mona)
All managers commented that the current criteria should be changed or new ones be
added to the selection standards of educational leaders. They considered the conditions
of competence, experience, certification, and computer skills to be general or preliminary
conditions. Meanwhile, other criteria, such as curriculum vitae, achievements, courses,
and interviews, should follow them.
The managers’ proposals to develop the process of selecting leaders can be summarised
as follows:
• It is necessary to change the current mechanism for the selection of educational
leaders by requiring experts to set clear criteria for selection.
• The process of advertising to run for leadership positions should be changed so
that the employee is nominated by his/her managers in the same department.
• A candidate who has had legal penalties (administrative, financial, or ...) should
not be nominated for a leadership position.
• The experiences of actual and practical candidates in education and their
achievements, as well as the opinions of those who work with them, should be
considered when evaluating and nominating them for the leadership position.
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• Candidates should write their ideas and plans that they intend to apply if awarded
the post as a test.
• Interview procedures should be codified and revised, along with the development
of criteria for the interview committee selection.
• Controls should be established to evaluate ideas or projects submitted by
candidates to ensure that they are the owners of these ideas and the ideas are not
derived from others.
• Influential people or stakeholders (wasta) should not interfere when choosing
leaders.
Most participants stressed the importance of measuring candidates’ technical and
management skills in administration, especially as this will be required in the manager
positions, they occupy. However, there was no focus on the measurement of leadership
skills despite their importance for effective leadership. Most also emphasised that wasta
played the largest role in selecting who was suitable to occupy vacant leadership
positions, regardless of the competence or skills of that candidate.
No differences emerged in the respondents’ responses regarding the development of
educational leadership development programmes or changing the process of selecting
leaders that could be attributed to any of participants’ demographic factors (see Table
5.18). However, in general, it was surprising that there were no real differences in views
between the six permanent managers and two acting managers. In addition, no
differences emerged between those working in the MoE versus the EDs, which is
surprising as some difference were expected.
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5.4 Chapter Summary
One of the most significant results obtained from the two phases of the study is that
more than half of the respondents had no experience as a teacher and, therefore, did not
have experience in teaching processes, curricula, or student issues. In addition, the
managers’ perceptions of themselves as leaders differed according to their understanding
of the concepts of management and leadership as well as according to the leadership
skills that they believed they possessed. For example, some emphasised their attendance
at several courses that helped them refine and develop their skills, but their focus was not
on leadership development courses—mainly because no professional development
programmes specifically target leadership development. However, differences did occur
between the participants’ perceptions of the effectiveness of informal learning methods.
All participants highlighted the importance of the experience they gained during their
work and their various tasks as an informal learning method that helped them develop
their leadership skills. Furthermore, most managers agreed that they did not attend any
training programmes to prepare them for their role as educational leaders. The MoE
programmes to prepare managers as educational leaders did not exist on the ground.
The participants mentioned many disadvantages in the leadership training programmes
they attended, such as the lack of correlation between the courses offered, a lack of
information on what was happening in the field of education, and their inability to apply
what they had learned because of regulations that limit the possibility of transferring
what they had learned to reality. As a result, all participants commented on the need to
prepare and develop educational leadership, and they made several suggestions, such as
establishing a specialised centre for the preparation of leaders, preparing them
academically, providing courses for the professional development of educational leaders,
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assigning candidates to perform different tasks, identifying the training needs of the
leaders, and setting criteria for selecting the right person to prepare as an educational
leader.
The following chapter discusses these findings and links them with the literature and
theoretical ideas discussed in Chapter 3.
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Chapter 6: Discussion and Analysis of Results
6.1 Introduction
The purpose of this research is to explore the effectiveness of the current arrangements
for managers working in the MoE and EDs to act in a leadership capacity and exercise the
necessary leadership skills to achieve educational goals, such as developing future
generations capable of assuming responsibility in all its forms and aspects, encouraging
individuals to initiate and make decisions themselves, and planning for the future. This
chapter analyses the results presented in Chapter 5 and links these results with
theoretical literature on the professional development of educational leadership as well
as with both the contingency theory and social learning theory adopted in this study. In
this way, this chapters seeks to answer the main research question: To what extent are
the leadership preparation and ongoing professional development of the education
ministry and district managers effective in Kuwait? To this end, it will address the
following five sub-research questions:
RSQ1: To what extent do the MoE and ED managers perceive themselves as managers
who exercise leadership in the education system?
RSQ2: To what extent have the MoE and ED managers engaged in leadership
development activities (whilst in post)?
RSQ3: To what extent have past and current experiences been helpful in developing the
expertise of MoE and ED managers?
RSQ4: How effective has the training been for MoE and ED managers (before being
appointed) for their leadership role?
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improved?
Section 6.2 examines the difficult issues related to managers’ understanding of the
differences between leadership and management. A Provisional Model of Managers’
Formal Learning Processes is provided in section 6.3. Section 6.4 discusses the extent to
which managers have been involved in formal and informal professional development
activities. Section 6.5 covers the importance of previous experiences related to work in
education and their role in the development of managers’ leadership skills. Section 6.6
explores the development of leadership skills prior to appointment as managers through
relevant preparation and training programmes Finally, Section 6.7 presents managers’
views to improve the process of preparing educational leadership through the
qualification processes and by setting criteria for the selection of educational leaders.
6.2 Managers’ Perception of Themselves as Managers and Leaders
This section analyses the findings related to RSQ1: To what extent do MoE and EDs
managers perceive themselves as managers and leaders in the education system?
6.2.1 Managers’ Conceptual Understanding of Management and Leadership
The quantitative results were compatible with the qualitative findings, showing that most
participants were able to define the concept of management more accurately than the
leadership term. Perhaps this is due to their role as managers and their long experience in
administrative work, where they formed this understanding in line with their managerial
functions.
On the other hand, those who were able to correctly define the leadership term (less than
half) may have been able to do so because of their attendance at courses focused on
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management, where the topic of leadership was discussed in a transient and superficial
way without going into educational leadership as an important and independent theme
(see Section 6.3.3 for more details about the effectiveness of training programmes). Thus,
they formed an understanding of this concept even if they were not consciously aware of
it (as explained in Sections 6.2.2, 6.2.3, and 6.2.4). In addition, some managers could not
distinguish between these two concepts, perhaps because they did not attend any
specialised courses on leadership. They believed that performing administrative tasks
effectively and achieving goals meant they were leaders. This is contrary to many authors’
views (e.g., Ayub et al., 2014; Bush & Glover, 2003) of defining leadership as influencing
others’ attitudes. In addition, the term leadership assumes that it includes a process of
social influence on persons in a group or organisation to guide, organise, and facilitate
relationships and conduct various activities (Yukl, 2013), not only achieve goals.
Therefore, clearly these are terms (especially in the case of leadership) with known
ambiguity and no fully agreed-upon international definition.
Indeed, the results herein are consistent with existing studies which found that these two
terms may cause confusion when trying to distinguish between them, despite their
differences. Bush (2011) argued that the term management could overlap the term
leadership because management is related to the implementation of operations and
technical functions whereas leadership is related to the driving purpose and values of the
organisation (Bush, 1998).
Bureaucratic organisations are characterised by three features: a formal hierarchical
structure, a division of labour, and control through a set of general formal rules (Jain,
2004). As bureaucracy may not very effective (Gajduschek, 2003), managers would not
necessarily have the opportunity to exercise leadership in their roles; indeed, most of
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them indicated that they apply the administrative decisions issued by the higher
authorities (Hassan, 2008), which confirms that the education system in Kuwait is very
central, as pointed out by Alkandari (2013). This may be the reason for participants’
increased confusion and their inability to determine a clear and different meaning for
both concepts. In rapidly changing environments, rules, regulations, and work procedures
might become outdated and irrelevant. In addition, they may become barriers or excuses
that managers use to justify their incorrect decisions (Carnall & By, 2014).
6.2.2 Skills Required to be an Effective Leader
The quantitative results indicate that most participants believe that the leadership role
requires special skills to enable them to succeed as leaders, and they were able to identify
some leadership skills they believed they possessed. Although there is a lack of evidence,
NIE (2013) indicated that school principals’ leadership skills were weak, which is hardly
surprising if headteachers’ leadership skills were also weak, as were some managers’
leadership skills. Some managers were headteachers, so what would change if they were
appointed in the MoE districts and their skills were still weak? It is also in contrast to
earlier findings from Al-Khatib and Al-Enezi's (2008) study, which examined and identified
the training needs of educational leaders in Kuwait. They identified major training needs
in leadership skills (e.g., educational policies, strategic, and decision-making processes).
However, identifying some skills does not mean managers already possess them; as a
result, they may think that those skills are traits of leadership rather than managerial
skills.
Getting a job as a manager and exercising management authority do not mean that
managers are exercising leadership. Many factors, such as influence, patterns of
interaction, behaviours, and relationships as well as administrative position, are

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considered (Yukl, 2013), as most participants stressed—namely, that leadership needs
special skills such as how to deal with others and influence them. Yet in a broader sense,
what was their concept of leadership?
Some confusion emerged among respondents between leadership skills on the one hand
and management on the other. In this sense, participants produced no accurate and
comprehensive definition of leadership. This confusion may explain why managers
believed they had leadership skills even though, in fact, they had management skills.
6.2.3 Importance of Working with Other People
The survey and interview data indicated that most participants stressed the importance
of working with others, such as their former managers or colleagues, because they gained
different experiences and developed their leadership skills. Although some stressed that
working with those with experience and educational specialisation was more effective,
others emphasised that working with others at different levels and disciplines had a
better impact for developing their leadership skills. Indeed, Chao et al. (1994) found that
socialisation (how people treat each other, not necessarily how they perform the tasks) is
often the main way by which newcomers adjust to new functions or roles within the
organisation because organisational culture is transmitted through behavioural norms
and expectations (Glisson, 2015). If the leaders care about and are interested in others,
the organisational culture is shaped by similar values (Stolp, 1994).
The participants also stated that the most important skills they have learned from others
were decision making and problem solving. However, Al-Khatib and Al-Enezi (2008)
concluded otherwise, finding a high degree of need for both these skills. In addition, Al-
Duaij's (1994) study did not agree with this result, noting that there was a high degree of
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need for decision-making skills. This is perhaps because these skills are almost daily tasks
that the managers perform and, as a result, they had to consult with those who were
more experienced, such as previous leaders or perhaps higher levels of leadership, before
making any decisions or developing proposed solutions to problems that they faced.
Managers often consult with staff, peers, or chairpersons about important decisions
(Wildy et al., 2004; Yukl, 2013). Consequently, they feel that they have these skills and
they have become a part of their professional identity, especially through practical and
actual application, thereby enhancing their perception of themselves as leaders. Once the
identity of the leader is absorbed, it becomes a feature of the person, according to
Osteen, Komives, Mainella, Owen, and Longerbeam (2005) and DeRue, Ashford, and
Cotton (2009).
The process of participation in the implementation of vision and influencing others may
be considered one of the most important leadership attributes. Indeed, almost a quarter
of the sample considered it to be the most important skill they learned from others,
which means the majority may have learned these two skills through formal learning
methods, such as training programmes or presentations, rather than working with others
(see Section 6.3.1). However, if they did not have these skills because they were not
learnt through former managers or colleagues at work or even through those who
worked with them as foreign and international work teams (as most of them pointed
out), it could mean that former managers or their current colleagues did not have the
skills to transfer to existing managers (if that is the way managers develop their skills).
There is sufficient evidence to demonstrate that the impact of training is generally low
(Kupritz, 2002). Or perhaps they did not look at their former managers as role models,
maybe because of poor relationships with them or those managers’ lack of leadership
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skills. Modelling is considered a vital technique for social learning theory and is used as a
basis for learning (Latham & Saari, 1979). This may be due to the fact that working with
others in any organisation is undoubtedly influenced by the dominant culture in it. An
organisation’s culture is composed of the values and beliefs of employees and managers
who contribute to the formation of this institutional culture through the values in which
they believe in the work environment (Shamsuddin, 2006).
These values, beliefs, and skills are transferred from leaders to others who work with
them. However, perhaps because this process is complex, a leader’s ability to change and
transform this culture may be limited (Bell & Kent, 2010). As a result, the majority of
participants believed they had not learned these skills from others. Al-Kazemi and Ali
(2002) confirmed that the main administrative problems in Kuwaiti institutions are due to
employees’ cultural traditions, customs, and practices.
Furthermore, being involved in international training activities, as some have pointed out,
did not lead to developing these skills; perhaps because the time periods for teams and
committees are limited and generally end after achieving their goals. The participants
then return to their normal daily jobs as managers and apply whatever instructions come
from senior leaders, without having the opportunity to apply what they learned from
their participation in this international training experience. Santos and Stuart (2003)
argued that the main reason for the low transfer of training is the lack of time due to the
fast pace of working environments; thus, managers usually quickly return to old patterns
and habits. A supportive environment promotes behaviour that seeks change and helps
encourage and implement new ideas (Love & Dustin, 2014).
Perhaps the centralised decision-making system in Kuwait is one of the reasons most
managers are unable learn some of the necessary leadership skills when working with
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others. This is despite many attempts to decentralise, as confirmed by Hassan (2008) and
Winokur (2014), who argued that the reappraisal of the application process faced many
obstacles, such as the limited authority given to districts and ministry department
managers as well as negative interference in some of their decisions. As such, managers
were not fully independent or able to perform their roles and exercise leadership
according to their perceptions and plans. The managers work in a centralised system, so
they have to follow the rules and regulations; thus, they may not be able to make changes
because leadership is a process of change. In addition, the situation surrounding the
transfer of training in the work environment may affect the benefits received from
training (Gilpin-Jackson & Bushe, 2007). Regardless of the reasons for not learning these
skills, the indication is that most participants do not have the ability to develop and
implement a vision or influence others, despite the importance of these skills for leaders.
The leaders should have the skills to develop a vision and work on its implementation by
involving all components of organisational management (such as management staff,
heads of department, school managers; e.g., Bush & Middlewood, 2013; Ndalamba et al.,
2018). Most leadership studies, such as Yukl (2013), Bush and Middlewood (2013), and
Bush (2008), have confirmed that influence is one of the most important qualities of
leadership, meaning that those who cannot significantly influence others may not be very
effective. Some of the interviewees, such as Sa’ad, Hamad, and Noha, confirmed this as
well when they claimed they were leaders because they had a positive impact on those
who deal with them.
6.2.4 Difficulties and Challenges Faced when Doing the Job as Managers
Most participants emphasised that they faced challenges to perform their role as leaders
because they were forced to spend time on administrative work to accomplish tasks.
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Perhaps this was because the education system in Kuwait adheres to a traditional form of
public management that is consistent with steady and predictable conditions in a
relatively stable environment; therefore, it was not ready to face new challenges in a
rapidly changing world (Katsamunska, 2012). They also do not have the freedom to do
what they deem appropriate and there is no support from senior leaders. There is a lack
of specialised educational leaders (as one participant pointed out) to provide them with
appropriate advice and understand the needs of educational departments in the ministry
or districts and even schools. This situation underscores the existence of centralisation
and its negative impact on the managers, limiting their ability to exercise their leadership
role. Alkandari (2013) argued that a centralised system does not allow managers to
collaborate on, for example, decision-making. Yet how can managers have a vision, goals,
and plans and achieve them if they do not have the appropriate decision-making powers?
The presence of challenges is common while doing tasks or dealing with different
individuals, but it is unusual that most participants agreed that this limits their ability to
work as leaders because they are preoccupied with administrative tasks. Managerialism
(as discussed in Chapter 3) reduces an organisation’s effectiveness because over-
management has a negative effect on educational objectives (Bush, 2011; Bush & Glover,
2014; Hoyle & Wallace, 2005).
The bureaucratic structure may be suitable for a stable and simple environment, but in a
complex and changing environment, the structure should be more flexible and innovative.
Inflexible procedures produce frustrating conditions and reduce managers’ ability to
innovate (Carnall & By, 2014).
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6.2.5 Managers’ Perceptions of Themselves as Leaders
Although most respondents saw themselves as leaders who possessed the leadership
skills that qualify them to succeed in their role, some stressed that they need to be
developed and refined through specialised training courses. In addition, some saw
themselves as managers even though they had leadership qualities because they were
probably acting primarily as managers. In other words, the working environment or rules
and regulations in which managers operate have forced them to see themselves as
managers. According to Alvesson and Willmott (2002), identity consists of three concepts
that interact with each other: self-identity, or how individuals see themselves (Giddens,
1991); identity work, or the active building of a self-identity; and identity regulation, or
the reaction to organisational and social processes (Sveningsson & Larsson, 2006).
These concepts are related to each other, or perhaps the identity of work and regulations
complement or impact in one way or another upon the self-identity of the leader. Some
managers saw themselves as leaders because they thought they have some leadership
skills. However, this could be down to the impact of the identity of work and identity
regulation on the formation of self-identity. In other words, these managers have
accepted these positions because they thought they have acquired the skills needed for
this position—mostly managerial and technical skills (identity of work). This may be the
result of their professional experience and their attempt to implement instructions and
orders in a highly centralised system, which in turn may have influenced their identity as
managers or leaders (self-identity), because the system may have given them some
authority and, sometimes, the freedom to make decisions.
Participants’ perceptions of themselves were based on several factors, as previously
mentioned. Accordingly, if the majority could not distinguish between management and
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leadership terms, they did not learn how to implement and develop vision or have the
skills to influence others—or they did not consider it important to learn these from
others. Therefore, if most of them are indeed facing challenges while performing their
roles and need help to overcome them, how could they be capable of leading the
education system? Identity is based on an individual’s previous experiences, which are
considered to have a subjective meaning and offer answers to questions such as “who am
I?”, “what do I stand for?”, and “how should I do this?” (Sveningsson & Larsson, 2006).
Some individuals may consider themselves not to have the qualities of a leader or may be
in a leadership-like position, but in the social contexts in which they work, they may be
expected to be leaders. This collective support may come from senior managers or from
the wider social context (DeRue & Ashford, 2010). In addition, Fiedler’s (1978) theory
confirms that the most significant determinant of the team task and their performance is
the relationship between leaders and their group; if there is a relationship of appreciation
by the staff to their leader, it encourages trust and loyalty among them as well as for the
organisation (Wong-MingJi, 2013).
It is essential that managers be provided with the necessary skills to become leaders by
taking into consideration many factors related to identity, contexts, and attitudes
associated with leaders (Day et al., 2012), as well as the internal and external
environment of the educational organisation. Furthermore, managers should also have
the ability to understand attitudes and to choose appropriate leadership styles in a
turbulent environment. Educational contexts are complex, so one leadership approach
cannot be defined in all situations. Indeed, situational theory states that some restrictions
or demands can change the position of the leader (e.g., Bush & Glover, 2014; Yukl, 2013).
However, there is a correlation between the pattern of leadership and contingency
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variables which is positively linked with the effectiveness of leadership and organisation
performance (Wong-MingJi, 2013). In addition, “each individual constructs his or her own
version of reality but is influenced in determining this construction by the culture and
context within which he or she resides” (Northfield, 2011, p. 36).
However, does contingency theory address the gap between the manager’s ability to
choose the most appropriate approach to changing the structure of the task, such as
dealing with developments (based on his/her own perception as a leader or manager and
in the absence of accountability), and what is actually appropriate? This theory
sometimes indicates a great degree of managers’ choice about how to structure their
institutions, with no consequences if the outcomes are unsatisfactory (Carnall & By,
2014).
6.3 A Provisional Model of Managers’ Formal Learning Processes
Figure 6.1 provides a provisional model of formal learning processes to explain how to
prepare and develop educational leadership in Kuwait from managers’ perceptions. It
shows the body responsible for providing professional development programmes for
leadership (i.e., the MoE), which in turn relies on the Civil Service Commission and the
private sector to design training programmes, although these are often not aimed
specifically at developing leadership in education. The MoE offers these programmes to
managers who work in the ministry, districts, and schools without any regard for the
different training needs or contexts in which these managers operate (see Sections
6.4.2.1 and 6.6.1). It is also responsible for determining conditions for the selection of
candidates who may be qualified but not in this field of education.
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Figure 6.1. Provisional model of formal learning processes to prepare and develop
educational leadership in Kuwait, from managers’ perceptions.
The findings confirmed that there was no meaningful leadership development plan and
the programmes offered did not meet the managers’ needs because they were not
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specifically designed for them. The MoE and ED share the implementation, support, and
evaluation that may not exist in reality. Participation was optional as the courses did not
actually fall within the criteria required for the manager position (see Section 6.7.2).
Nevertheless, some managers seek activities that meet their needs in institutions of civil
society or the private sector, which may also not be designed for leadership in the
education sector (see Section 6.4.2.2).
The training could impact on schools through the ministry’s supervision of the districts,
which in turn oversees schools. As there were no leadership development programmes
for these managers, there was no development directed at school administrators, despite
the preparation for leadership starting in school (for some managers); here they continue
to improve their leadership skills through moving to ED to be managers with leadership
skills when they get a position in senior management.
6.4 Engagement in Formal and Informal Professional Development
This section addresses the findings related to RSQ2: To what extent have the MoE and ED
managers engaged in leadership development activities (whilst in post)? The discussion
focuses on four sections: formal activities carried out by managers to develop their skills;
professional development in-service programmes, which includes programmes provided
by the MoE and PS; the impact of professional development programmes; and informal
learning activities.
6.4.1 Formal Activities
The results indicated that most participants attended several training courses during their
careers to develop their skills as managers, supervisors, or even department heads. The
majority of survey respondents agreed that the activities were designed for their needs
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and helped them prepare and develop their leadership skills (see Section 5.2.3). These
results differ from indirect evidence coming from NIE (2013) (see Section 6.4.2), which
indicated that training programmes for school leaders were inadequate and ineffective.
Also, these were contrary to the results of Al-Khatib and Al-Enezi (2008). However, they
are broadly consistent with Amro and Awawda's (2016) results that training programmes
for educational leaders in Jordan during service were highly effective.
As explained in Section 6.2.1, the majority of participants could not distinguish between
management and leadership, which means that they could not define their identity in
terms of whether they are managers or leaders. Therefore, in the future, they would not
be able to identify their training needs (Figure 6.1) to exercise leadership because identity
is the basis for individuals to understand their needs, strengths, and personal challenges
(Day et al., 2012). In this sense, managers may think that these activities meet their
leadership needs whereas, in reality, they are programmes that develop the managerial
and technical skills of their respective tasks according to specialisation, rather than
leadership skills. Indeed, some participants (e.g., Fahad) mentioned this during the
interviews. According to Bandura's (1977) theory, desired performance may not always
be achieved if the person lacks the necessary skills. If some managers could not identify
their role (i.e., leader or manager), their expected needs may be inaccurate.
Furthermore, there is some debate about the actual effectiveness of the activities that
the managers are aware of. For example, self-directed study is an educational process
aimed at the self (i.e., who they are and how they decide what is important to them), but
the self is influenced by societal and cultural factors and values, beliefs, and individual
needs (Garrison, 1997; Merriam, 2001; Song & Hill, 2007). This will undoubtedly affect
managers’ understanding of their skills and how they choose appropriate learning
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methods to develop these skills and their sources (Day et al., 2012), which in turn affects
their judgement of the effectiveness of these programmes. This was indicated in Figure
6.1, which illustrates personal effort of managers to develop their leadership skills
according to their view of their training needs.
However, even if it is assumed that these participants have the necessary professional
expertise and capabilities to identify their needs and to successfully meet and develop
them, most did not realise that the administrative professional skills of the manager are
quite different from the skills needed by those exercising leadership. Therefore, it could
legitimately be asked whether it would be possible to judge the effectiveness of these
programmes in developing their leadership skills, even if they had already developed
managerial skills.
In addition, although attending seminars or presentations was a popular choice for
managers (Table 5.10), they got a low rating as the two most effective activities in
developing leadership skills (Table 5.11). This may indicate that these programmes were
not related to leadership skills and did not meet the needs of these managers. This is
because the courses offered by the MoE are general programmes that have no relation to
the educational field (see Figure 6.1). They attended them for many reasons—not only for
the development of leadership skills, but also to get out of the normal work routine or
meet colleagues to exchange ideas and experiences. In addition, the attendance of such
activities is documented in the manager’s record or curriculum vitae, regardless of the
quality of learning as a result of participating in such activity (Lloyd & Davis, 2018).
The data obtained from the interviews contracted the results of the questionnaires
because the majority of interview participants mentioned that seminars and
presentations did not meet their needs or benefit them in developing their leadership
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skills. Because interviews are ideal for following up on initial questionnaire responses to
gain additional information, they can further clarify or shed light on specific issues (Savin-
Baden & Major, 2013). Conversations between participants and the researcher can
provide a more detailed explanation and interpretation of some points. The interview
participants realised the differences between managerial and leadership skills and,
consequently, their responses became more specific. Accordingly, they did not feel that
these activities had developed their leadership skills, although they may have had an
impact on the development of management skills. This is in line with the study conducted
by the Advisory Group of the National Institute of Education in Singapore (NIE, 2013),
which suggested that most believed that leadership training programmes in the
education system in Kuwait are of low-quality.
6.4.2 Professional Development In-Service Programmes
6.4.2.1 Programmes Provided by the Ministry of Education (PPMoE)
Although the majority of survey respondents agreed that there were professional
development programmes provided by the ministry that met their needs to develop their
leadership skills, almost all the interview participants reported that there were no
professional development activities designed to develop their leadership skills. This
difference is due to the inability of most survey respondents to distinguish between
professional development programmes aimed at developing their ability as managers and
job skills in general, on the one hand, and those to develop their leadership skills on the
other. They therefore believed that any professional development activities could be
considered leadership development courses.
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During the interviews, the researcher drew managers’ attention to the fact that the
intended programmes were to develop educational leadership skills. Some participants
(such as Sa’ad and Mona) stressed that there were no activities aimed at developing
leadership skills, but only courses that were not related and did not meet their needs. The
interviewees realised that leadership development was intended, and most of them
emphasised the programmes’ lack of effectiveness because they did not meet their needs
to exercise leadership; this probably confirms that there were no professional
development programmes for leadership. This finding concurs with the studies of NIE
(2013) (indirect evidence) and Al-Khatib and Al-Enezi (2008), who concluded that these
programmes did not take into account trainees’ needs when determining their content.
The MoE has sought to develop its staff (UNESCO, 2011), including managers, who have
attended professional development programmes since the early years of their
appointment. However, according to the participants, these were not relevant to their
role as leaders. Perhaps this indicated that the MoE did not perceive the need for
managers to show leadership skills, but rather only act as effective managers. The MoE
may have also provided some activities to managers by enlisting private sector companies
to deliver them (i.e., organise, prepare lectures, and determine the programme content
and goals). Perhaps the MoE believes in the importance of introducing private sector
management techniques to the public sector, especially with the emergence of NPM,
which stresses the importance of neoliberal and managerial theories to make the public
sector more efficient by restructuring and reorganising the state through privatisation
and marketisation (Bevir, 2009).
However, these companies did not specialise in educational leadership; their programmes
targeted private sector leaders and public sector leaders, and they tended to focus more
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on managerial development than leadership development (for further details, see Section
6.4.2.2). As a result, managers did not feel that these were effective because most of
them were irrelevant to the education field and lacked specialist lecturers with the
necessary educational experience.
6.4.2.2 Programmes Provided by the Private Sector (PPPS)
Although half of the survey respondents agreed that there were PPPS, most argued they
did not meet their needs. However, regarding the PPMoE, the majority agreed that they
were meeting their needs. During the interviews, the majority of managers agreed that
they had participated in PPPS which had perhaps helped them develop some leadership
skills, even though they were not directed at educational leaders. However, most did not
agree that the PPMoE had met their needs to develop leadership skills.
This difference in responses stems from many reasons. Most questionnaire participants
attended PPMoE because their activities were held during official working hours and the
MoE bore the cost of fees. Regarding PPPS, perhaps the negative feedback was in part
because participants were forced to pay for them (and they are often expensive), and
they are held in the evenings, which managers normally consider as non-working time. As
a result, respondents thought the programmes did not meet their needs. There is also the
confusing the distinction between programmes designed to develop leadership and
management skills, which led the majority to believe that there were PPMoE to develop
their leadership skills. In addition, some of them claimed not to not know about PS
programmes because they did not seek to attend them, even though it is generally
accepted that managers should strive to develop their skills rather than relying on the
MoE (Attard, 2017). They might not trust PPPS due to the private sector in Kuwait being
small, undeveloped, and multiracial, as it is heavily dependent on expatriate labour

261
(Abdalla & Al-Homoud, 1995). Finally, they might have believed that they already had
these skills (see Section 5.3.2).
The interview respondents’ answers might have been more accurate and specific than the
questionnaire responses because, during the interview, the difference between
management and leadership concepts became clearer for them. They reported that
attending PPPS may have helped them develop some of their leadership skills. Perhaps
this is because they understood their training needs and sought to develop them through
the PS because they were not available (from their point of view) through the MoE. As for
the effectiveness of PPPS, some perceived them as good, effective, and better than the
PPMoE. This may be logical because those attending PS programmes paid the cost, in
either money or time (or both). It could be deduced that the managers would not have
paid this cost if they were not sure that these programmes would meet their needs (at
least according to their expectations). Lapsley (2009) argued that NPM is an influential set
of management techniques based on the standards and practices of PS performance. It
confirms value for money (Jary & Jary, 2005), which means paying money for good
services. Managers tried to choose effective programmes that met their needs through
the PS and paid for this service. In addition, some understood the courses were about
leadership but not specialising in education, but they still sought to attend, in part due to
the absence of MoE activities to meet their training needs as educational leaders.
It should be noted that gender differences emerged regarding attendance of professional
development programmes. More women attended MoE courses than PS sessions,
perhaps because of their family obligations. As previously mentioned, PS activities are
often held in the evening, which is usually when women are committed to their children
and homework. Therefore, it can be difficult for them to leave the house for a whole day.
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Consequently, they prefer to attend the MoE sessions, which are often held in the
morning.
Male managers were more involved in PS programmes than MoE ones, despite their
family commitments. However, in Kuwaiti society, their role is not considered the same as
the wife or mother; men depend on their wives to run the house and care for the
children, while men are often outside the home to do some tasks or maybe spend time
with friends at Diwaniyah (a place reserved in most big Kuwaiti houses to gather men
from families, tribes, and friendship circles). Therefore, male managers do not perceive
evening training programmes as possibly affecting their family obligations.
6.4.3 Impact of Professional Development Programmes
In general, the participants preferred PPPS because they chose activities which they
believed met their needs (at least according to their expectations)—that is, both
managerial and leadership skills—although the overall goal of these programmes may
have been financial gain for course organisers. Therefore, this may be a reason to provide
informative content and lecturers with leadership experience in order to attract
managers or employees to attend these courses. This was particularly important when
managers sought to attend the PPPS on their own, because they were the ones who paid
for them.
In addition, the MoE offers courses in agreement and conjunction with the PS; the MoE
pay for these courses. Kuwait, as an active member of UNESCO, has sought to achieve its
educational goals for achieving sustainable human development by increasing its
proportion of spending on education and encouraging private sector participation and
investment in education (MOE, 2014). However, participants considered these activities
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as neither useful nor influential. Although they were intended to develop only
administrative and technical skills, rather than leadership skills, as Fahad and Ali pointed
out, those organising and delivering the programmes (PS) were not specialists in
education and, as a result, the lecturers often did not have training skills at the required
level. The civil service has adapted to working with the private sector in order to provide
efficiency and greater efficacy of delivery (Marobela, 2008). However, these processes
lead to many questions being asked about the efficiency and effectiveness of these
operations, such as the extent of their contribution to improving management, use of
resources, degree of accountability required to organise the learning processes, and the
extent to which to accept education as a commodity to be bought and sold on the market
(Balarin, 2014).
Surprisingly there is a contradiction between the responses of participants regarding the
effectiveness and impact of PPPS. In the first case, the participants chose the subject,
lecturer, and institution or organisation which will provide training programmes because
they would pay. However, in the second case (when the MoE pays the cost), achieving
personal interests (or financial gain for some participants) was prioritised, rather than
checking the efficiency or effectiveness of the institution providing these programmes.
Furthermore, because there is no clear and deliberate plan from the ministry to train
educational leaders, the required competencies, instructor skills, and course content and
objectives could not be properly determined. Therefore, these courses had no impact on
the managers’ leadership skills.
As for the PPMoE, the majority of participants indicated a lack of effectiveness or impact
on their leadership skills. Indeed, Earley et al. (2012) argued that a large sample thought
that none of the continuing professional development programmes were very useful for
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middle/senior leaders, perhaps due to the fact that there were no courses dedicated to a
training plan for leadership development. However, the MoE does offer external courses
to managers in cooperation with the Civil Service Commission (CSC). In this case, most of
the interviewees believed that these sessions were useful and influential, even though
they were not always relevant to education. This may be attributed to the different
learning experiences of people from other countries (not necessarily related to their role),
which led them to believe that this had developed their leadership skills.
Despite their belief in the programmes’ effectiveness, some participants felt that many
factors may have had a negative impact on them. These factors could be classified as
internal and external. The internal factors are the result of wasta (similar to nepotism in
English) and may have affected the integrity of the processes of selecting those who
participate in these sessions (i.e., those who did not need the course or did not have the
goal to develop their skills are selected). In addition, they may not be prepared for the
teaching methods used (Jones, 2009).
As for the external factors, the differences among societal cultures should be considered.
Is it possible to adapt what is being learned in other countries, whether Arab or foreign,
with the nature of Kuwaiti society? Slater et al. (2018) confirmed that formal
development programmes for both developed and developing countries should not be
standardised in all countries. Although all nations are undergoing globalisation, Appadurai
(2000) argued that it is certainly a source of concern for many people. As a key part of
Kuwaiti society is personal privacy, the failure to take this into account when planning
external courses will certainly have a negative impact on the efficiency and effectiveness
of the development of educational leadership.
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6.4.4 Informal Learning Activities
The majority of participants agreed that informal learning methods had a more effective
role than formal learning methods. That is consistent with many studies on the same
topic (e.g., DeRue & Wellman, 2009; McCall, 2004). The majority of the survey
respondents confirmed that personal experience was one of the best methods of learning
that they experienced during their assignments, followed by discussions with colleagues
and reading books and studies. This finding was also confirmed during the interviews.
Clearly some informal learning methods overlap with each other and may be a result of
participation in formal or informal learning processes. In this sense, learning from
personal experience resulted in managers accomplishing some tasks, whether effective or
otherwise, thereby leading to the acquisition of personal experience, where each
individual could learn how to accomplish tasks correctly and learn through the process of
reflection—namely, what happened to extract knowledge and procedures to develop
their practice. Schön (1983) confirmed that reflection is built on past experiences and
leads to the development of good practice. It also helps identify personal strengths and
improve professional competence (Sellars, 2017). In addition, it helps managers think
about their experiences of themselves and with others in the workplace (Miller, 2005).
Informal learning may mean learning from trial and error. For example, Hamad indicated
that he always tried to change and develop his performance to overcome the mistakes of
previous positions. Thus, although participants attempted to identify specific methods as
the most effective for them, in general, informal learning methods were more influential
than formal learning programmes. Informal learning sometimes taking place without
planning but according to specific situations, thereby becoming more realistic and linked
to managers’ tasks. In addition, perhaps through trial and error, employees needed to
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consult those who were more experienced when dealing with problems, which in turn
helped them to build on their experiences. This was confirmed by most participants,
including Fahad, Bader, and Mona.
Interestingly, the majority of survey participants believed that the experiences of others
were not useful and had no impact on the development of their skills. Perhaps this was
because those who dealt with them, such as former managers, did not have the ability to
direct or train them (Earley, 2013; Hobson, 2003), whereas the majority of interview
respondents confirmed that they had learned from their former directors, religious
figures such as the Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him), or characters and media
programmes (Sa’ad and Hamad). Thus, learning occurred through the observation of
eminent or notable people (Ibarra, 1999; Kempster, 2009; Kempster & Parry, 2014). The
social learning theory is concerned with understanding types of learning that depend on
the observation of human behaviour rather than on direct intervention, which might
sometimes indicate imitation, observational learning, or modelling (Bandura, 1977;
Lankshear & Knobel, 2011).
This difference may be due to the fact that the interview participants had more
opportunity to talk about their experiences, ideas, and beliefs, which helped expand on
their ideas and experiences, such as how they were influenced or taught by specific and
prominent personalities or even by their former managers. However, some questionnaire
respondents may have seen that other methods were more effective for their learning,
and therefore learning from others was not significant for them (Kempster, 2006). In
other words, they may have learned something without realising that the learning
process had taken place, as what was stored in the mind was not activated until they
experienced the same condition again and then recalled this experience (Handley et al.,
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2007; McCall, 2004). Furthermore, as everyone has to deal with different personalities,
managers, and colleagues, how can they not be affected or learn of those around them
(Attard, 2017; Lave & Wenger, 1991)?
Informal learning may also have occurred because of mistakes made by a former
manager; therefore, the current manager should learn how to avoid them in the future
(Ali). Indeed, social learning theory says that observations help people compare their
behaviours with others and then make value judgements (Roeckelein, 2006). Alternatively
learning may come from lived experiences, which will be discussed in detail in the next
section.
6.5 Importance of Previous and Relevant Experiences of Working in
Education
This section addresses the findings related to RSQ3: To what extent have past and current
experiences been helpful in developing the expertise of MoE and ED managers? It
includes a discussion of the managers’ perceptions of the importance of their previous
employment experience. The interview and survey participants agreed that previous
experience played a significant role in their success as managers and educational leaders,
concurring with results from Kempster (2006), McCall (2004) and DeRue and Wellman
(2009).
The majority also strongly agreed that they had the authority to exercise their role and
that they had an influence on others, which enabled them to lead successfully because
their experiences had helped them. This outcome contradicts the findings of Winokur,
(2014), Alkandari (2013), and Hassan (2008), who found that the education system in
Kuwait is heavily centralised and, therefore, the MoE is the ultimate decision maker. As a
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result, managers do not have the freedom to make decisions and exercise power
properly. For example, there may be some situations in which managers feel that they
have some authority or that they can make some decisions, but according to Wildy et al.
(2004), managers can find it difficult to make decisions due to a number of factors, such
as being accountable to higher educational authorities. This result also differs from the
findings presented in Al-Duaij's (1994) study, which concluded that there were relatively
poor performances in some leadership functions of ED managers, such as decision-making
ability.
On the other hand, this result agrees with the sample’s responses in Sections 5.2.2.2 and
5.3.2.2, which indicate that they believed they had leadership skills. This discrepancy may
be due to their thinking that, throughout their years in supervisory positions (see Tables
5.2 and 5.18), their performance of administrative work had become easier and more
flexible. In addition, it could be because they had learned from their mistakes or from
others, whether their former managers or those with whom they dealt.
In addition, the results showed that most respondents believed that their relationship
remained unchanged with others after they became managers, suggesting that they may
not fully understand the nature of the relationship between managers and employees.
Perhaps their responses could be attributed to their belief that, if leaders exercised their
real roles in leadership, others might perceive them as authoritarian. Although this may
be true, the relationship between managers and staff might differ in one way or another
due to factors such as influence, motivation, and the responsibilities borne by leaders.
They might also possess leadership skills that distinguish them from others (Ayub et al.,
2014; OECD, 2001; Yukl, 2013). However, because most participants may not have
269
understood the nature of this relationship, they believed that, if it changed, it would be a
negative indicator of their success in their leadership roles.
Several interviewees pointed to the importance of expertise in specialisation in the same
field. In other words, functional experience in general is necessary, but experience in
specialisation and career progression in the same field had a greater impact on the
success of managers in their leadership role according to Sa’ad and Hamad. Although
Hamad was not a qualified teacher, his constant presence at school and his contact with
students and their parents helped him develop his leadership abilities through his
experience of dealing with some issues in schools. Similarly, DeRue and Wellman (2009)
emphasised that leadership learning encompasses the profession, learning orientation,
and context to support the development of leaders through experience.
Fahad also confirmed the role of experience in the same specialisation, although his
experience was outside the MoE before becoming a head of department in one ED. He
believed that it had a positive impact on his leadership role; for example, he was aware of
matters related to administration. Fahad’s perception may perhaps be influenced as a
result of his previous experiences working with military leaders during the Iraqi invasion
of Kuwait (1990) before moving to the MoE. At that time, these circumstances were
characterised by rapid changes, speed of decision-making, and taking responsibility and
risks to meet the difficult situation facing the country. Therefore, it can certainly be
concluded that this context helped develop his leadership skills. This also corroborates
Kempster's (2006) suggestion that growth through difficult situations in the context of the
senior leadership enhances the identity of the leader.
Most participants emphasised that specialist experience was of great importance when
appointing a manager. This is probably because of the problems from which the
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education system suffers and, indeed, which remain unresolved because those working
on these issues may have no knowledge or experience about problems occurring in the
educational field. Their experience might be in a different specialisation. The presence of
managers with extensive experience does not mean that they will be successful in
exercising leadership in their roles because experience is not based exclusively on how
many years an employee spends at work. An employee is likely to acquire practical
experience for skills such as using a computer or doing certain administrative tasks.
However, this does not mean he/she learned leadership skills. Indeed, Wheelahan (2007)
suggested that institutions may need specific skills (e.g., IT, teaching or leadership skills,
according to the requirements of the profession). For example, employees with extensive
experience in administrative work and who have practiced many tasks, such as
organisation and coordination, may have acquired managerial skills because their role
required them to do so, but they were unable to exercise any leadership or did not
acquire leadership skills because they were immersed in administrative work.
There was an assumption that managers gained a variety of experiences through formal
or informal learning methods to develop their leadership skills according to their
perceptions and identification of their needs. Again, this does not mean that those who
used these methods will also have acquired the necessary leadership skills. The process of
learning depends on the extent of the individual’s willingness to learn, how to explain the
new information, and how to store and recover it when it is needed. Zepeda et al. (2014)
argued that adult learning has five characteristics: self-directed, learner-driven, focus on
the problem, appropriate orientation, and goal-oriented. All of these can undoubtedly
affect the learning or acquisition of any skill (e.g., McCall, 2010), as the data obtained
from Fahad indicated. He pointed out that he tried to link what he heard or learned
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during the situations he was experiencing or sessions he attended with the information
already been stored in his memory. But was he dealing with the data or information
correctly? In other words, is what he acquired the necessary skill? The answer can, of
course, vary from one person to another. According to Bandura (1977), perceived self-
efficacy affects the identification of behaviours (as discussed in Chapter 3 ).
Managers also did not realise the significance of having experience as teachers and
emphasised only the importance of expertise in the departments they manage. As the
research sample included managers from different departments in the MoE and ED, some
had experience in education whereas others were more familiar with administrative or
engineering activities or psychological and social services. Those with managerial or
engineering experience did not need to have prior experience as a teacher (which also
applies to psychosocial services and activities management; see Sections 5.2.1 and 5.3.1).
If the research study participants did not have experience with what happens in schools,
they may not be able to deal with educational developments, such as renewal of
curricula, development of teaching methods, and the use of technology in the process of
education. Furthermore, they will not understand the teacher’s role, functions, and
professional needs and would find it difficult to develop a vision related to their roles as
educational leaders or lead others to achieve it. This corroborates with the ideas of
DeRue and Wellman (2009), who suggested that leadership is learned through activities
and events in the context of lived experience.
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6.6 Leadership Development: Relevant Preparation and Training
This section discusses three topics related to RSQ4: How effective has the training been
for MoE and ED managers (before being appointed) for their leadership role? The first
subsection covers the educational leadership preparation programmes specifically
designed to provide managers with the necessary leadership skills for their new role
before being promoted to a higher post. This is followed by a discussion of the
effectiveness of the preparation programmes. Finally, the strengths and weaknesses of
leadership training programmes are summarised.
6.6.1 Educational Leadership Preparation Programmes
Participants’ views on the preparation programmes for educational leadership that they
attended before being appointed to their new positions were almost identical to their
responses on professional development programmes in-service (see Section 6.4.2).
Therefore, this section discusses their views of the PPMoE and PPPS together with a focus
on preparation activities to avoid repeating what has been discussed previously.
The majority of the survey respondents agreed that PPMoE prepared them for their
leadership role and helped them acquire the necessary leadership skills before being
hired as managers. As for the PPPS, about half of respondents suggested that they helped
prepare them to exercise leadership; some respondents could not determine whether PS
preparation programmes existed or if these courses met their training needs. These
finding indicate the confusion that participants experienced when determining the type
and/or topic of these activities—namely, whether they were focused on leadership or
management, not to mention that if they were for professional development or
preparation.
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In contrast to these findings, the interview results stressed that there was no preparation
for PPMoE, which agreed with the results obtained by Alkarni (2015) (indirect evidence),
who emphasised the absence of a preparatory programme. However, the MoE offered
courses which may have been aimed to develop staff in supervisory positions, and some
managers sought to attend them since becoming heads of departments or being
appointed to supervisor positions in order to prepare themselves for their role if they
were promoted as managers and leaders, even though the programmes were not
specifically designed for leadership preparation. In addition, they indicated that there was
no preparation PPPS, but there were various courses for management and sometimes
leadership, although not specifically educational leadership. From the participants’ point
of view, these courses were commercial sessions designed only to make a profit.
This discrepancy may be due to the fact that most survey participants were confused
between courses designed to develop their job skills on one hand and programmes
designed to prepare them for their leadership role before being appointed as managers
on the other hand. They considered any course they attended was to develop their
professional skills also aimed to prepare them to exercise leadership (according to their
responses) because professional development refers to broad changes that can occur
during service, leading to qualitative shifts in aspects of teachers’ or managers’
professionalism (Fraser et al., 2007). The preparation process is often done during service,
but its goal is to provide the employee or manager with the necessary skills for a higher
position (Earley, 2013). In other words, before managers occupied these positions, they
were, for example, department heads or supervisors (in service). Therefore, before they
were promoted, some activities should be undertaken to prepare them for their
leadership role. The preparation focuses on training skills for the new role, but the
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participants in the survey did not realise that, perhaps because the process of preparation
interferes with professional development procedures, where the main objectives and
content are developed according to the needs of the individual (Hamilton et al., 2018).
Therefore, most respondents found it difficult to determine the type of activities they
attended (i.e., whether they were for preparation for the new role or for professional
development).
During the interviews, most participants realised that preparation courses were different
from professional development courses; thus, their answers were clearer and more
specific, and they confirmed that they had not attended any preparation programmes for
their new role. In addition, some believed that the process of preparing for their roles had
to start at early functional stages, not just before their appointment as a manager (e.g.,
Hamad and Ali). This corroborates the ideas of Bush and Jackson (2002) and Hamilton et
al. (2018) (see Section 6.7.2 for more detail).
This result confirms that there were no specialised programmes directed to managers
before their appointment in order to prepare them for their leadership role. In this sense,
it could be concluded that the ministry does not have a clear plan in place (see Section
6.7), although this is its responsibility. These managers work with others and influence
their attitudes; therefore, they should have the necessary leadership skills. However,
what is currently happening is that some employees, whether heads of departments or
supervisors or even managers, are making personal efforts to prepare themselves and
develop their leadership skills by attending courses, which may not be suitable for their
role or their actual needs to exercise leadership. When these courses were not related to
leadership, perhaps because of their lack of experience in this area, there appeared to be
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some confusion among the majority of participants between the terms of management
and leadership.
Others did not seek to prepare themselves for their leadership roles and did not attend
any courses (e.g., Heba and Noha), perhaps because there is currently no plan in the
ministry to prepare for leadership or there is no mandatory requirement for the
candidate to attend such courses before promotion. Bandura’s (1977) social learning
theory confirms that there are many activities that people (managers) can do to ensure
that they can succeed, but they might not always carry them out it because they have no
motivation to do so. This raises questions about managers’ roles, performances, and
impact on others, not to mention their need for different leadership skills that they may
only be able to obtain through preparation activities.
Although there were contradictions and dilemmas in the responses between quantitative
and qualitative results (e.g., the questionnaire participants’ confusion, inability to
distinguish between development or preparation courses, and lack of distinction between
programmes aimed to develop their leadership skills or their management skills), it is
difficult to doubt the sincerity of interviewee’s responses. Therefore, it could be
concluded that there were no PPMoE aimed at preparing them as educational leaders,
but perhaps there were PPPS that some managers tried to attend in order to develop
their abilities and prepare themselves for their leadership roles in the future.
6.6.2 Effectiveness of the Preparation Programmes
This section discusses participants’ views on the effectiveness of these programmes. The
quantitative results will be analysed separately because, during the interviews, the
strengths and weaknesses of the activities that the interviewees attended were classified
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regardless of the providers, as the goal of the interview was to get a fuller and deeper
picture of the training activities that best prepared participants for their role as leaders.
Their comments emphasised the lack of specialised training sessions aimed at developing
the necessary leadership skills.
The quantitative results showed that participants were not satisfied with the preparation
of either the PPMoE or PPPS, although there were some responses that mentioned a few
strengths of these activities. Similarly, NIE (2013) and Al-Khatib and Al-Enezi (2008)
emphasised the weaknesses of the preparation programmes of educational leaders in
Kuwait.
The participants referred to courses that had developed their managerial skills. For
example, some participants pointed out that these courses were provided to meet their
needs in the administrative field. However, there were also neutral and negative
responses that pointed to many weaknesses (e.g., they were not relevant to education; it
is just theory and does not relate to practice), indicating that these were ineffective in
their preparation.
In addition, some responses showed that managers were unable to determine whether
these activities had developed their skills and prepared them for a leadership role, simply
because they did not know about their existence. Another possible explanation for this is
that they did not attend these courses because they were felt to be irrelevant to
educational leadership or were ineffective in meeting their training needs. Alternatively—
and perhaps more likely—there were no programmes to prepare educational leaders
before their appointment as managers. As determined in Section 6.6.1, these activities
were for the development of managerial and administrative skills only, yet had many
weaknesses at the same time. As such, how could they have met their needs?
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6.6.3 Strengths and Weaknesses in Leadership Training Programmes
Although the interview participants did not attend any preparation courses, they did
mention some strengths and weaknesses in the activities they attended, either from the
MoE or PS, in addition to some of the courses they attended in different countries outside
Kuwait. The interview data indicated that there were some strengths in the training
courses which managers attended, such as quality of the lecturer and time period.
However, some respondents (e.g., Noha, Sa’ad, and Hamad) were describing courses held
outside Kuwait or that they were hoped that these features would be present in the
sessions offered in Kuwait.
These strengths are important factors for any training activities regardless of their
objective (whether to develop managerial or leadership skills) because, as Section 5.3.3.1
suggested, there were no training or preparation programmes aimed at educational
leadership, despite MoE attempts to organise courses. Yet these courses were based on a
plan not to prepare them as leaders, but rather to provide them with some of the
expertise and skills they needed as managers or perhaps supervisors or employees (such
as decision-making skills and development of strategic plans).
The participants emphasised that specialisation in both courses and lecturers (Section
5.3.5.2) was one of the most important strengths of these programmes. They felt the
need to attend specialised courses in educational leadership for each department
separately, because managers roles and tasks differed by their departments. McCall
(2010) confirmed that, to support leadership learning through experience, emphasis
should be placed on individual learner differences as well as cognitive levels. This may
increase the complexity of how training activities for leadership are designed and point to
the urgent need for specialists with experience in doing this.

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One of the main providers of training programmes for MoE staff in Kuwait is the
Administration of Development and Improvement in the MoE (Al-Khatib & Al-Enezi,
2008), which also uses the PS to organise some courses. Occasionally, it has asked
experienced current managers to present a lecture to fellow new managers. Crow (2004)
mentioned reservations about using veteran principals for leadership preparation; he
argued that experienced professionals may not promote creativity and innovation.
Another area for debate is the criteria for selecting an experienced manager to provide a
course. Is the information or expertise that the trainer has relevant to what other
managers need? Or does the manager see him-/herself as having leadership skills that
he/she seeks to transfer to colleagues? If so, why were these experiences not already
transferred to staff, such as managers or leaders in their administration, especially the as
essence of professional development includes many approaches to learning and practice
in the context of public professional values and accountability (Bolam, 2000). Earley
(2013) argued that not all leaders have the ability to provide training and mentoring for
new leaders, which underscores the need for mentors at different times and for various
purposes. Bandura (1971) pointed out that people (managers) are drawn to models (e.g.,
senior leadership) with significant qualities (see Section 3.2.3 for a discussion of the social
learning theory).
As some participants mentioned a few strengths, each according to his or her perspective,
this may mean that the others did not see any significant advantages in any activities they
attended (assuming they attended training programmes during their career, as
demonstrated by demographic data). Alternatively, it could mean that they did not attend
training courses outside of Kuwait. However, does this mean that all courses held within
Kuwait offer no advantages or strengths? Or does it mean that the participants attended
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some sessions but they did not have an impact on their skills or leadership experience,
thus they did not mention any of their strengths? Perhaps managers lack experience in
identifying the training programmes needed to develop and prepare themselves.
Participants’ responses also highlighted numerous weaknesses among these programmes
(Section 5.3.5.3), leading to a lack of benefit from them. Maybe they did not attend the
programmes because of their lack of confidence in their effectiveness. According to the
social learning theory, a learner might ignore models that lack distinctive characteristics,
although they may have some skills that are not visible (Bandura, 1971). This is in line
with indirect evidence from Alkarni (2015), who emphasised that the training of
headteachers (because some managers were headteachers) did not fulfil their needs
entirely.
Some respondents indicated that MoE regulations limited the possibility of applying what
they learned from the courses. As such, these programmes might have had a positive
impact on managers’ skills, but they could not apply them because of the regulations that
reduced the capabilities developed by these activities. These managers apply top-down
regulations in a highly centralised system, so they could not exercise their leadership role
or apply skills acquired because of constraints imposed by central systems, resulting in
ineffective skills.
According to Carnall and By (2014), the tendency to comply with rules and regulations—
whether appropriate or not—confirms that the organisation system is somewhat
deficient, because the bureaucratic structures are characterized by a high degree of
functional specialisation, through reliance on formal procedures, and by hierarchical
control. This is perhaps because of the centrality of the education system and consistent
with Alkandari's (2013) study that such organisations receive directions from a central
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authority and apply the decisions of the government. Abdalla and Al-Homoud (1995)
concluded that the resultant Kuwaiti bureaucracy may be criticised for being rigid in
hierarchical authority.
It is possible that the content of these programmes was not related to the education
system in Kuwait; therefore, the regulations did not permit their application in practice. In
addition, some administrative and leadership theories presented may not be appropriate
or consistent with the education system in Kuwait, as confirmed by participants such as
Mona and Ali.
Despite the openness of Kuwait to developed countries in the era of globalisation and the
exchange of advanced education systems, some managers find it difficult to apply what
they learn in different environments of Kuwaiti society. This raises questions about using
specialists from outside Kuwait to provide courses or develop training plans for managers
or sending trainees to courses in other countries, as is usually the case. Although
participants mentioned the strengths of the external courses, they also noted this
weakness because the information may not be compatible with applicable to the Kuwaiti
education system. It is important to recognise the importance of culture and context in
shaping the preparation and development of leadership in each country (Bush, 2013;
Walker, Bryant, & Lee, 2013). Alkandari (2013) concluded that change is necessary to
meet the requirements imposed by the state and globalisation.
Most participants considered the lecturers or trainers to be a weakness of the training
programmes, although they were also mentioned as one of the strengths of some
activities. This contradiction suggests that individual lecturers’ training skills and
capabilities are important to consider. In addition, some participants believed that
commercial programmes only aimed to generate profits, not meet training needs.
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However, this may contradict the quantitative results as some participants believed these
courses were better than the MoE’s activities (Section 5.2.5.1). In certain cases, the
employee can attend PS training courses that the ministry pays for, but managers may
not have considered whether the trainer was efficient, the content was relevant, or the
course met their needs because they trusted in the MoE to provide them with these
sessions. Yet other participants noted many related weaknesses (e.g., content and lack of
relevance to education), concluding that PS programmes were merely commercial in
nature.
To clarify, NPM tried to convert different tasks to executive agencies by introducing
private sector management techniques to the public sector (Bevir, 2009). Therefore, a
reasonable question to ask is whether the contracting agency had the necessary
experience in education or leadership or whether the objectives, content provided, and
even methods of training and education used were applicable to participants’ context. All
of these issues undoubtedly affected the participants’ view of the effectiveness of these
programmes.
Interestingly, all participants reported only the strengths or weaknesses of the training
courses they attended, but in some cases did not address other activities (e.g.,
membership in a work party; collaborative learning; receiving on-the-job coaching,
tutoring, or mentoring; job shadowing; using distance-learning materials), even when
they indicated that they had participated in such activities and had developed their skills
(Table 5.10). Interviewees might not have practised these skills following the activities, so
they did not mention any of their characteristics. This outcome is contrary to that of
Mohammed (2008), who found that training courses often use group discussions,
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problem-solving, seminars, and workshops as well as seminars between trainers and
trainees and cooperative education.
Another possible explanation is that participants participated without realising that these
were activities to develop their leadership skills. For example, Fahad mentioned that,
“during the lecture, we began to link ideas, and say yes that happened with me, or not
happened, or say that decision I had taken was right, or if it worked like this or that,
would be better.” In other words, he engaged in reflection while attending a lecture and
tried to think about what he did at work, linking it to the new information he learned to
discover whether he had achieved the desired and expected results (Schön, 1983). Belvis
et al. (2013) argued that it is necessary to think about what happens in each activity or
experiment because this is the basis of learning through reflective practice. However, in
the absence of expertise in different training methods, the participants may not have
realised that they had participated in various activities that may have contributed to their
development.
Again, this raises the issue of who is responsible for the development and preparation of
these managers. Is it the managers themselves or the ministry? If the managers are the
ones who must develop themselves, the results indicated that there were attempts to
attend many programmes, but perhaps that they lacked experience in how to do so,
thereby corroborating Lorsch's (2013) finding that organisations are complex social
systems that require the accurate diagnosis of the specific situation. He further suggested
that there is some debate as to whether some leaders can change their style flexibly and
conduct task- or relationship-oriented behaviours, according to their perceptions and
assessments of the situation (Wong-MingJi, 2013).
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Yet if this is the ministry’s responsibility, then it the diversity of sessions for the
preparation of leaders could be reasonably questioned. Social learning theory confirms
that particular models should be provided to illustrate how to implement activities rather
than waiting for mistakes to occur to learn from them (Bandura, 1977). In addition, the
existence of meaningful development activities for the preparation of educational
leadership with different leadership experiences is a vital, important, and necessary issue.
Advocates of contingency theory (Fiedler, 1978) argue that training and experience may
help the leader obtain power and influence others. Furthermore, improving
organisations’ performance through leadership training and providing instruction on how
to deal with changes in regulatory environmental conditions will lead to the development
of capable educational leadership to control the ongoing changes in education.
However, in their criticism of the contingency approach, Carnall and By (2014) noted that
the environment itself may be problematic and cannot be considered as one of the
determinant institutions because it is likely to generate differences within the
organisation.
6.7 Managers’ Views to Improve Educational Leadership Preparation
Processes
This section discusses managers’ views of the methods currently applied in Kuwait’s
education system to develop educational leadership. The discussion focuses on two
areas: leadership qualification and leadership selection. The discussion aims to answer
improved?
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6.7.1 Leadership Qualification
The majority of participants on both the survey and interviews agreed about the need to
prepare educational leadership through qualification processes; they also emphasised the
importance of courses and workshops being tailored to managers’ needs. In addition,
they stressed the need to create conditions for those expected to become managers to
deal with experienced managers in order to gain skills. This means focusing on some
informal training methods, such as working with others or job shadowing. The literature
indicated a general acceptance of the importance of informal methods to contribute to
the learning and development of leadership (DeRue & Wellman, 2009; Kempster, 2006;
McCall, 2004; Robinson & Wick, 1992). These views may have come about because
managers sensed the extent to which such activities were needed to develop their
leadership capacities. Furthermore, they believed in the importance of dealing with
experienced people and their role in developing leadership skills. Indeed, this could be
considered more significant than formal methods, such as courses and lectures, given the
ineffectiveness of the courses and programmes these managers attended—a conclusion
consistent with that of Hunzicker (2011) and Attard (2017). These authors asserted that
traditional professional development opportunities, such as courses or seminars, do not
have an effective impact on the development of managerial skills. In addition, the data in
the current study (Section 5.3.5.3) indicate many weaknesses in existing training
programmes. The managers also believe that working with experienced colleagues is a
qualification process in itself—one which will have an effective impact on their
preparation, helping them to acquire the skills necessary to practise leadership. According
to Bandura’s theory, humans seek to learn to fulfil their needs and desires by observing
the consequences of behaviours and events (Roeckelein, 2006).
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However, these views do not mean that formal methods were not important to the
participants (Kempster, 2006). For example, the majority believed that the existence of a
specialised centre for the development of leadership is an urgent need to qualify leaders.
Perhaps this suggestion confirms their desire for a specialised entity to develop a training
plan for educational leadership and design activities according to their needs. Such a view
concurs with those obtained by Shields and Cassada (2016) and OECD (2008); they argued
that strategic plans to prepare and improve managers should be developed. Furthermore,
Earley (2013) asserted that education managers should be able to get support from a
variety of reliable sources. This, in itself, may indicate the participants’ inability to
correctly identify their needs as leaders, or indeed how to develop their leadership skills,
causing them to be frustrated by the lack of methods that facilitate their own
development and skills to be educational leaders. However, these feelings could also
confirm participants’ desire and personal effort to develop their capacities (Sections
5.2.5.1 and 5.3.5.1), despite not always achieving that goal.
Although almost all of the participants agreed on the need for training activities, some
(such as Hamad) believed that qualification through specialised educational programmes
is unnecessary for managers. They argued that the experience they acquired was
sufficient to prepare them. However, this outcome contradicts Hamilton et al.'s (2018)
finding that leadership forms for senior roles require more complex development
activities.
Mona argued that the qualification should occur in the early stages of the employee’s
work. Hamilton et al. (2018) also emphasised the importance of leadership development
throughout the stages of a person’s career from the beginning. However, they also
stressed the need for its continuation for senior leaders with experience.
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Furthermore, as the process of learning is continuous and varies from person to person,
what is learned and gained from an attitude or experience differs from what another
person is learning. An individual’s self-efficacy is influenced by several factors, such as
performance accomplishments (Bandura et al., 1977) and vicarious experiences (Bandura
et al., 1980), as discussed in Chapter 3.
This discussion begs the question of whether what has been gained from this experience
is what is needed to be learnt? In addition, although managers have had previous and
different experiences, what did these experiences mean? For example, are they
managerial, technical, or leadership experiences? To further illustrate the point, it could
be reasonable to ask, if someone has a long career, does that necessarily mean that
he/she has acquired leadership skills? Learning is more complex and involves more than
just acquiring elements of organisational knowledge (Gherardi et al., 1998).
Fiedler (1978) noted that experience and training increase and drive effectiveness.
Perhaps this confirms Mona’s previous assertion. However, what about educational
developments, rapid changes, and the current information revolution? Is it not necessary
to shorten and organise the huge amount of information that is available and adapt it to
an appropriate context in order to facilitate and guide the learning process and take
advantage of it?
In contingencies, some changes occur in organisations when changes are made to avoid
inefficiency in performance through the adoption of new organisational characteristics to
suit new levels of contingencies (Donaldson, 2001). In other words, preparation is a
necessary process that should start early, but there could be a qualification according to a
well-thought-out plan that helps managers act as educational leaders before they occupy
these positions.
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6.7.2 Leadership Selection
The majority of participants agreed that the current selection mechanism for leaders
should be completely changed, although some believed that it only needed to be revised
or applied impartially, away from stakeholders and nepotism (wasta). The Transparency
Centre of Information (2013) similarly confirmed that the spread of wasta and favouritism
in leaders’ selection was depriving other national competencies from taking leadership
positions.
Despite the apparent variation in opinions (i.e., complete change versus merely revision),
participants seemed to agree that the selection of leaders needs to change to some
degree. For those who demanded complete change (such as Bader and Sa’ad), the current
conditions of selection (efficiency, experience, certification, interview, and courses
attended) are prerequisites that are not applied effectively. In terms of efficiency reports,
Sa’ad and Noha felt they were not a real measure to assess employees for managerial
positions because of the intervention of wasta in staff evaluations. Ashkanani (2001)
underscored the inefficiency of the evaluation system in the public sector due to many
shortcomings. Yet according to NIE (2013), almost 90% of teachers obtained excellent
reports. Therefore, the problem is not the efficiency reports, which are tools to help make
decisions (Ashkanani, 2001), but rather the evaluation process itself. In other words, clear
controls should be put in place for evaluation processes to include accountability
processes to ensure a fair and actual evaluation of the employee (Alkandari, 2013; Bush &
Middlewood, 2013; Thurlow, 2009; Trow, 1996).
The majority of participants also pointed to the regular futility of interviews because
wasta also interferes with the process of evaluating the candidate. They doubted the
abilities and skills of the committee members to choose the right person to be manager
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and leader. Indeed, Bush and Middlewood (2013) suggested that this process is the most
susceptible to biases for several reasons.
Again, this does not mean that interviews were not acceptable as a condition of the
selection process, but the problem here is twofold. First, there is the mechanism of the
application and intervention of stakeholders (i.e., wasta). The spread of favouritism in the
education sector at the expense of public interest will potentially have a devastating
impact on schools and Kuwaiti society as a whole, especially in the selection process of
educational leaderships. Values are strongly associated with leadership (Bush, 2008a,
2011; Bush & Glover, 2003, 2014; NCSL, 2007) and are considered a moral compass and
the basis for the work of leaders (NCSL, 2007). Therefore, perhaps most respondents
believed that the interviews were not effective in selecting leaders because they might
lead to choosing someone not suitable for leadership. This result is in line with Al-Rayes
and Al-Fadhli's (2004) argument that a large percentage of Kuwaiti citizens use wasta to
ensure that they receive what they see as a legitimate right for them. Perhaps this
confirms the critique of contingency theory because an organisation’s design is subject to
political and ideological factors, as various interest groups will turn to conflict when
defending their own interests. Thus, structures are often the outcome of bargaining and
satisfaction to all parties (Carnall & By, 2014).
Second, it is about the ability of the committee members to evaluate candidates. Some
participants questioned this, perhaps because there were no real and clear criteria for
committee members to use in the evaluation processes, such as undue focus on technical
tasks of department (i.e., those which will be part of the role being interviewed for) or
sometimes on administrative aspects to the exclusion of personal aspects (e.g., whether
the candidate has the requisite leadership skills). Leadership performance can be
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measured and interpreted through a number of key elements and factors (Hutton, 2018).
Although committee members are experienced in education, it is unclear whether this
experience is sufficient to help them choose the best, within a period of time (minutes or
hours) and in one sitting through the interview. It is important to apply the contingency
theory to human resource management processes when attracting, selecting, and
appointing leaders with suitable guidance for their specific roles as well as conforming
these roles and their requirements to the current leadership (Wong-MingJi, 2013).
Manager’s views of the process for selecting leaders may reflect their disapproval (i.e.,
whether those chosen as managers are actually leaders), but what about themselves? As
discussed in Section 5.3.5, the majority believed themselves to be leaders, despite the
data indicating that they were managers with limited leadership skills.
Their views also indicate their dissatisfaction with what is happening in the education
field. Success in the selection of educational leadership will have a positive impact on
education because leaders have a significant influence on others (Carnes et al., 2015).
These findings may also explain the cause of successive failures of the Kuwaiti education
system to obtain advanced grades on international tests such as PISA and TIMSS, despite
the considerable efforts of successive governments and budgets allocated for the
development of the education system.
Interestingly, a difference emerged in the managers’ opinions regarding the priority of
selection and the qualification processes. For example, some believed that the selection
process might be done first, but should then followed by a qualification process because
(according to their point of view), if done correctly, that selection process will determine
who will be a leader in the future, meaning they should be qualified and equipped with
the necessary leadership skills. This may mean conducting personal tests for those who
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meet the initial conditions (competence, experience, etc.) to measure some of the
candidate’s skills and predict his/her success as a leader after qualification.
Yet others believed that qualification should precede the selection process, perhaps
because they wondered how a person could be properly evaluated before providing
him/her with some leadership skills? These managers apparently overlooked the role of
experience and its impact on the candidate’s personality and skills. In other words, if a
potential candidate has not acquired some of the necessary skills and abilities that may
help him/her become a leader, is it possible that he/she can learn everything during the
qualification period? According to Fraser et al. (2007), professional learning leads to
specific changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, and professional actions, but professional
development refers to broader changes that can occur over a longer period of time.
6.8 Chapter Summary
The findings revealed that most participants saw themselves as having demonstrated
leadership with necessary skills that qualify them to succeed in their roles, despite the
fact they emphasised the need for more specialised training programmes in educational
leadership to refine these skills. Most participants had been involved in various
professional development programmes throughout their careers. However, there had
been no significant impact of formal learning activities because these did not achieve
their goals or meet their leadership needs in general.
The majority of participants believed that the experience they had gained had helped
them in their role as managers and leaders. However, the results indicate that the
experiences are mostly career experiences that may have helped them in their role as
managers; such experiences were not relevant to education or leadership.
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The results also confirmed that there were no training programmes for the preparation of
educational leaders, but the managers attended some courses during their careers to
develop their skills in both administration and leadership. The majority stressed the
importance of developing processes to prepare educational leaders through professional
learning that considers their training needs. All managers believed that the initial
conditions should be applied with controls and accountability processes for those who
break these rules, with the addition of certain criteria such as tests to determine who has
leadership skills.
The next chapter will summarise the main conclusions from this study and analyse the
findings to answer the main research question and sub-questions.
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Chapter 7: Conclusion
7.1 Introduction
This chapter summarises the findings of the study to answer the main research question
and five sub-questions. Section 7.2 explains original contribution to knowledge arising
from this research. Section7.3 discusses the Substantive findings. Section 7.4 describes
the limitations of the conceptual framework and research design. Section 7.5 addresses
the implications for practice. Finally, recommendations for future research are provided
in Section 7.6.
7.2 Original Contribution to Knowledge
This study sought to explore the effectiveness of the professional development
programmes which might include leadership development of the MoE’s managers and
educational districts in the Kuwaiti education system. Various original contributions to
knowledge were made and are outlined in this section. However, the key ones are the
two models relating to formal and informal leadership development (sections 7.2.1 &
7.2.2).
All the collected data showed that the development processes of educational leadership
was not particularly well-thought-out. Thus, these models have been proposed for the
development of educational leadership, which were derived from the findings of this
study. The researcher hopes that these can be taken or developed and applied to help
develop leadership effectively—namely, by meeting the needs of managers and providing
them with leadership skills to exercise their role and lead the education system in the era
of globalisation.
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7.2.1 Formal Learning Model (FL)
This study contributed to knowledge by providing a leadership development model based
on formal learning, with an explanation of the impact of this learning on school
administration. It is the first model for formal learning to be proposed for MoE and ED
managers in Kuwait.
Using Figure 6.1 (see Section 6.3.1), a model for formal learning is proposed in Figure 7.1.
The model may contribute to the development of managers across the MoE and EDs to
help provide them with the required leadership skills to perform their leadership role.
Figure 7.1 shows the MoE, representing the centrality of the education system, and the
EDs, indicating the attempts to decentralise the education system in Kuwait.
The model can be explained as follows. It begins with the MoE leadership development
plan, which includes training content, objectives, required skills, tools and methods, and
teaching, among other factors. The MoE sets clear criteria for the selection of managers
to fill vacant positions in the MoE and ED departments. Participants emphasised the
importance of this selection and the need to set tight controls throughout these
processes (Section 6.6.2). At this point, the need arises for the MoE to engage with EDs in
applying the remaining stages in this model.
The training needs of managers are assessed. The MoE, working hand in hand with the
EDs, implements this process. Each party examines the status quo and required skills per
department through the context in which it operates.
Deriving from the need’s assessment, the activities and the professional development
programmes are designed and targeted to the managers at the MoE and EDs, but not for
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school principals due to the difference between their needs and required skills for
managers of the MoE and EDs (see Sections 5.3.3 and 6.3.2.1).
The programmes are implemented and evaluated, followed by a feedback stage
(respondents called for these programmes to be intensified and continuously monitored
and evaluated; see Section 5.2.3.2.1). The latter continues through the follow-up and
support of the officials of the MoE and EDs. These processes are also joint operations.
They (i.e., feedback, follow-up, and support) are considered as reciprocal operations and
rely on each other. In other words, the support is provided based on the feedback.
Each determination of training needs and the training programme design processes take
into account the feedback to develop improvements in management skills over time as a
result of their participation in the training programmes or the experience they
accumulate through their work.
However, there is also a need for each ED to organise activities and sessions separate
from the MoE programmes to develop its managers, according to their needs and
context.
The Civil Service Commission (CSC) organises and provides the MoE with a range of
professional development programmes. Nevertheless, Figure 7.1 considers the CSC as an
entity that supports the MoE managers’ development plans. For example, it facilitates the
organisation of external courses that specialise in educational leadership, but does not
provide general training programmes for the MoE like other ministries (Sections 5.3.3.2
and 6.3.3).
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Figure 7.1. A formal learning leadership development model
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Institutions of civil society (e.g., Kuwait Teachers Society [KTS]) might also support the
MoE to improve leadership skills, as they represent a large segment of teachers and
administrative staff at the MoE, by communicating their opinions, expectations, and
training needs. For example, the KTS may be able to determine these needs from the
reality of what is happening in the field. In particular, the process of preparation and
professional development (to acquire leadership skills), not to mention the leadership
activities that the KTS offers to teachers, could be carried out in cooperation with the
MoE.
External expertise (e.g., the World Bank) and academic institutions, such as the Kuwait
University and Public Authority for Applied Education and Training (PAAET), could support
the MoE in developing the leadership skills of managers. In return, the MoE would consult
them in this domain to deliver different lectures and hands-on activities to help these
managers understand more about leadership as well as conduct studies to evaluate the
development activities or assess the needs of those managers, both academically and
systematically (see Section 5.3.3.1.1).
The private sector could play an important role in developing managers’ leadership skills.
Therefore, this model sheds light on the importance of consulting private sector
expertise, taking into consideration the alignment of the training activities it provides
with managers’ training needs as a public sector (see Section 6.3.2.2).
This model assumes that the impact of this training will take place in schools; when these
managers acquire the necessary leadership skills, they will have an impact on those with
whom they deal or work as a team. Being a supervisor is closest to being a manager; in
addition to visiting and interacting with school management, they are expected to exert a
positive influence on the schools. Leadership skills could be learned through interaction
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between the managers, supervisors, and principals (Bandura, 1977; Lankshear & Knobel,
2011; also, see Section 5.3.2.3). Consequently, this is considered as early preparation and
development of school principals prior to their promotion to supervisor and then
manager in the MoE and ED departments.
FL is a multi-dimensional, targeted, and planned process to accomplish its objectives. To
benefit from this model, it has to be applied, practised, and promoted alongside informal
learning (InFL) processes, which are discussed next.
7.2.2 Informal Learning Model (InFL)
According to Kempster and Parry (2014), observation learning plays a role in the
development of leadership skills, “but its significance is rather under-explored” (p. 164).
Therefore, this study presents a proposed informal learning model to contribute to the
development of theory because it is still “significantly under-theorized” (Kempster &
Parry, 2014, p. 164).
By studying Kolb's (1984) cycle of learning (see Appendix 18) and Marsick and Watkins's
(2018) model for enhancing informal and incidental learning (see Appendix 19), the
researcher attempted to adapt these models to the results of this study to provide a
proposed informal learning model (InFL). (See Fig. 7.2).
This model assumes that the beginning of the learning stems from previously learned
skills through managers’ experiential learning because of relationships with their parents,
teachers, and/or co-workers (relational proximity). Observation-based learning is a
perspective that changes over time because the individual’s needs differ during various
stages of their career; as a result, people within his/her domain of interest will vary as
well (Kempster & Parry, 2014).
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Figure 7.2. Proposed informal learning model (InFL) for leadership
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Therefore, this model focuses on informal learning processes for managers’ leadership
skills, taking into account the social and professional contexts and the relative proximity
of the managers with the prominent people who will be observed in order to acquire the
skills necessary to exercise a leadership role.
The proposed model follows several stages. First, knowledge and experience are
extracted, reshaped, and constructed during InFL processes as they have been reframed
and adopted in the mind as a result of previous FL and employment processes (perhaps
through early phases of education); this refers to the concrete experience gleaned from
previous practices (see Section 5.3.2.1). These practices were acquired by dealing with
others, making mistakes, and consulting with or receiving mentoring or coaching from
their former managers or those more experienced when dealing with problems that they
have never experienced.
Through the reflective observation processes, triggers—perhaps due to a sense of
dysfunction or problem—act as interpreters and analyse situations according to the
context and circumstances in which they appear. In this sense, managers who felt that
there were errors or problems due to their training needs sought to consider these issues
to find explanations or solutions by observing others or working with managers who were
good models (to imitate them) or poor role models (to be avoided). This stage may occur
without planning because it is realistic and related to the managers’ role or their practices
(see Section 5.3.2.3).
The manager then begins to examine existing solutions and alternatives and adopts these
in her/his mind as newly acquired knowledge and skills; these processes are known as
abstract conceptualisation. IN this stage, managers form concepts by building

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experiences, acquiring new skills by determining and selecting appropriate ones, avoiding
previous mistakes, and developing concepts adopted for experimentation, such as
developing vision or influencing others (see Sections 5.3.2.2 and 5.3.3.2).
The process of implementing the solutions adopted (as a result of reflective observation)
then begins, and consequences—both intended and unintended—are assessed.
Implementation is a test of the suitability of these solutions to the status quo (i.e., active
experimentation). By exercising leadership roles such as participating in committees and
teamwork, developing vision, influencing others, providing new ideas and initiatives, and
implementing and developing work, the solutions or experiences gained will be evaluated
to become concrete experiences (see Section 5.3.4).
As a result, InFL processes shape managers’ experiences based on the information and
experiences acquired in advance. They can structure this information with the knowledge
that they acquired during practice in work, where their experiences are shaped according
to their interpretation. However, the method of analysing and extracting knowledge from
attitudes and experiences is different from one person to another according to their
specialist knowledge and their lived experiences (the impact of InFL increases with
frequency and a variety of practices). For example, a person who has qualifications and
experience as a teacher differs from someone who is qualified and worked as an engineer
or an accountant because, according to Kolb's (1984) cycle model, individuals acquire
concrete experience from their studies and specialisation and then begin to think and
extract knowledge according to their experiences.
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7.3 Substantive Findings
The study sample consisted of managers holding positions of high administrative level in
the MoE and EDs (department managers) who manage a group of staff at different
administrative levels. At the same time, they can expect to be promoted to senior
administrative positions, such as an assistant undersecretary for one of the eight
education sectors (see Section 2.5.5.3). Therefore, the process of preparing them and
developing their skills to exercise a leadership role required by their position is an
important issue affecting the education system. This study attempted to determine to
what extent the leadership preparation and ongoing professional development of the
education ministry and district managers are effective in Kuwait.
The data indicated that there were no specific formal programmes to prepare managers
and provide them with the appropriate leadership skills. Although professional
development activities were available, they were not dedicated to improving leadership
capability; rather, they only sought to develop some managerial and technical skills.
These programmes also did not target this category of managers in particular.
Consequently, they were not effective because they were essentially not tailored to
develop the leadership skills of these managers and instead focused on management
functions for various administrative levels.
Al-Khatib and Al-Enezi (2008) indicated that there is a high level of training needs for
managers in many areas, including administrative processes and leadership models. In
addition, due to the lack of studies that examined the preparation of this category of
managers in the Kuwaiti or Arab Gulf context, the researcher used some indirect evidence
that investigated the preparation and development of school principals. For example, NIE
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(2013) found that the majority of participants agreed that leadership preparation
programmes were inadequate and considered the quality of the existing school
leadership training programmes as low. Furthermore, Mohammed's (2008) study
conducted in the Saudi context noted that leadership training programmes for leaders
and deputy school principals did not take into account the needs of those participating in
these activities.
However, the finding of the current study contradicts the findings of Amro and Awawda
(2016), who found the training programmes provided for educational leaders in the
UNRWA in Jordan to be effective. Perhaps this difference is due to the fact that Amro and
Awawda's (2016) study included all supervisors and managers who attended supervisory
training programmes according to their specialties. In other words, there were pre-
planned training programmes designed to develop the leadership skills of these
participants (see Section 3.8). Such pre-planned programmes seem to be lacking in
educational leadership development activities in Kuwait, as the results of this study
confirmed the lack of a clear plan to develop managers’ leadership skills. The MoE might
not know how best to prepare existing or future managers for a leadership role.
What is much more effective is novice managers learning by observing more experienced
managers in the workplace (informal). Evidence suggested that these managers had
learned a great deal from other managers observed at work through lived experiences.
Furthermore, these results corroborate the idea of Kempster and Parry (2014) that
leadership skills are developed through observation, which is in turn conducted through
their lived experiences, playing an important role in the development of leadership.
DeRue and Wellman (2009), McCall (2004) and Kempster (2006) also support such ideas.
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One of the more significant findings to emerge from the current study is that the majority
of participants were unable to define a clear concept of management or leadership—or
even distinguish between them. Thus, there was often confusion in their responses,
which was further marked by their inability to determine the effectiveness of the
programmes or activities they attended (i.e., whether they were to prepare them before
their appointment or were intended as professional development programmes they
attended during their career, whilst in post). Yet Bush and Middlewood (2013) argued
that there are no clear boundaries between what represents management activities and
what represents leadership activities, suggesting that the respondents’ confusion is
warranted.
Five research sub-questions were derived from the main question. The researcher sought
to answer these by investigating many of the relevant issues examined in the study. These
issues are outlined in the following subsections and are linked to each sub-question.
In answering RSQ1 (i.e., To what extent do the MoE and ED managers perceive
themselves as managers who exercise leadership in the education system?), the
responses of participants revealed that most saw themselves as leaders with at least
some leadership skills (e.g., collaborative decision-making and working with a team) that
had helped them exercise their leadership role to a certain extent partly because of the
centrality of the education system in Kuwait. Alternatively, in the social contexts in which
they worked, they exercised leadership through collective support from senior managers
or from the wider social context (see DeRue & Ashford, 2010).
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According to Fiedler’s (1978) theory, if employees respect the leader, it encourages trust
and loyalty among them. As a result, managers might believe in their ability to be leaders.
In addition, there is a correlation between leadership style and contingency variables that
is positively correlated with the effectiveness of leadership and organisational
performance (Wong-MingJi, 2013) due to the impact of identity work and identity
regulation on the formation of self-identity. These three concepts interact and form
managers’ perceptions of themselves through self-awareness and skills (self-identity) as
well as the active construction of self-identity (identity work) and the reaction to
organisational and social processes and the ability to deal with them (identity regulation)
(see Alvesson & Willmott, 2002; Giddens, 1991; Sveningsson & Larsson, 2006).
Participants’ perceptions of themselves were based on four factors. First, some could not
distinguish between the concept of management and leadership, perhaps because they
did not attend any specialised courses in leadership. Thus, they believed that performing
administrative tasks effectively and achieving goals meant they were leaders. This is
contrary to the views of many authors (e.g., Ayub et al., 2014; Bush & Glover, 2003), who
defined leadership as a process of influencing others.
Second, although participants emphasised that leaders need special skills, such as dealing
with and influencing others, their responses indicated some confusion in identifying
leadership skills on the one hand and management attributes on the other. Indeed, most
participants could not provide a thorough and comprehensive definition of leadership;
therefore, they believed they had leadership skills when, in fact, they had managerial
skills. Furthermore, the responses were also in contrast to the findings of the study of Al-
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Khatib and Al-Enezi (2008), which identified major training needs in terms of leadership
skills (e.g., educational policies, strategic, and decision-making processes).
Third, most participants stressed the importance of working with others, especially those
with experience and educational specialisation. They also mentioned that the most
important skills they learned from others were decision making and problem solving
(despite problem solving being a managerial activity). Perhaps this is because these skills
are daily tasks and therefore had become part of their professional identity, especially
through practical and actual application, thereby enhancing their self-awareness as
leaders. However, Al-Khatib and Al-Enezi (2008) and Al-Duaij (1994) suggested otherwise,
identifying a high degree of need for each of these skills.
Although participation in the development and implementation of vision and influence on
others is one of the most important features of leadership, the majority of participants
did not have these skills because they were not learnt as a result of working with former
managers or colleagues at work. Alternatively, maybe they found it hard to transfer what
they learned inside one office in that context and apply it to another in a different
context. This confirmed that the training cannot be applied effectively to the workplace
(Kupritz, 2002).
Despite the fact that modelling is a vital method for social learning theory and is used as a
basis for learning (Latham & Saari, 1979), participants perhaps did not look at their
former managers as role models, possibly because of poor relationships with them or
because their former line managers lacked leadership skills.
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In addition, the central decision-making system in Kuwait could explain why most
managers were unable to learn some of the necessary leadership skills when working
with others. This working context means very little independence, and it is much harder
to develop a vision for the role and practice how to influence others. Centralism also
negatively affects managers because it limits their ability to exercise their leadership role.
This is consistent with Alkandari's (2013) argument that the central system does not allow
managers to cooperate in, for example, decision-making. In addition, Bush (2011), Bush
and Glover (2014), and Hoyle and Wallace (2005) argued that managerialism reduces the
effectiveness of the institution because excessive management has a negative impact on
educational goals. Thus, the situation surrounding the transfer of training to the work
environment may negatively impact any benefits received from training programmes
(Gilpin-Jackson & Bushe, 2007).
However, regardless of the reasons for not learning these skills, the message is that most
participants did not believe that they had the ability to develop and implement a vision or
influence others, although these skills are important to leaders.
Fourth, most participants faced many challenges when exercising their leadership role
because they were forced to spend a greater proportion of their time on administrative
work to accomplish tasks. This could be because Kuwait’s education system applies
traditional public management methods that require stable and predictable conditions.
Such a system cannot easily meet the challenges posed by globalisation in a rapidly
changing world (Katsamunska, 2012).
In a complex and changing environment, an education system is supposed to be more
flexible and creative to allow managers to fulfil their leadership role by, for example,
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developing a clear vision, drawing up and implementing plans, and making the necessary
decisions in accordance with the circumstances. Inflexible procedures produce frustrating
conditions and reduce managers’ ability to innovate (Carnall & By, 2014).
Accordingly, the results showed they were managers with managerial skills who
administered their departments and sometimes exercised a limited number of leadership
roles because they worked with employees and made decisions within their powers as
managers. These findings concur with those obtained by Al-Duaij (1994), which
emphasised that there was a relatively poor performance in some leadership functions,
such as the inadequate use of appropriate leadership styles and decision-making capacity.
7.3.2 Engagement in Different Forms of Leadership Development
The investigation of RSQ2 (i.e., To what extent have the MoE and ED managers engaged
in leadership development activities (whilst in post)?) demonstrated that, although
participants attended several professional development programmes during their
careers, these were not specifically designed to develop leadership skills. This result
seems to be consistent with other research, such as NIE (2013), even if it is related to
school leadership, and Al-Khatib and Al-Enezi (2008), which found that these activities did
not consider the needs of managers when determining their content.
This may indicate that the MoE did not recognise the need for managers to demonstrate
leadership skills as they only function as effective managers. Alternatively, it could be
concluded that the MoE did not realise how it could develop a leadership role for these
managers.
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Courses have been provided for the managers through the MoE’s Department of
Development and Improvement or by recruiting private sector companies to run them.
The MoE supports the need to introduce PS management techniques to the public sector,
especially with the emergence of NPM, which seeks to make the public sector more
efficient by restructuring and reorganising the state’s privatisation and marketing (Bevir,
2009). Furthermore, some managers made their own efforts to attend some PS courses
because they believed they were better than PPMOE, and also perhaps because there
was no training plan from the ministry to develop leadership knowledge, understanding,
and skills. This underlines the importance of the formal learning model in Fig 7.1 which
shows this is an essential part of the model to develop a leadership training plan (this
could act as the starting point for the MoE).
However, these companies did not specialise in educational leadership; they targeted
private sector and public sector leaders and tended to focus more on managerial
development than leadership. Therefore, managers did not feel that these measures
were effective because most of them were irrelevant to the field of education and lacked
the necessary educational expertise by specialised lecturers.
Most managers appeared to recognise that carrying out their job role effectively helped
them acquire leadership skills and learn through the process of reflection. Schön (1983)
confirmed that reflection is built on past experiences and may lead to the development of
good practice. According to Sellars (2017), it can also help identify personal strengths and
improve professional competence. According to social learning theory, effective
performance has the greatest impact on this efficiency because it is based on genuine
competence experiences (Bandura et al., 1977).
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This investigation also confirmed that lived experiences and observations of (more senior)
leaders had the greatest impact on developing leadership skills. (Ibarra, 1999; Kempster,
2009; Kempster & Parry, 2014). Such learning based on the observation of human
behaviour works with other managers who model how managers or leaders behave
(Bandura, 1977; Lankshear & Knobel, 2011).
Accordingly, managers acquired some leadership skills through informal learning methods
(e.g. being a team leader) as a result of their participation in some professional
development programmes, even if these were not specifically intended to develop
leadership skills. Referring to Fig 7.2, these skills will be learned through experience in the
workplace by working with others to be a team leader which means "Active
Experimentation". However, learning leadership can also be through "Reflective
Observation" to avoid learning from poor role models.
7.3.3 Importance of Previous Employment Experience
RSQ3 asked about the extent to which past and current experiences have been helpful in
developing the expertise of MoE and ED managers. The analysis of the data indicated that
most participants believed that their previous work experience, as well as their current
role as managers, had helped develop their expertise. This result is in line with Kempster
(2006), McCall (2004), and DeRue and Wellman (2009), who emphasised the importance
of previous experience in developing leadership skills. This is evidenced by the stage of
"Concrete Experience" in Figure 7.2, which emphasizes, for example, the importance of
experience gained through dealing with others.
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However, these experiences were often professional experiences that may have helped
them in their role as managers; they were not related to leadership roles or teaching
experience (experience meaning what happens in schools and what the needs of students
and teachers are).
Managers believed that they gained a variety of experiences through formal or informal
learning methods to develop their leadership skills according to their perceptions and
identification of their needs. However, this does not mean that they had acquired the
necessary leadership skills because the learning process depends on the extent of the
individuals’ willingness to learn and how they retain and apply information when needed.
Adult learning depends on the learner him-/herself (Zepeda et al., 2014). According to
social learning theory, perceived self-efficacy affects the identification of people’s
behaviours. Such issues can undoubtedly affect the learning or acquisition of any skill
(McCall, 2010).
Interestingly, the data did not refer to any obvious differences between managers who
had teaching experience and those who had not had any teaching experience. It could be
concluded that they did not realise the importance of their past experience because they
only mentioned it in relation to the departments they managed. Managers who did not
have any experience working in schools may not have been able to deal with issues
related to students’ needs and would not understand the teacher’s role, functions, and
professional needs. This would make it difficult to develop a vision related to their roles
as leaders or lead others to achieve it because leadership is learned through activities and
events in the context of lived experience (DeRue & Wellman, 2009). This means
leadership is very context dependent.
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7.3.4 Effectiveness of Preparation Programmes for Managers
The investigation of RSQ4 (i.e., How effective has the training been for MoE and ED
managers (before being appointed) to their leadership role?) showed another important
finding of this study as there were no specialised training programmes to prepare
managers before being appointed in their positions. The managers did attend some
courses during their careers to develop their skills, and the majority believed that these
activities were to prepare them to carry out their current tasks as managers. They might
have also helped them acquire some leadership skills. However, the analysis of these
results indicated that managers were confused between what constituted professional
development in-service and preparation programmes before appointment to their
current position. This is probably because there were no preparation activities specifically
targeted to leadership development; as a result, they thought that any development
programmes they attended were to prepare them for their new managerial role.
Nevertheless, they stressed the ineffectiveness of these courses in developing their skills
and ultimately relied on their experience to develop and prepare themselves. This is
consistent with data obtained by Alkarni (2015); although this research was related to
school leadership (in Saudi Arabia, it emphasised the absence of a preparatory
programme for leadership.
The managers in the current study worked with others on a regular basis and had many
opportunities to influence their attitudes. This made a key contribution to their
leadership development. Some managers tried to prepare themselves and develop their
leadership skills during their careers by attending courses, which might not have been
appropriate to their actual needs (perhaps because of their lack of experience in this
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area), and this therefore refers again to the importance of the MoE playing its role to
provide formal learning activities. Figure 7.1 indicates the role of the MoE in cooperation
with educational districts to design leadership development programmes after the
completion and implementation of the first three stages in FL model (develop a
leadership training plan, selection of managers and determination of needs). This model
also emphasizes the importance of the education districts’ role through organizing
activities to develop the leadership skills of its managers in cooperation with other parties
(such as Kuwait University or private sector) according to their training needs.
Participants argued for more specialised courses in leadership in each department
because each manager’s roles and tasks differed from those of his/her colleagues.
Indeed, McCall (2010) emphasised that, to support leadership learning through
experience, learners’ individual differences should be considered. They considered the
range of both specialist courses and lecturers as one of the strengths of the preparation
programmes. However, this raises a question of how leadership preparation activities are
designed most effectively; it might also indicate a need to identify experienced specialists
who might need to become involved.
It should be added that participants identified many weaknesses in these programmes
(e.g., course leaders were poorly prepared or of a low quality), which in line with indirect
evidence from Alkarni (2015), who confirmed that the training of school principals did not
fully meet their needs. In addition, the MoE’s regulations limited participants’ ability to
practise what they learned through these activities, as these managers apply regulations
from top to the bottom in a very centralised system. Alkandari (2013) highlighted the
centrality of Kuwait’s education system. According to Carnall and By (2014), the tendency
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to abide by rules and regulations, whether appropriate or not, confirms that the
regulatory system somewhat limits their ability to carry out their job role effectively.
Some managers also found it difficult to apply what they learned about a leadership role
from countries that are different from Kuwaiti society, thereby raising questions about
the use of specialists from outside Kuwait to provide courses for managers or to develop
training plans. Moreover, sending trainee managers to attend courses in other countries
could be questioned. It is important to recognise the significance of culture and context
when designing leadership preparation and development programmes in each country
(Bush, 2013; Walker et al., 2013).
7.3.5 Improving the Effectiveness of the Preparation of Leaders
Finally, in response to RSQ5 (i.e., How do MoE and ED managers think their leadership
preparation might be improved?), the analysis of the data indicated that the majority of
managers emphasised the importance of improving the processes of leadership
development through professional training programmes which take into account their
training needs. Some managers proposed the establishment of a specialised centre for
the preparation and professional development of educational leadership, where various
activities (such as training courses, workshops, and seminars) could be offered to develop
the leadership skills of all candidates before assuming leadership positions. Shields and
Cassada (2016) and OECD (2008) also stressed the importance of having strategic plans to
develop educational leadership development programmes. In addition, Earley (2013)
argued that education managers should be able to obtain support through a variety of
reliable sources (e.g. Academic institutions and Institutions of civil society - Fig 7.1).
However, most of what is learned about leadership is learned through experience and
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cannot be learned before these managers are appointed, unless they are team leaders in
another job or headteacher of a school.
Nevertheless, some managers believed that qualifications through specialised educational
programmes were unnecessary for managers because the experience they had acquired
should be sufficient to prepare them. This assertion contradicts Hamilton's et al. (2018)
study, which found that leadership for senior roles requires more complex development
activities. Professional development refers to broader changes in the knowledge, skills,
attitudes, beliefs, and professional actions that can occur over a longer period of time
(Fraser et al., 2007).
The results also indicated the importance of dealing with people with relevant experience
to develop leaders’ skills. In fact, this can be considered more important than formal
methods. Working with experienced colleagues is seen a process which helps develop
these skills and effectively enhances managers’ preparation for their leadership role.
Figure 7.2 illustrates the role and importance of consulting experienced managers
through the "Concrete Experience" phase, which helps to develop leadership skills for
managers. According to Bandura’s theory, human beings seek to learn how to meet their
needs and desires by observing the consequences of behaviours and events (Roeckelein,
2006).
In addition, most managers who participated in this study believed that the current
conditions for selecting candidates for the post of manager should be applied more
scrupulously and that accountability processes could be activated for those who violate
these rules, which is in accord with studies by Bush and Middlewood (2013), Alkandari
(2013), and Thurlow (2009). Such efforts could reduce the interference of wasta in staff
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evaluation, which is consistent with Ashkanani's (2001) conclusion that the inefficiency of
the public sector evaluation system is due to many shortcomings.
The results also indicated that interviews were not useful for selecting the right
candidates for a management position because wasta also interferes in the candidate's
evaluation process. This belief was further compounded by a lack of clear criteria used by
the committee members. The managers also doubted the committee members’ abilities
and skills to choose the right person to be a manager. Bush and Middlewood (2013)
suggested that this process is most susceptible to personal bias. Therefore, the selection
processes should be reconsidered to ensure that those who possess the required abilities
and skills of leadership are selected.
7.4 Limitations of the Conceptual Framework and Research Design
The researcher has identified many limitations which affected the interpretations of the
data.
First, the use of an interpretive approach meant relying on the researcher’s
interpretations, which created a kind of bias or tendency towards personal opinions when
discussing the data. However, because of the researcher’s professional experience
working in schools, this helped instigate more profound dialogues and discussion, which
in turn led to the clarification of key issues. Still, this approach has limitations because
responses are dependent on participants’ activities, experiences, expectations, and
statements, making it too subjective in nature. The participants’ attitudes varied because
of their backgrounds and experiences; in other words, they had many different
perspectives on the same issues. However, on the positive side, this made it easier for the
316
researcher to provide more than one reason or explanation for participants’ opinions
when discussed, away from any prejudice.
In addition, the extent to which participants understood the differences between some of
the key concepts in this study, such as management and leadership, as well as
development programmes (in-service) or preparation activities (before appointment) was
one of the limitations that the researcher attempted to overcome. The researcher
clarified these concepts during discussions and gave participants more time to ask and
inquire about any misunderstanding of these terms.
Some participants’ attendance at a limited number of professional development
programmes is another limitation of this study, as they did not have a clear understanding
of these programmes and thus could not judge their effectiveness. Participation in such
activities was not a prerequisite for promotion, so some managers did not consider these
to be a priority.
During the interviews, it was necessary to clarify some questions for the participants,
despite the questions being piloted to ensure clarity. In addition, there were individual
differences between participants because each person interpreted each question
according to his or her own understanding.
Wider contextual limitations in Kuwait were also evident. The study was conducted
between December 2016 and March 2017, a period between the end of the first
semester and the beginning of the second of the academic year in Kuwait. Managers
were often very busy during this time because they were attending administrative
meetings to follow up on preparations for the second semester. Furthermore, conditions
317
that prevailed in the country during that period, such as the Kuwait National Assembly
elections and the restructuring of the government (during November and December
2016) as well as Kuwait’s National and Liberation Day celebrations (in February), also
affected participants’ availability because managers were busy with these important
events in Kuwaiti society as a whole. The researcher considered these events as
limitations mainly because some of the managers were initially reluctant to participate
because of their preoccupation with other tasks.
The presence of vacancies in the departments of some of the managers in the sample
reduced the number of participants, despite the researcher trying to collect the largest
number of questionnaires to improve the response rate. The researcher tried to
overcome this limitation by engaging in in-depth discussions with the participants and
taking notes during the interviews so as not to lose any explanations or possible analyses
of any word or gesture from participants. This approach ensured that the researcher
obtained and retained as much of the data as possible.
The research sample included acting managers who had to move between two
departments to carry out their tasks. This may have reduced their ability to focus on their
administration issues. In addition, these participants might have lacked familiarity with
other departments’ problems.
The translation of dialogues also had its limitations. Some gestures and phrases used in
colloquial Arabic are difficult to translate directly into English. Therefore, the researcher
sought to take notes during the interviews and then, after the translation, presented and
discussed the transcripts and recordings with someone who had mastered the two
languages to ensure that the translation was done correctly and accurately.
318
Finally, interviews were conducted with only eight managers; as a result, these findings
cannot be generalised, despite the sample representing all 42 managers and targeting
different ages, genders, and people from various departments (some from the MoE and
others from ED with different expertise), as well as managers and acting managers.
7.5 Implications for Practice
This research highlights a number of implications for managers to help them exercise a
leadership role more effectively in future. These are discussed herein.
The education system in Kuwait is centralised; therefore, the responsibility of the Ministry
of Education is to develop opportunities to design programmes to better prepare
managers for a leadership role. This could be considered by specialists in leadership
training, but the MoE should not neglect the role of civil society institutions, academic
institutions, and the private sector in contributing to the design and facilitation of these
activities.
In-service training programmes could be designed to be continuous by integrating
development activities with managers’ daily activities. This can be achieved by having
senior and experienced leaders participating with managers in meetings and seminars,
where their previous work experiences can combine with new practices.
Conditions could be created for new managers (or those who are expected to be
promoted to the manager position) to work with experienced managers as well as allow
them to exercise some leadership roles, where the proximity of experienced people
would help new managers learn from them. In addition, the MoE might encourage InFL
processes, such as self-awareness, reflexivity, relational aspects of leadership,
319
experiential, work-based stretching activities, and mentoring/coaching, to improve
leadership development.
As experience has a significant impact on the development of leadership skills for
managers, there is a need to follow up, reflect upon, and evaluate their performance to
discover weaknesses and take remedial action. If the methods used are effective, the
approach can consolidate these attitudes as positive, adding to managers’ experiences
and enhancing their leadership skills.
Although the Department of Development and Improvement aims to develop all MoE
employees, there may be a need to establish a specialised training department as a part
of a centre for the development and preparation of educational leadership. This might
include trainers with the requisite experience and qualifications to train the staff of the
MoE in supervisory positions only. It could also include various activities according to
different levels of management, such as programmes dedicated to school management
leaders separate from the development activities of departmental managers in the MoE
and EDs.
The development of a training plan needs to include the identification of training needs,
objectives, and target groups (education leaders) and contain content relevant to
educational leadership. There also needs to be a clear identification of qualified lecturers
with experience in training methods so that they can connect theory with application. In
addition, the time and duration of the course should be proportional to the content and
the predetermined goals.
320
Diverse and effective sources of learning should be provided, such as a database of the
latest studies in educational leadership as well as the establishment of a specialist
advisory board to advise and assist new managers, as needed.
Qualified teachers can understand more about teachers’ work and how to work with
others, such as parents and students, but that does not mean that they will be successful
managers and leaders. Although those who are not qualified as teachers may not
understand what the educational field needs, they can become good managers because
they know the details of administrative processes. Therefore, perhaps one solution to this
problem is to combine qualifications in teaching with professional experience in
leadership and management. Moreover, the promotion and appointment to the manager
position could be linked with obtaining a qualification from the Centre for the
Development and Preparation of Educational Leaders or by attending integrated courses
for the development of educational leaders for a period of three months to one year. In
other words, attending professional development courses is a prerequisite for applying
for leadership positions, with an emphasis on relevant courses aimed at providing
trainees with leadership skills.
Those who have experience in schools and have already exercised some leadership roles
during the various stages in their work in the education field should be targeted when
selecting candidates for manager positions in any department, whether the MoE or EDs,
which may improve and facilitate leadership preparation processes for these managers.
Selection methods for managers need to be developed, such as by creating practical and
clear controls for nominating managers for their new positions.
321
The current conditions for promotion, such as years of experience, performance in
evaluations, and interviews, are appropriate, but may need to be adapted to avoid some
gaps when applied. For example:
• A candidate’s experience should be in the same management specialty to which
he/she been nominated so that he/she is aware of his/her tasks and role in this
department.
• Some of the performance appraisal items should be redesigned to match the roles
and functions of the new position so that these items are specific and clear to
reduce bias when assessing the employee.
• The candidate might present a new plan to develop the department that he/ she is
expected to manage (or by solving any problem related to the education system in
Kuwait) in order to better evaluate this candidate (e.g., through presentation skills
and the quality of ideas).
The preference of managers for private sector courses may indicate that they are aware
of the importance of such opportunities, especially in light of the growing impact of
globalisation on the education system and the entry of the private sector into the labour
market in Kuwait (including the education sector). Therefore, it is very important to focus
on efficiency when making changes in the formal organisation of the education sector as
well as identifying the necessary expertise for procedures related to partnership with the
private sector. In addition, managers should be given greater power and freedom in
decision-making to enable them to exercise their leadership roles and develop their skills
by applying what they have learned from the training programmes, activities, and
professional experiences acquired during their careers.
322
7.6 Recommendations for Future Research
The aim of this research was to explore the effectiveness of the educational leadership
preparation and development programmes, focusing on the MoE and ED department
managers only. The following suggestions for future studies will make a useful
contribution to the theoretical literature in this area:
• More qualitative work in needed to understand how the identity of managers
develops, especially in relation to becoming effective leaders.
• Issues that emerged from this study should be explored in greater depth, such as
investigating managers’ perceptions of themselves and how they form a personal,
social, and professional leadership identity.
• Future researchers should investigate the impact of the training programmes on
managers’ practice in their leadership roles from the point of view of the lower
functional levels, such as supervisors and school administrators.
323
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Appendix 1: Kuwait’s Ranking in TIMSS 2015
(Mathematics and Science)
Source: https://timssandpirls.bc.e2du/timss2015/
354
355
Appendix 2: Structure of the Ministry of Education (MoE)
Source: MOE (2015). Organizational Structure. Retrieved from http://www.moe.edu.kw/about/Pages/Ministry Hierarchy/moe-Stru.aspx
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Appendix 3: Structure of the Public Education Sector
Source: MOE. (2015). Organizational Structure. Retrieved from http://www.moe.edu.kw/about/Pages/Ministry Hierarchy/moe-Stru.aspx
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Appendix 4: Structure of an Educational District (ED)
Source: MOE. (2015). Organizational Structure. Retrieved from http://www.moe.edu.kw/about/Pages/Ministry Hierarchy/moe-Stru.aspx
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Appendix 5: Emerging Concept of Leadership Learning
This emerging concept of leadership learning draws upon Kolb’s (1984) experiential
learning cycle (Kempster, 2006).
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Appendix 6: Questionnaire (English version)
Title of research: Learning about leadership in the Ministry of Education and Educational
Districts in the State of Kuwait
The aim of this research is to investigate your perceptions about educational managers’
preparation, both in post and before being appointed that can develop their abilities and
skills to fulfil their leadership functions. It is hoped that your participation in answering
the sections of this questionnaire may help to select the most appropriate ways of
improving leadership training in Kuwait. Please answer all the questions.
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First: please answer the following two questions:
1. What do you think the term 'management' means to you? (In one sentence or
more)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What do you think the term' leadership' means to you? (In one sentence or more)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Second: Please tick one of the boxes which most closely represent your view.
Section A: Perception of myself as a leader in the education system.
No Statement Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly

agree disagree
Q1 Previous experience has helped
me perform my leadership role
successfully.
Q2 I have the skills and abilities to be
able to lead my department.
Q3 My current position gives me
more authority than I was able to
exercise in my previous post.
Q4 The relationship between myself
and the employees of
administration is different, now I
have become a senior manager.
Q5 I have the skills to deal with
different personalities who are
the employees of the
administration.
Q6 I sometimes experience real
challenges and difficulties as an
educational manager.
Q7 The leadership role requires
special skills.
Q8 I see myself capable of leading
successfully.
Q9 I see myself as a role model for
team members.
Q10 I have the responsibility to lead
the team.
Q11 I need help to understand and
deal with different personalities
who are members of the team.
Q12 I have experience and skills to
enable me to achieve the
educational goals.
Q13 I can lead others through
inspiration and influence them.
Q14 I do not think my previous
experience has helped me to lead
successfully.
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Section B: The impact of any training in preparation for my role as educational leader.

agree disagree
Q15 There are training programmes
provided by the Ministry of
Education to prepare myself as an
educational leader.
Q16 Educational leadership
preparation programmes
provided by the Ministry of
Education have not met my needs
as an educational leader.
Q17 There are training programmes
provided by the private sector to
prepare myself as an educational
leader.
Q18 The training programmes
provided by the private sector
have not met my needs as an
educational leader.
Q19 Attending training programmes
has not prepared me as an
educational leader.
Q20 Preparation programmes prior to
appointment as a manager have
helped to develop my leadership
skills.
Q21 The training programmes for
educational leaders were
designed upon a prior estimate
for their actual needs
Q22: What are your views about training programmes provided by the Ministry of
Education to prepare educational leaders for their role as leaders?
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Q23: What are your views about training programmes provided by the private sector to
prepare educational leaders for their role as leaders? (If you have attended these)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Section C: Engagement in leadership professional development activities

agree disagree
Q24 Professional development (in
service) is necessary for educational
leaders.
Q25 There are professional development
programmes provided by the
Ministry of Education to improve
educational leadership skills.
Q26 Professional development
programmes of educational
leadership provided by the Ministry
of Education have met my needs as
an educational leader (in service).
leadership provided by the Ministry
of Education do not develop my
leadership skills effectively.
Q28 There are professional development
programmes provided by the private
sector to improve educational
leadership skills.
leadership provided by the private
sector have met my needs as an
educational leader (in service).
leadership provided by the private
sector do not develop my leadership
skills effectively.
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Q31: The following activities have helped me develop the necessary knowledge,
understanding and skills as an educational leader.
(please tick more than one box, if it is appropriate)
 Self-directed study
 Using distance-learning materials
 Receiving on-the-job coaching, tutoring or mentoring
 Membership of a working party.
 Training courses or Workshops
 Seminar or Presentation related to your role as a leader
 Action research (any systematic enquiry conducted by administrators, counsellors,
or others with a vested interest in the teaching and learning process, for the
purpose of gathering data about how they and their team or organisation
operate).
 Job-shadowing (work experience option where a person learns the functions of
the position through the follow-up experienced at the workplace).
 Personal reflection (such as writing daily notes and discussions with experienced
colleagues, or re-revising part of the previously set plan and re-evaluating
achievements and goals achieved).
 Collaborative learning (opportunity to share good practice can occur in
departmental meetings and other more informal settings such as a lunchtime
discussions).
Q32: Of the activities described in Q31, please explain which two have been the most
effective, and why they have been effective?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q33: What are your views about professional development programmes provided by the
Ministry of Education to improve the skills of educational leaders (e.g. strategic planning,
problem solving, etc.)?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Q34: What are your views about the professional development programmes provided by
the private sector to improve the skills of educational leaders? (If you have attended
these)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
Section D: Informal Learning: May occur in institutions, but it is not typically classroom-
based or highly structured. (e.g. task accomplishment, interpersonal interaction, trial-and-
error experimentation.
Da: My experiences as an educational leader.

agree disagree
Q35 Experience I gained before
upgrading to a leadership role
enables me to carry out my
functions successfully.
Q36 My previous skills and expertise
have had a positive effect on the
ways I exercise leadership.
Q37 My previous experiences have
increased my professional
knowledge as a leader.
Q38 My previous skills and expertise

have no significant impact on the
way I exercise leadership.
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agree disagree
Q39 My relationship with my previous
managers developed my
Q40 I learned some leadership skills
from my former managers.
Q41 My experience in dealing with my
former managers has not helped
me in my current role as a leader.
Q42 Learning from the experience of
others develops leadership skills.
Q43 Discussing work problems with
colleagues develops my
Q44 Dealing with team members
enriches my experience as a
leader.
Q45 I share information and
knowledge with my staff to
develop work.
Db: Working with others:
Q 46: What are the most two important leadership skills that you have learned from
dealing with others (e.g. other managers, your team members)?
Please select from the following list:
 Decision making
 Problem solving
 Sharing a vision of how to implement current educational policy
 Leading a team of colleagues
 Influence others
Q 47: What are the most important informal learning methods that are effective in
developing leadership skills from your perspective?
Please select one from the following list:
 Personal experience
 The experiences of others
 Discussions with colleagues
 Reading books and studies
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 Other:
Section E: Some suggestions to improve educational leadership preparation.
Q48: Educational leadership preparation can be improved through:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Note: As a follow-up to this survey, is the researcher's intention to carry out personal
interviews with a sample of leaders in the Ministry of Education and educational
districts based on the results of this questionnaire. If you are willing to participate in
these interviews, please tick the box:
agree  disagree 
If you agree, could you please provide the following:
Your name: …………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………..
Contact details (telephone, email): ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Thank you very much for dedicating some of your time to completing this questionnaire.
Researcher's mobile: ………………………….
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Appendix 7: Prompt Card
Examples of leadership skills:

• Strategic planning
• Problems solving
• Communication skills
• Work as a team
• Decision-making skills
• Ability to resolve disputes
• Analytical skills
• Inspiration and motivation
• Confidence
• Ethical commitment
What is informal learning?

It happens in any institution or organisation, but not in classes, and is considered less
structured. Examples include:
• Task completion
• Interpersonal interaction
• Trial and error
• Previous personal experiences or others’ experiences
• Peer discussion
• Reading books and studies
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Appendix 8: Interview Question (pilot study)
1- Could you please describe any differences between being a leader and being a
manager in your present role?
2- To what extent do you see yourself as a leader in the educational system?
3- Could you please describe your previous experiences and responsibilities before you
were appointed to your present post? What are the effects on your present job?
4- Did you receive (attend) training programmes to prepare you for your title (present
role) as an educational leader?... Tell me more about those programmes ... What did
you learn from those programmes?
5- What are the most 3 sides of these programs that helped you?
Why this side of the program helped you?
What is the effect of this on you personally?
6- To what extent did you participate in the professional development programmes for
educational leaders after being appointed as an educational leader?
7- Do you think that those programmes had a significant impact on developing your
leadership skills? How? Tell me more.
8- What are the most important informal learning methods that are effective in
developing leadership skills from your perspective? What are the methods you used
to develop your skills? Can you explain please.
9- Did you change your practice in any way after going on the programmes?
If yes, How?... Tell me more
If no, why? ...Tell me more about that
10- How do you think the educational leader’s preparation process can be developed?
11- To what extent do you think the present method of selecting educational leaders
should be changed? Why? What are the criteria that should be taken to select
educational leaders?
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Appendix 9: Interview Questions (main study)
(1) Could you please describe any differences between being a leader and being a
(2) Could you please describe your previous experiences and responsibilities before
you were appointed to your present post? What are the effects on your present
job?
(3) Did you receive (attend) training programmes to prepare you for your title
(present role) as an educational leader?
If yes, tell me more about those programmes and what you learned from them.
What are their strengths and weaknesses from your point of view?
If no, why not?
(4) To what extent did you participate in the professional development programmes
for educational leaders after being appointed an educational leader?
(5) Do you think that those programmes had a significant impact on developing your
(6) What are the most important informal learning methods that are effective in
developing leadership skills from your perspective? Why? Please explain.
(7) Did you change your practice in any way after going on the programmes?
If yes, how so? Tell me more.
If no, why not? Tell me more.
(8) How do you think the educational leader’s preparation process can be developed?
(9) To what extent do you think the present method of selecting educational leaders
should be changed? Why? What are the criteria that should be considered when
selecting educational leaders?
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Appendix 10: Participant Information Sheet
I would like to invite you to take part in a research study about the preparation of
educational administrators which helps you to carry out your role in order to lead and
manage change in the State of Kuwait, in the light of the recent reforms in education
from 2005 onwards.
What is the study?
The study is part of a PhD dissertation that I am completing at the Institute of Education,
University of Reading. It aims to explore the effectiveness of leadership and management
preparation in the Ministry of Education and educational districts to carry out their role in
terms of leading and managing change in Kuwait.
Why have I been chosen to take part?
You have been invited to take part in the project because you are an educational
administrator in the Ministry of Education or educational districts.
Do I have to take part?
It is entirely up to you whether you participate. You may also withdraw at any time during
the project, without any repercussions to you, by contacting the research team using the
details above.
What will happen if I take part?
An interview will be conducted with you at a time convenient to you, lasting about 45
minutes, in which you will be asked about your professional development and the
experience you gained as an educational administrator. With your permission, this
interview will be recorded and transcribed.
What are the risks and benefits of taking part?
The information you give will remain confidential and will only be seen by the researcher
and her supervisor. You will not be identified in the final dissertation, although some of
your responses will be used in an anonymised form. No information will be shared with
others.
The information you provide will be useful for achieving the research study aims, which
will in turn help the development of educational administrators’ performance by
exploring and understanding participants’ experiences (without their identification). A
copy of the findings of the study can be made available to you by contacting the
researcher.
372
What will happen to the data?
Any data collected will be held in strict confidence, and no real names will be used in this
study or in any subsequent publications. The records of this study will be kept private. No
identifiers linking you to the study will be included in any sort of report that might be
published. Research records will be stored securely in a locked filing cabinet and on a
password-protected computer. Only the student researcher, Mrs. Alenezi, and the
researcher’s supervisor, Dr. Chris Turner, will have access to the records. The data will be
securely destroyed after 5 years. The data will be presented in my dissertation and
possibly in subsequent academic publications.
I do hope that you will agree to take part in the study. If you do, please complete the
attached consent form.
This application has been reviewed following the procedures of the University Research
Ethics Committee and has been given a favourable ethical opinion for conduct. Thank you
for your time.
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Appendix 11: Questionnaire Participants' Consent Form
I have read the Information Sheet about the project.
I understand what the purpose of the project is and what you want me to do. All my
questions have been answered. I agree to take part in this project.
I understand that it is my choice to help with this project and that I can withdraw at any
time, without giving a reason.
I have received a copy of this Consent Form and of the Information Sheet.
Please tick as appropriate:
I am willing to take part in a survey which will be conducted by Mrs. Alenezi
Name:
Signed:
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Appendix 12: Interview Participants' Consent Form
I have read the Information Sheet about the project.
I understand what the purpose of the project is and what you want me to do. All my
questions have been answered. I agree to take part in this project.
I understand that it is my choice to help with this project and that I can withdraw at any
time, without giving a reason.
I have received a copy of this Consent Form and of the Information Sheet.
Please tick as appropriate:
I am willing to take part in an interview where Mrs. Alenezi will take notes
I am willing to take part in an interview which will be recorded.
I am not willing to take part in an interview.
Name:
Signed:
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Appendix 13: Interview Transcript Sample (pilot study)
1-Could you please describe any differences between being a leader and being a
P: There is a big similarity between the manager and the leader, with a simple difference,
which is that the manager focuses on a particular classified part, for example, a manager
can be a financial manager, an administrative manager, etc…
R: You mean it's according to speciality and position?
P: Yes, it is, the similarity between a manager & a leader lies in the technical &
behavioural things, i.e. how he deals with his team & how he can manage the emergent
problems. A leader should have a strategic solution & a strategic view to the future, which
according to it he can run the place. There is a big similarity, but the difference is that the
manager is the specialization in something & the management of a certain speciality, that
includes being a leader. The leadership is how to lead a group of people, a leader leads a
group of people and also leads the whole place.
R: So, do you describe yourself as a leader or as a manager, or both?
P: For me, I basically consider myself a manager more than a leader, because I have the
leadership abilities but in certain specialities.
R: This leads us to the second question:
2- To what extent do you see yourself as a leader in the educational system?
P: No, No... I'm so far from leadership in the educational system, because the leader in
the educational system is supposed to have more than one side such as: general
education, curricula and teaching style. These sides should be specified and should
include more than one group; I think I'm responsible for one side only, which is the (...)
side.
R: Well, but who is the leader from your point of view?
376
P: Yes, the leader is the person who develop the general policy, this is a general
leadership; I'm a leader in my group, I'm a leader in the (...) group (he means ...
administration), I'm not an educational leader.
R: So, you are now a leader of the (...) administration, but you are working inside the
educational system which this means that you are may be dealing with teachers and
headteachers, beside that the (...) matters in the Ministry of Education differ from the (...)
matters in other ministries, don’t they?
P: that's right... I'd like to explain a certain point: I'm the manager of the (...)
administration, if I was a manager in another ministry, my performance and my
production would be the same (according to my speciality), but if you meant that I'm
helping in the educational process, then yes, I do... I have an effective role in it because I
introduce the (...) and other issues, but I don't have any relationship with the curricula or
in the educational process itself... I did not say that (X) is a teacher who teaches (Y)
subject or teaches in (Z) school, this person has an effective role in educational process,
but me , I'm helping in, but I don't have an effective role in the educational policy,
because my position is more restricted (he means that he has limitations in his
relationships and dealings) because I works under regulations and rules, and I don't have
scope for creation because I receives orders and execute them. This is the difference
between being an educational leader and a leader of a group.
R: This means that you are considering yourself as a leader of a group?
P: Yes, I'm a leader of a group (he means in his administration).
3- Could you please describe your previous experiences and responsibilities before you
were appointed to your present post? What are the effects on your present job?
P: I have achieved many tasks and missions and I have taken over the management of
many team works; I have also achieved some developmental activities at work before
being a manager.
R: Do you mean that you have previous experiences in team management?
377
P: Yes, I have managed important teamwork in very sensitive situations; I delegated large
groups to handle certain problems, I have established a new division for work
development. I started working through computers instead of paper work, I have put in
place mechanisms for work and documentation and many other jobs I have achieved
before being a manager, I have progressed in my job from a novice (...) to a manger;
through that, I worked in different departments and I became aware about many tasks
and jobs.
R: you mean that your previous tasks and responsibilities you achieved, earned you an
experience that helped you so much?
P: yes, I have been a leader of small groups and large groups - up to 100 or more
employees.
R: well, but what is the effect of these various experiences on your current role?
P: It helped me face the problems and solve them quickly, it raised my promptitude and
helped me to take the decisions with trust, not in a hurry, by following the right scientific
style based on my experience and on certain procedures followed to solve certain
problems. It also helped me face certain crises and execute orders issued by the higher
authorities. So, thanks to Allah, these previous experiences qualified me to be fast in
decision making and in my way of thinking.
R: Do you mean that you are successful at your role?
P: I can't say that, but there are others who can evaluate me.
R: yes, I understand that, but we'd like to know your opinion about yourself?
P: thank to Allah, I have enough trust to be here.
4- Did you receive (attend) training programmes to prepare you for your title (present
role) as an educational leader?... Tell me more about those programmes ... What did
you learn from those programmes?
P: No, I haven’t attended special training courses to prepare me to be manager, I had

benefits from the courses I attended.
378
R: Do you mean that you had courses but not specialized courses in leadership? Because
we are interested in leadership courses.
P: Yes, I had one course (I can’t remember its name) but it was about preparing leaders.
R: When did you attended this course?
P: Before being a manager.
R: Was it provided by the ministry of education or it was you who looked for it?
P: It was provided by the ministry and I accepted it; I also had benefit from a previous
course.
R: You mean you had a professional benefit?
P: No, No, on the contrary, I have attended a course I wish everybody could attend, which
was for interpersonal skills - how you can interact with surrounding people and how to
solve any problem immediately and independently. I learned how to control myself.
R: Did you learn this on the leader’s preparation course?
P: No, this was different, I had that when I was head of department.
5- What are the three aspects of these programmes that most helped you? Why did
these help you? What is the effect of this on you personally?
P: The most effective point is the people who attended with me, because I discovered
other experiences other than mine. Well, the lecturer introduced theoretical material, but
the attendance of other participants helped us to exchange experiences during
discussion.
R: Do you mean that the course was like a lecture?
P: Yes, it was a class lecture, where the lecturer introduces the lecture, then started a
discussion, it became like a workshop. What I have learned is if there is someone whom I
was watching from a distance, he was acting in certain situations, I judged that he was not
a good person, it was an external judgment, but when I talked to him, I knew him well. I
379
discovered that there are things I can learn from others and get benefit. I always prefer
panel discussion rather than lectures.
R: you mean like workshops or seminars?
P: Yes, seminars are more important than lectures in classes. Of course, we receive
information, but how can we gain more experiences in such classes if we didn't have
interactive conversation with each other?
R: You mentioned one benefit only for these programmes which is the in-class
discussions.
P: Yes, it was very helpful and it broke down the fear inside me.
R: Was this the effect on your personality? I mean did it increase your self-trust?
P: Of course, when you find someone to discuss with, it's completely different from being
just a recipient; I mean you can receive information, listen and listen again, but where is
the action? Where is the response? if I couldn't speak (discuss) in such lectures, it's less
useful. I'm going to tell you about a previous experience: when I started holding meetings
with the assistant undersecretary, I was young and my voice was always loud; I was
impulsive too, because I was enthusiastic, and one day, the assistant undersecretary said
to me: "This is not the right way for discussion, you should listen, meditate then reply,
and your reply should be always useful (he means I should reply appropriately), I'm asking
you to keep this advice in your mind at every meeting". Sometimes I was shouting and
screaming but he said to me: "No, No, we are listening to you". At the next meeting I
developed the experience of listening and writing notes, I had complete self–control. At
the third and fourth meetings I repeated that until I became the leader of such meetings.
These all were experiences I have gained.
P: can you explain more? Do you mean if I had participated or had been asked to join such
programmes?
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R: I mean did you seek participation of such programmes?
P: I have attended some special seminars about (...) and about Civil Service Commission -
they were related to my speciality.
R: These seminars were about your speciality. Have you ever attended courses about
leadership?
P: There weren't any courses about leadership, or conferences about it on the

educational level; there were no conferences about leadership at all. There is no what we
can call an extended conference for the leaders. Even on a national level. If I need to
attend a lecture or course, where can I go for? There is no specific location to attend such
courses to develop certain abilities in leadership. We asked for courses, but in most (90%)
cases, there were no such available.
R: Does the Ministry provide these courses?
P: Few, so so few.
R: Do you mean it is not dedicated for leadership?
P: These courses are not specific for educational leadership. For example, if you want to
attend a preparation course for educational leaders, ... etc. Where will that kind of course
be? It does not exist. Sometime I select some courses from the course programme (He
means list of courses) - which I think it is proper for me – and when I went for
registration, I found nobody registered and accordingly it was cancelled. This situation has
happened many times.
R: Do you mean that you selected the courses as per your requirements?
P: Yes, I did, but it had been cancelled. If the courses had been selected before, why
didn’t the Ministry provide these courses upon those prior selections? I am wondering,
how many courses are provided by the Civil Service Commission related to leadership?
(He means there are no such courses or may be negligible)
R: Do you mean the courses which you asked for are not provided by the Ministry?
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P: I already asked for those courses many times before because I am not looking forward
to my current professional position after all that period, I am already saturated from it
such as (...) issues and preparing (...). I already saturated from all of them but I need to
learn how to be a leader, develop myself and develop the work itself. At this point, we
have a very big deficiency in those courses.
7- Do you think that those programmes had a significant impact on developing your
(Presented a prompt card for participant to clarify what leadership skills are)
P: All those abilities already existed (He means that he has those skills).
R: What I mean is, are those abilities gained from the courses or from experience?
P: Everybody knows himself well... I am a self-confident human and I am not afraid of

anything even taking decisions. I am ready to do what I think is right, face everything and
defend my decisions. On the other hand, I will not do anything that I am not convinced
about and nobody can make me do it. So, if we want to talk about strategic planning; we
already have it but unfortunately it is not available for everything. Sometimes, I prepare a
strategic plan for five years hence to develop a certain task then I am surprised that there
is no available budget for it and in these cases, we transfer it to another department to
provide it. We plan, but sometimes we cannot execute that plan. We just do our best.
8- What are the most important informal learning methods that are effective in
developing leadership skills from your perspective? What are the methods you used to
develop your skills? Can you explain please.
R: I am always up to date and follow up on the specialist television programme related to

the management topic. I gained experience from them. From my point of view, to be
inside the issue or problem is much better than observing it from the outside. (He means
to coexist and react to the issue). It could be an administration issue but you just observe
it from the outside and you do not react to it, so you will not gain any experience from it.
But when you coexist with the issue, you will gain the experience. For example, it
happened that someone came to my department to review some requirements and he
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was very nervous and caused disruption in his work. I dealt with him patiently, although I
did not have any previous experience in such cases, and I resolved that issue. That was a
successful experience for me and I learned how to cope and gained experience which I
used in other situations. So, as I said, it is better to coexist with the issue than to observe
it from the outside. I learned that without attending any courses.
R: Can we consider that type of learning as the personal experiment?
P: I think it is how dealing with a difficult situation. Also, I would to add another case, that
was a sudden assignment for some task. For example, one of the top managers assigned
me to a certain position which was far removed from my career and asked me to achieve
some tasks.
R: Did you feel that was challenging for you?
P: Yes, it challenged me. I was assigned to be contact officer with the Ministry of Finance,
although I am employee and the task was related to computer techniques but also
related to (...) and under the special circumstances I was assigned to that task, and when I
rejected that due to lack of experience of this, my top manager advised me to learn, and
he added, that there was nothing difficult. He provided support and helped me. That
situation made me put pressure on myself and to collect all the required information,
even it was out of my job remit and, thanks to Allah, I succeeded.
R: Did that situation and sudden assignment affect you?
P: Yes of course, all kinds of situations, education and the professional position teach us.
Dealing with every emergency situation teaches us how to act correctly. I do not mean
only work problems or issues, but also situations with family or friends.
R: Do you mean that when you deal with your family or friends?
P: Yes, at a family level, when I coexist with the problem or issue, I will gain experience.
R: Did the previous experiences, such as personal ones and achieving tasks, influence you
as informal learning methods?
P: Yes of course, because when we coexist with some situation, we will gain experience.
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R: Ok, you have talked about effective informal methods to develop leadership skills from
your perspective, but what are the most effective methods you used to develop your
abilities?
P: Reading books and following up on television and radio programmes.
R: What about learning from situations and problems which you mentioned before?
P: Yes, problems teach us, but I am not considering them, I am seeking to read books,
watch television and listen to radio programmes.
9- Did you change your practice in any way after attending the programmes?
If yes, how? Tell me more
If no, why? Tell me more about that
P: Yes of course, there is improvement in my performance, not only in my personality,

but in the manner of performance. I have become more careful in making decisions and
have more acumen. Previously, I was rushing in my responses and was loud, but now I
have become quieter, choose my words and know how to act in various situations. I
learned that from the experience. My position as a leader in my work makes me a leader
also out work. It affected my whole life and taught me how to lead my family and how to
distribute tasks to the members of my family. That experience is useful in all aspects of
my life. Previously, I was nervous in some situations but now I am patient in everything;
even at work I have become patient in judging things.
R: Does that mean your professional performance is affected by the experience you are
gained?
P: Yes of course, it has changed.
P: From my point of view, in addition to the academic part we have to utilize past
experiences, to organize open conferences with successful leaders, such as former
ministers and former top managers. Also, to organize such sessions with retired academic
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staffs. Also, to organize extensive conferences to transfer experiences from former
leaders who develop and change educational processes. We have to listen and to learn
from them. If there any deficiency in any aspect we have to discuss it or if there is any
development or success in, we have to boost it. Nobody can learn with himself alone. As a
student, he needs a teacher to teach him and to teach him how to read and write. I am
now aiming for the position of manager, but I still need more experience. I need previous
experience with all its advantages and disadvantages. I need to utilize its advantages and
to understand its disadvantages.
We do not have that principle here in Kuwait. Here, if someone retired from his position,
we will forget everything about him; despite the fact he may have rich professional
experience but some people will consider him old fashioned in his thinking. Sometimes
this may be useful rather than the modern thinking and sometimes I vary between both
of them. Books exist everywhere - we can read them, download the information from the
internet. Also, I may attend some lectures and learn some academic subjects but at the
end of the day all of that is limited by its course or subject. But, what do we gain from
them, how to apply what I learned before, where and with whom? We are not utilizing
the previous experiences. Our fathers and grandfathers learned from the experiments.
So, that is why we should transfer previous experiences and do not only depend on
courses for a one-week period only.
11- To what extent do you think the present method of selecting educational leaders
should be changed? Why? What are the criteria that should be taken into account to
select educational leaders?
P: First of all, from my point of view, to select a leader we should review his biography or
his curriculum vitae first, to review his career history and his type of career. I have to
review his previous experience, what has he developed or achieved? what courses did he
attend? what is his performance? I should investigate the opinion of others about his
performance. We should evaluate him through others and through his co-workers. I
prefer to select him through a referendum. I mean, when I want to choose a manager for
a place, first I should know how he will deal with other employees in his administration.
He should know how to adapt to the group, because he is supposed to have enough
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experience to deal with different personalities. He also should be of the same speciality as
the position he is appointed to. Because it’s not acceptable to appoint an Arabic language
teacher (as example) to run a financial administration, so we should choose a leader from
the same field.
R: Well, you are now considering these criteria not ideal to select a Leader, i.e. do you
think that current criteria should be changed?
P: Of course, it should be changed.
R: Let's retrieve the current criteria of appointing managers?
P: Qualification, years of experience, competency assessment and interview.
R: Excuse me, qualification is an elastic word, this means that diplomas, bachelors or any
scientific degree could be accepted.
P: Yes, they 're accepting diplomas and bachelors, but I don't consider this as a
measurement, because I hold a diploma degree but I took over this title with my
experience.
R: But do not you think that a qualification degree is necessary for this position?
P: Yes, and I don't undervalue the importance of a qualification, but it's not everything; a
diploma holding person can perform and produce better than those who has bachelor.
My circumstances allowed me just to hold a diploma degree. I don't like to link the criteria
of selecting with the qualification degree but I can link it with performance. We should
interest ourselves in the thoughts of Candidate for the post and the level of his
performance.
R: If we took the performance as a criterion for selecting leaders, how can you measure
it? What is the mechanism? for example, you mentioned (questionnaires) how can we
apply it?
P: An administrative and a technical questionnaire should be carried out, i.e. what is the
attitude of this person in his/her administration? what is the level of flexibility in his/her
personality? Candidate managerial position started as a head of department, supervisor
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then he/ she progressed through numerous previous positions, that had been imprinted
on his/her employees (means that employees in the same administration had been
influenced by the long term dealing with him/her). So, those employees will tell us how
he/she acts (meaning employees can evaluate the candidate), especially since the
questionnaire was general without names. Then, we should look at the percentage
he/she got on this aspect. The response of employees - maybe it’s zero and this means
that he/she can't deal with others or maybe he/she has arrogance and vanity or we can
find an unmeasured decision, etc…or I can find an informed person who knows how to
make a decision in the right way; these results tell me who I should select .
Then I can run another questionnaire with the candidates as an employer. l can ask if
he/she was a hard worker and ambitious person? So, by the questionnaire I can evaluate
in two ways (employers and employees).
R: Does it mean from your point of view that the current way of selecting leaders is
useless?
P: Yes, it is useless, because even in the interview he/she will be asked about the
technical part and the administrative part only.
R: But what about the ability or skills of leadership, how can you measure them?
P: I can't, but the confrontational approach may help (through showing a certain problem
and observing how he/she copes), but in general, 90% of the interviews rely on drawing
attention of members of interview committee even if a candidate is not qualified. I prefer
to count on questionnaires and give only 10% of the evaluation based on the interview.
R: You said that in interviews, technical and administrative aspects are measured; but
what about the personal side, don't you think that there is a need for psychological
experts or behavioural specialists to evaluate this aspect?
P: that's right, there is a need for a specialized committee but from people who met the
candidate before (which means there must be previous relationship with him/her); how
can I meet an unknown person? How can I measure and evaluate his/her abilities? The
candidate may be confused at the interview, it's about his/her career future and
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promotion. I am wondering, how can I determine someone's future within 15 minutes
(duration of interviews)? At some interviews I did before, sometimes I met a candidate
who I know very well; this makes evaluation very easy because I know him/her and I dealt
with him/her before.
R: Don't you think that you may be biased as you knew him/her previously?
P: No, No, because my criteria depends on my dealing with him/her at work and this
makes selection easier. But sometimes I meet a candidate I don't know at all, he/she may
be better than others but I don’t know that, so I undervalue him/her because I don't have
enough data about him/her. So, I prefer the questionnaire, because the majority will give
opinions freely, because it is always designed to be anonymous.
R: It's a worthwhile idea, but it can't be the only criteria?
P: Of course, there should be other criteria, like experience and qualifications, because
my selection will focus on basic issues, like education level and experience.
R: finally, thanks for your patience.
P: It is my pleasure and good luck.
N.B: This interview took 55 minutes.
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Appendix 14: Interview Transcript Sample (main study)
1- Could you please describe any differences between being a leader and being a manager in
your present role?
P: Being a manager here enabled me to take decisions more than before when I was obliged to
adopt the opinion of the bosses - but now I can make a decision independently and take
responsibility. And I can ask one of my employees to do the task.
R: Do you mean that this job gave you authority?
P: Yes... it gave me authority to correct what is happening.
R: can you elaborate further please?
P: We encountered problems in this administration because of appointing managers who are not
specialized in … these managers impaired the performance level of the administration (meaning
those who did not have experience in the same specialization of administration undermined it),
and we reached a point where they said that this administration (...) doesn’t have competencies
and it has no achievements. All the work was assigned to one person who is a consultant to the...,
and his decisions were all wrong, but he imposed them on us. We, the older experienced people,
didn’t make any decisions, ... and they restricted us.
R: What are the reasons for that? Do you think it was because the director of administration was
not a leader?
P: Because the specialization of the administration director was not related to administration; he
did not apprentice in this administration, because the work here needs specialization and
expertise; it is not administrative work, and not everyone can manage it. Furthermore, we have
many issues depending on experience in the field. The most important is the plans we made.
These are based on studying the current situation in the Ministry of Education and the objectives
that are required to be achieved.
R: Is that still going on even though you're the director of administration?
P: No No... I am talking about the Ministry of Education in general... For example, I have
kindergartens growing, at the beginning in the nineties there was a teacher and a half for each
class, and now I have four teachers for each class ... I mean I have a big surplus now. The primary
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level also has a surplus concerning some subjects, and other subjects have shortages but they are
considered rare (referring to the number of teachers in some subjects).
R: But do you think that the poor performance previously in your administration and its impact on
the field is due to the fact that there were no specialists in administration?
P: There are specialists, but they restricted our role.
R: But what is your role as a leader?
P: At that time, I was not the leader (meaning the director of administration) but now that I have
become a leader, I am trying to impose administration on the Ministry of Education, I mean to
carry out its main tasks.
R: You say that you became the leader of this administration. Why do you think you are a leader?
P: First, I wanted to improve the situation in the Ministry of Education; I feel I started to achieve
it... Even if the advance is only 10% but I felt there is a change, our work became reliable,
although it was not. They trust our data and indicators, and ask the reasons, what does that
mean? And what is the reason that this indicator has become so? I met the heads of the
departments in administration who are specialized in (...) in the presence of three agents. We met
and discussed many issues and topics. It was difficult to provide them, but we were able to in
other ways. And I felt that there is a trust in our work... We have employees with more than 20 or
25 years of experience in this administration.
R: You mean you have experiences, but they were not exploited previously... but when you
became manager you changed that?
P: Yeah... I activated them.
R: Okay... But what's your understanding of a manager?
P: The manager manages the workplace and checks who is absent and who is late...
R: What about the leader?
p: a leader is the one who triggers the work and motivates people... We have been asking our
former director to make an annual handbook for educational indicators for years... But he
rejected it. Now I have assigned a team from inside administration to work with me on achieving
that. Initially, I asked them to present suggestions for a book (for indicators) within two weeks.
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And then I asked them to implement it ... and I told them that my door is always open, you can
ask me about any difficulties you face and even if I don’t have the answer, we can try to find it and
we will. By January, the booklet will be ready. The leader must take risks, never fear anything, face
challenges and have vision.
R: Do you consider yourself a leader?
P: Yes... I am dealing with and coming into contact with an agent.
R: Do you mean that you are being faced and fought?
P: Yes, not just me, I also have two of the best staff in administration.
R: You mean that your problem is that you have limited authority and prerogatives, but you try to
work within the limits of your authority?
P: Yes. I’ll give you an example: I am the ... for education in Kuwait, and I am required by UNESCO
to form a national team; I cannot have a resolution without the approval of my agent. And he has
rejected my request many times ... so I had to form a small team within my administration and I
asked them to address various agencies to provide us with liaison officers, as well as the
information we need to write our reports and see what we can achieve.
R: Is this required from you as a national team?
P: Yes ...we have a plan for the year 2032.
R: Do you have the ability to develop strategic plans with your team?
P: Yes, we have, and if we have everything we need, we can do it. I can manage if I have someone
who comes from Kuwait University or any other place - each one has his own data.
R: Do you mean from outside the ministry because you work with parties from outside it?
P: Yes
R: Does this cooperation require the permission of higher authorities?
P: I have now adopted a different method; I took it as a paper sending to a specific destination
and produced from our authority with the signature of the Undersecretary of the Ministry but
until now, I am waiting for the response, and the papers signed and returned to me ... I mean I
will only communicate with them by telephone or in any other way to collect the data from them.
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If I cannot achieve this, I can initiate a memorandum to the deputy minister or minister and
explain the problem to facilitate it.
R: What other managers have said is that each director should be in the same administration and
in the same specialization and be gradually upgraded to reach this position.
P: That's important... why did we suffer? When I was employed in this administration, my boss
was from the same administration; she taught us and we learned from her. I worked with her for
6 or 7 years, and then she retired. I learned many things from her. I came first as a teacher and I
had no experience, so she taught me.
R: We will return to this point in Question 6, but to summarize the answer of the first question,
you said that you consider yourself a leader because you are working, planning and achieving
goals and…
P: Yes, because the manager just manages the work but I do more than that.
2- Could you please describe your previous experiences and responsibilities before you were
appointed to your present post? What are the effects on your present job?
P: When I came to the (…) department, the head of our department (...) was the second support
for me (meaning she was the second giving him support after the manager), we worked manually,
we even would line the tables with our hands and if we made one mistake, we would repeat the
work. She told me that we should convert our work from manual to electronic. Although I didn’t
know how to deal with the computer, we had a few members of staff who had some experience
with the computer, and we benefited from them until we converted our department and another
department in the same administration from manual to electronic without taking any courses.
Then she took me with her to the undersecretary of the ministry and told him that I had a
request. At that time, computers were bought for the middle level. He said, "What do you want?"
I said we needed computers, he said how many? I said we needed 13 and he said they would be
ready the next day. And we actually got our computers the very next morning. Now we have an
entire computerized system.
R: Do you mean that your experience has benefited you, refined you and made you more
confident?
P: Yes... and also taught me that it is not a requirement to be an academic concerning certain
issues... with experience, cooperation and teamwork, it is possible to achieve anything.
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R: What about the support from officials?
P: unfortunately, the support from officials...'mmm' ... But now I am familiar with my job and I
have the power in my position, I ask for what the Department needs and I am stubborn when it
comes to getting it... with insistence and challenge, for example: I am a (...) and did not get the
approval to form a team... so I formed a team from my department and did the task without any
permission from (...) (means achieved goal despite obstacles).
R: Do you think that these practices and tasks you accomplished before you became a director
influenced your current role?
P: Yes, very much so... Being an employee in the same administration, I was gradually upgraded
from an employee to a director in the same administration; I got the experience of the same
specialization, and have practised similar tasks to the ones I do now.
3- Did you receive (attend) training programmes to prepare you for your title (present role) as
an educational leader? ... If Yes, tell me more about those programmes and what did you learn
from those programmes? What are the strengths and weaknesses from your point of view? If
No, why?
P: No... I did not receive any training courses as a leader, because they were not available. But I
was qualified through working in administration, but the formal preparation and attending
courses were not available.
R: Didn’t the Ministry of Education offer you any preparation courses?
P: No... Never.
R: Why did not you try to attend even in the private sector?
P: It was not my ambition to be a manager, because after the retirement of our previous manager
and assigning new manager from outside the administration, we were frustrated, I did not expect
to become a manager... We worked together privately, because each manager comes and bring
his own staff, and therefore I had no ambition for this post. I applied for an observer position,
with another new employee who had been in administration for two months and she admitted
that I was better qualified, but she got the position despite that.
R: Since you did not attend preparation courses, you have no idea about their strengths and
weaknesses, do you?
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P: Yes, I do not know about them.
P: Planning skills which I attended through specialized courses.
R: Did you attend them before being appointed?
P: Yes, when I was a department head, I took it as a specialization rather than preparing courses
to be a leader. I took strategic planning, budgeting, analysing budgets... most of my courses are in
planning because basically I (...), so I had them as a specialization and as leadership courses
because basically I did not attend any preparation courses.
R: Well, what about professional development courses, did you attend them in order to develop
your leadership skills?
P: Yes, I have attended them but it was a long time ago.
R: Did you attend sessions to develop your role as a leader?
P: No... I took it through self-development courses...
R: Does that mean that you sought to attend self-development courses and they were not offered
by the Ministry of Education?
P: No... I sought them to develop myself.
5- Do you think that those programmes had a significant impact on developing your leadership
skills? How? Tell me more.
P: Yes, very much...
R: Tell me more... for example, which skill have you mostly evolved?
P: First, teamwork spirit, you shouldn’t think that you own all the knowledge, no, because your
information can be incomplete and can be complemented by a second or third person; it is wrong
to say that we know everything.
R: And what did you learn from professional development courses?
P: How to delegate roles and trust in them...I mean dealing with others.
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6- What are the most important informal learning methods that are effective in developing
leadership skills from your perspective? Why? Can you explain please.
P: This happened to me when I converted from teacher to administrative by a medical council

decision. I was appointed to this administration. The director of the department had an insight.
After 6 months of work in this department, my boss assigned me as a head of the (...) department.
And because I do not know anything about this speciality, I went to her and told her that I could
not accept the post, and she asked me why do you refuse? I said because I do not know anything
about this department, she said, “first I do not want to say to me I refuse ... Secondly I chose you
and you will not be alone and I will support you as well as everyone else. And she actually kept
her word... and supported me like she did with everyone, but she focused mainly on me. We were
three people in the department, we were active and working hard. She encouraged us to attend
planning sessions, analysing indicators, budgeting, and attend other workshops. We used to
attend high level discussions with specialists and assistant agents. So, we gained experience from
them and we observed the responses from them and her.
R: you mean that the most influential thing you had was the presence of a strong manager who
had knowledge and ability and taught you as a team and focused on you because she noticed the
qualities of leadership that you had?
P: Yes... I now act in the same way and the same method because we want to raise the level of
administration and the level of education. And also she was supported by the agent of the sector,
and he used to treat us in the same manner and I learned much from him too.
R: Did you mean that you learned a lot from your ex-managers and they influenced you greatly?
P: Yes... And also, from working with the committees and teams...
R: What about discussing with your colleagues (managers not employees) did that benefit you?
P: mmm... in some things ... that are not...
R: Do you mean that you only discuss staff, not managers
P: Yes.
R: what about reading books and studies... do you read to develop yourself?
P: yes sure.
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R: you mentioned that one of the learning methods is to learn from the manager, to discuss
colleagues and to benefit from the experiences you had. Is learning from your past managers
considered the best method for developing your skills?
P: Yes... And also participating in workshops with experienced people, this is the most important
thing that has influenced me.
7- Did you change your practice in any way after attending the programmes?
If yes, How?... Tell me more
If no, why? ...Tell me more about that.
P: Yes, very much... It gave me a lot of self-confidence when dealing with bosses and employees,
behaving rationally and being realistic, and it taught me to defend my viewpoint and my work if it
is right, fulfils the purpose and leads to the development of work and preserving the property of
the institution, and if it helps any downtrodden person in administration ... so if I noticed anyone
who had ambition and potential, I helped them to enrol on
courses and self-develop.
R: Well... But what did you apply to your work from what you learned from the courses?
P: I will give you an example: a month ago, the ministry nominated me to attend a course in
Malaysia; we went to see the plan of Malaysia, which they applied from the eighties till now, I
liked it... because the president wanted to develop his country, while it was poor and it had no
potential. So, we have examined their successful experience.
R: Well, from this experience, what is the most effective for you and what did you apply here?
P: As I told you, I am a (...) thus I told them to form a committee, but they refused. So, I decided to
form it alone and I did.
R: Did you do it unpaid and by your personal efforts and did you choose honest and hard-working
members?
P: Yes... We will do what it takes to form a team, which motivated me. Because this time I went to
Malaysia, visited the Supreme Planning Council and took a look at their plan.
R: Were you with a delegation from the Ministry of Education?
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P: No ... It was a course
R: How long was it?
P: Six days with Dr. (...) we started from the morning...
R: Excuse me, who is Dr. (...) what is his job and role?
P: He is our leader (she means the leader of their team in the course) and he is the director of the
(...) company.
R: You mean a private company?
P: Yes, but through a contract with the Ministry of Education, he recruits people. Like now, he is
recruiting people to go to a course in Japan, and look at the Education Plan, just as we looked at
the Malaysian plan.
R: Do you mean that it is a private sector course and he takes leaders and managers from the
Ministry of Education and not from all ministries?
P: No... He took only two people from the Ministry of Education just like the other ministries.
R: So, this course is concerned with the entire government, not only the Ministry of Education?
P: Yes... and there is a private part too... which means there are some people who paid money to
enrol on the course.
R: Did you attend lectures and workshops, or it was just a visit?
P: Everything, it was varied.
KR Do you think a week was enough?
P: Frankly, it was tiring for us because we had to visit two places each day... Malaysia is huge; we
used to go to the first place and then take a break and move to the second ... from 8am till 5 or 7
pm, and we were travelling by bus in the rainy weather... exhausting... but it was very helpful.
R: When did you attend this course?
P: Recently, I mean, whilst I was a manager.
R: Do you consider it a professional development course?
397
P: Yes...
P: We need a special centre for preparing leaders, to establish a centre specialized in the
preparation of educational and non-educational leaders, in which there are different stages, and
no one can apply for the interviews unless they pass a certain stage which defined by
stakeholders or officials, and the period of the courses in the centre should be at least three
years.
R: What will this centre offer?
P: It should offer courses and workshops that simulate the reality of leaders in order to train
managers, but some of them can’t adapt (meaning they do not accept being leaders), these want
only to become managers not leaders... they are not our target!! We need managers who are
leaders not only managers. That is what is being applied for in Bahrain.
R: You mean they're choosing and training leaders?
P: Yes, they are, on the level of the whole government.
R: Do you mean that they choose managers and train them in a leadership development centre?
P: Yes... and for years... For example, they take the head of the department, they offer them
sessions, and they choose the elite and sign them as supervisors or managers and possibly as
assistant undersecretary ... I had a colleague who attended with me a lot of workshops sponsored
by UNESCO I asked about her later and they told me she had become an assistant undersecretary.
They were preparing and training her all that period. (She means through the centre).
R: Do you mean that you support Bahrain's experience concerning leaders’ preparation?
P: Yes.
9- To what extent do you think the present method of selecting educational leaders should be
changed? Why? What are the criteria that should be taken into account when selecting
educational leaders?
P: This is a priority, in order to adapt and develop the educational system, and not to leave the
random situation at the will of the current decision maker. As for the standards, they should be
set by experts involved in the preparation of educational leaders.
398
R: Well, let's talk about the current situation, how are educational leaders being chosen?
P: I will give you an example: I have vacancies in the monitoring department... when I do
interviews, I choose the ones I know will work with me and whose efficiency I know... Even the
interview committee asks "the owner of the house" I mean the manager of administration: who
do you want?
R: Do you mean that the manager nominates the one he wants in his administration?
P: Yes
R: Is this what's happening right now?
P: Yes... and they set grades accordingly to select that person (she means the members of the
interview committee)
R: You mean cronyism and 'Wasta'?
P: Yes cronyism, Wasta... and nepotism.
R: Well if the terms of nomination for the leadership position are competence, experience,
certificates and then the interview... and you mentioned what happens concerning the
interviews... do you want to change this method?
P: Yes
R: Okay, but what are the standards for selecting from your point of view and through your
experience?
P: For example, I am manager of the department for executive technicians and I have to have
technical standards, but in other administrative departments they may have different standards...
R: I got your point, but I am speaking in general to select a leader... What are the standards?
I mean, can we suggest experience, specialization and attending a leadership preparation course?
P: Yes, yes. And the course should have a test.
R: Well, can you describe the standards from your point of view?
P: First, they do simple experimental courses...
R: But I am asking about choosing the person before attending the courses...
399
P: The nomination should be made by his administration according to the competencies they
have, because they know them and work with them. And people might not pass the course test.
R: Why, is it because they do not have the potential to become leaders?
P: Yes ... and there are a lot of examples, a person might be good and intellectual but if they are
assigned to lead a group, they fail. They are good at work but don’t fit as a leader.
R: So, the first step starts with the selection of qualified people who meet the requirements and
then they enrol onto courses, and through this they can be tested and after that comes the
interview?
P: Yes... the ones who do the interview should have passed the course tests ... For example: at the
level of supervisory positions in schools, they give the candidates a booklet, some might
understand it and some might memorize it, but the test is for those who memorize it.
R: Do you mean that the test must be standardized and must measure different skills?
P: Yes, that is necessary. There must be a "trick" in order to know who the leader is and who is
not.
R: Should the exam test the technical subject of specialization or should it measure leadership
skills?
P: There are many people who believe that they know everything... But when we have a
discussion, we don’t find that... they do not have the skills, they only apply the rules and laws. It is
right that they should be applied, but it is not the Quran, and even that, when applied, must be
according to the current situation... unfortunately they don’t get that.
R: Well, in the selection of leaders, some managers suggest conducting a referendum for the
candidate through whom they dealt with, whether his officials or colleagues in work to know his
performance without mentioning the name of the participant in the referendum ... What do you
think about that?
P: There is no need for a referendum... because I know who is working with me. (She means to ask
the candidate’s manager about their performance)
R: But what is the mechanism for asking about the candidates for choosing leaders?
400
P: There must be a person from outside the ministry who is specialized in the preparation of
leaders who can set the conditions and standards. Unfortunately, we don’t have that.
R: At the end of the meeting I want to thank you, and is there anything else you would like to
add?
P: Allah bless you.
401
Appendix 15: Demographic Data
Table 15.1 Demographic Data for Questionnaire Sample
Survey Participant Codes
Interviewee Details 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Gender F F F M M F M M M F M
Education District or Ministry of

ED ED ED ED ED ED ED ED ED ED ED
Education
Permanent or Acting Manager PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM
More More More More More More More More More More More
Years of Experience Since Appointment
than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15
More More
Years of Experience as a Teacher None 10–14 None None 5–9 10–14 None None 5–9
than 15 than 15
Years of Experience as an More More More More More More More
None 10–14 None None
Administrator than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15
Years of Experience in a Supervisor More More
10–14 10–14 missing 10–14 10–14 10–14 5–9 10–14 missing
Position than 15 than 15
More
Years of Experience in Current Position 10–14 1–4 10–14 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 10–14
than 15
Number of Pre-appointment Training
13 missing None 10 5 4 3 4 9 None 50
Courses as a Manager
Number of Professional Development
2 7 4 None 4 7 2 2 5 6 50
Courses in Service in Last 5 Years
402
Table 15.2 Demographic Data for Questionnaire Sample (continued)
Interviewee Details 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Gender M M M M M M M M M F M
ED ED ED ED ED ED ED ED ED ED ED
Education
Permanent or Acting Manager PM PM AM PM PM PM PM PM AM PM PM
More
Years of Experience Since More More More More More More More More More More
than
Appointment than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15
1515
More
Years of Experience as a Teacher None 5–9 5–9 None 5–9 None None 5–9 None None
than 15
Years of Experience as an More More More More More More More More
None 5–9 5–9
Administrator than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15
Years of Experience in a Supervisor More More More More More More
10–14 10–14 10–14 5–9 10–14
Position than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15
Years of Experience in Current More
1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 10–14 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4
Position than 15
Number of Pre-appointment More
10 5 5 missing None 12 2 7 12 None
Training Courses as a Manager than 20
Number of Professional
More More
Development Courses in Service in 2 3 missing 25 15 9 10 None 3
than 5 than 20
Last 5 Years
403
Interviewee Details 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Gender F M F F M M F F M M
Education District or Ministry of Education MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE
Permanent or Acting Manager AM PM AM PM AM AM AM PM PM PM
More More More More More More More More More More
than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15
Years of Experience as a Teacher None missing 1–4 1–4 1–4 None None 5–9 10–14 None
Years of Experience as an Administrator
More More More More More More More More More
Years of Experience in a Supervisor Position missing
than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15
More More More
Years of Experience in Current Position 5–9 1–4 1–4 5–9 1–4 5–9 1–4
Number of Pre-appointment Training More
None 3 None 3 5 2 5 None 6
Courses as a Manager than 10
Number of Professional Development More
2 None None missing 4 15 4 12 3
Courses in Service in Last 5 Years than 10
404
Interviewee Details 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Gender F M M F M M M M M F

MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE MoE
Education
Permanent or Acting Manager PM PM PM PM AM PM PM PM PM AM
More
Years of Experience as a Teacher None None None None None None 1–4 None None
than 15
Years of Experience as an More More More More More More More More
None 5–9
Administrator than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15 than 15
Years of Experience in a Supervisor More More More
missing missing 10–14 10–14 5–9 10–14 5–9
Position than 15 than 15 than 15
Years of Experience in Current Position 5–9 5–9 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4 1–4
Number of Pre-appointment Training

missing 3 7 3 7 3 missing None missing None
Courses as a Manager
Number of Professional Development
missing 5 1 5 7 7 missing 1 missing 1
Courses in Service in Last 5 Years
405
Appendix 16: Coding Process of the Training Programmes Impact (example)
Examples of quotes used First round codes Second round codes Final codes
▪ Yes, it motivated me to make a decision in the face of any problem in the right time and ▪ Motivation to exercise tasks ▪ Developing
provided me with various ideas. ▪ Innovation assistance managerial skills
▪ In general, getting out from the work atmosphere, meeting others and sharing ▪ Training needs ▪ Developing
Impact of the Professional Development Activities

experiences are motivating to be creative. leadership skills
▪ Positive effect
▪ ...having discussions and training, I generate new ideas. ▪ Training needs
▪ I will get out from the courses without any trace of it. ▪ Apply what has been learned ▪ Positive impact of
▪ Yes, I needed these courses. ▪ External courses training
▪ I have learned how to do educational and developmental projects for me and the staff in ▪ Difficulties and problems ▪ Poor effect of
my department… ▪ Not directed at leaders training
▪ and now I use this approach in all the schools I have supervised. ▪ Effect of training in general programmes
▪ Of course, we are working on it now. ▪ Specialization in the same field
▪ And there are other courses which also influenced me, like two courses I have attended
▪ Developing leadership skills
at my own expense in Japan, they actually changed my life.
▪ Although it does not exist but is important and it has an impact on the process of ▪ Development of professional
development and we need it. experience
▪ Of course, I carry and implement what I have learned... ▪ Development of managerial
▪ Yes ... because there are difficulties, problems and obstacles in the application process... skills
▪ There is nothing called I cannot... ▪ The manager's awareness of
▪ Yes, I have attended them but it was a long time ago. training needs
▪ No... I took it through self-development courses...
▪ Choose the course as well as
▪ No... I sought them to develop myself.
▪ Those programmes had a significant impact on developing my leadership skills... the appropriate lecturer
▪ Yes, very much... It gave me a lot of self-confidence when dealing with bosses and ▪ Note the impact of training in
employees, behaving rationally and realistically… the field of work
▪ …and it taught me to defend my opinion and my work if it is right, fulfils the purpose and ▪ Learn to influence others
leads to the development of work and preserving the property of the institution, and if it
helps any oppressed person in administration
406
▪ ... so, if I noticed anyone who has ambition and potential, I help them to enrol on courses and
develop themselves.
▪ As an official or as a leader, you attend a course but you don't get any benefit because of the
nature of your work and field are not compatible with the program for this course.
▪ And there are other courses which encourage you to be a successful leader, you interact with
them from the beginning and you see the results during the course.
▪ Because you might start linking what the instructor says with events that happened to you, or
you might say that this decision was right or it had been better to have done that, I mean you
get experience.
▪ The course is necessary for someone who wants to develop themselves, as for the one who says
that these courses are useless, he might be somehow right, because it depends on the person
himself and on the course's program or content.
▪ As for me, through attending these four courses I learned some programmes which help me at
my work as administrator or technician and I benefited from them.
▪ ... my colleague says he himself did not benefit. Maybe because he didn't seek the course and
was not interested in it, to him it was just for the sake of attending
▪ Some courses are not useful for a certain person probably because their choice wasn't right,
because they are for a particular category or certain competencies and they don’t help them; an
example of a technical specialist, why do I choose a teacher training course and attend it?
▪ I have the chance to enrol onto about six courses every year, but I don't because they are not
related to my specialization.
▪ Extra knowledge, making decisions, dealing with others and I learned not to rush in making
decisions...
▪ I say that the training courses are useful but the person should know how to choose the right
course, and also the right lecturer because they play a big role...
▪ Without a doubt. Sometimes I have a problem and I discuss it with my colleagues, so one of
these colleagues might remember what he heard at one of the courses...
▪ These courses certainly have a great impact.
407
Appendix 17: Participants’ Understanding of Level of Management and Leadership Criteria
Level
Good understanding Some understanding No understanding
Concept
Performance of tasks and priorities, Completely confused what
Management criteria planning, implementation, and target Indicates some manager tasks management and/or leadership
setting means
Has influence, values, and Completely confused what
understanding of mission, management and/or leadership
Leadership criteria Reference to some leader roles
interpersonal relationships and means
teamwork
408
Appendix 18: Kolb's Learning Theory
409
Appendix 19: Marsick and Watkins’ Informal and Incidental Learning Model
Source: Marsick & Watkins (2018)
410
Appendix 20: Ethical Approval to conduct the study
Ethical Approval Form A (version May 2015)
Tick one:
Staff project: _____ PhD _*__ EdD ____
Name of applicant (s): Kafa Alenezi
Title of project: " The effectiveness of the preparation for administrators in term of their
leadership and management role in the Ministry of Education and Educational Districts in
the State of Kuwait"
Name of supervisor (for student projects): Dr. Chris Turner & Tony MacFadyen
Please complete the form below including relevant sections overleaf.
YES NO
Have you prepared an Information Sheet for participants and/or their *

parents/carers that:
a) explains the purpose(s) of the project *
b) explains how they have been selected as potential participants *
c) gives a full, fair and clear account of what will be asked of them and how *
the information that they provide will be used
d) makes clear that participation in the project is voluntary *
e) explains the arrangements to allow participants to withdraw at any stage if *

they wish
f) explains the arrangements to ensure the confidentiality of any material *

collected during the project, including secure arrangements for its storage,
retention and disposal
g) explains the arrangements for publishing the research results and, if *

confidentiality might be affected, for obtaining written consent for this
h) explains the arrangements for providing participants with the research *

results if they wish to have them
411
i) gives the name and designation of the member of staff with responsibility *
for the project together with contact details, including email . If any of the
project investigators are students at the IoE, then this information must be
included and their name provided
k) explains, where applicable, the arrangements for expenses and other N-A
payments to be made to the participants
j) includes a standard statement indicating the process of ethical review at the *
University undergone by the project, as follows:
‘This project has been reviewed following the procedures of the University
Research Ethics Committee and has been given a favourable ethical opinion
for conduct’.
k) includes a standard statement regarding insurance: *
“The University has the appropriate insurances in place. Full details are
available on request".
Please answer the following questions
1) Will you provide participants involved in your research with all the *
information necessary to ensure that they are fully informed and not in any
way deceived or misled as to the purpose(s) and nature of the research?
(Please use the subheadings used in the example information sheets on
blackboard to ensure this).
2) Will you seek written or other formal consent from all participants, if they *
are able to provide it, in addition to (1)?
3) Is there any risk that participants may experience physical or *

psychological distress in taking part in your research?
4) Have you taken the online training modules in data protection and *
information security (which can be found here:
http://www.reading.ac.uk/internal/imps/Staffpages/imps-training.aspx)?
5) Have you read the Health and Safety booklet (available on Blackboard) *
and completed a Risk Assessment Form to be included with this ethics
application?
6) Does your research comply with the University’s Code of Good Practice in *
Research?
YES NO N.A.
7) If your research is taking place in a school, have you prepared an *

information sheet and consent form to gain the permission in writing of the
head teacher or other relevant supervisory professional?
8) Has the data collector obtained satisfactory DBS clearance? *
9) If your research involves working with children under the age of 16 (or *
those whose special educational needs mean they are unable to give informed
consent), have you prepared an information sheet and consent form for
parents/carers to seek permission in writing, or to give parents/carers the
412
opportunity to decline consent?
10) If your research involves processing sensitive personal data 1, or if it *

involves audio/video recordings, have you obtained the explicit consent of
participants/parents?
11) If you are using a data processor to subcontract any part of your research, *
have you got a written contract with that contractor which (a) specifies that
the contractor is required to act only on your instructions, and (b) provides for
appropriate technical and organisational security measures to protect the
data?
12a) Does your research involve data collection outside the UK? *
12b) If the answer to question 12a is “yes”, does your research comply with *
the legal and ethical requirements for doing research in that country?
13a) Does your research involve collecting data in a language other than *
English?
13b) If the answer to question 13a is “yes”, please confirm that information *
sheets, consent forms, and research instruments, where appropriate, have
been directly translated from the English versions submitted with this
application.
14a. Does the proposed research involve children under the age of 5? *
14b. If the answer to question 14a is “yes”: *

My Head of School (or authorised Head of Department) has given details of
the proposed research to the University’s insurance officer, and the research
will not proceed until I have confirmation that insurance cover is in place.
If you have answered YES to Question 3, please complete Section B
below
Please complete either Section A or Section B and provide the details required in support of your
application. Sign the form (Section C) then submit it with all relevant attachments (e.g. information
sheets, consent forms, tests, questionnaires, interview schedules) to the Institute’s Ethics Committee for
consideration. Any missing information will result in the form being returned to you.
A: My research goes beyond the ‘accepted custom and practice of teaching’ but I *
consider that this project has no significant ethical implications. (Please tick the
box.)
1
Sensitive personal data consists of information relating to the racial or ethnic origin of a data subject,
their political opinions, religious beliefs, trade union membership, sexual life, physical or mental health or
condition, or criminal offences or record.
413
Please state the total number of participants that will be involved in the project and give a
breakdown of how many there are in each category e.g. teachers, parents, pupils etc.
The total number of participants will be (53) from educational administrators, as

follow:
- 29 of managers of administration departments in the Education Ministry.
- 24 of managers of administration departments in the Educational Districts.
Give a brief description of the aims and the methods (participants, instruments and procedures)
of the project in up to 200 words noting:
1. title of project
2. purpose of project and its academic rationale
3. brief description of methods and measurements
4. participants: recruitment methods, number, age, gender, exclusion/inclusion criteria
5. consent and participant information arrangements, debriefing (attach forms where
necessary)
6. a clear and concise statement of the ethical considerations raised by the project and
how you intend to deal with then.
7. estimated start date and duration of project
"The effectiveness of the preparation for administrators in term of their leadership and management role
in the Ministry of Education and Educational Districts in the State of Kuwait"
The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore the effectiveness of leadership and management
preparation in the Education Ministry and Districts to carry out their functions in terms of leading and
managing change in Kuwait.
The researcher will collect data after a pilot study has been conducted with a small sample of
administrators and the necessary approval from the Educational Research Department of the Education
Ministry will be obtained. The study will be carried out in two phases to gather information. First, a
questionnaire will be distributed to 53 participants. It is intended to obtain preliminary information about
the administrators’' preparation for their specific role. Then, according to the responses in the first phase,
a series of semi-structured questions will be developed and used with an appropriate sample of
administrators. The participants will be informed that they are free to participate or withdraw at any
time. Furthermore, the confidentiality of information will be guaranteed and the names of all
participants anonymised.
The researcher expects that the process of data collection will begin in August 2016 and end in
November 2016.
B: I consider that this project may have ethical implications that should be brought
before the Institute’s Ethics Committee.
Please state the total number of participants that will be involved in the project and give a
414
breakdown of how many there are in each category e.g. teachers, parents, pupils etc.
Give a brief description of the aims and the methods (participants, instruments and procedures)
of the project in up to 200 words.
1. title of project
2. purpose of project and its academic rationale
3. brief description of methods and measurements
4. participants: recruitment methods, number, age, gender, exclusion/inclusion criteria
5. consent and participant information arrangements, debriefing (attach forms where
necessary)
6. a clear and concise statement of the ethical considerations raised by the project and
how you intend to deal with then.
7. estimated start date and duration of project
C: SIGNATURE OF APPLICANT:
Note: a signature is required. Typed names are not acceptable.
I have declared all relevant information regarding my proposed project and confirm that
ethical good practice will be followed within the project.
Signed: …… Print Name: Kafa Alenezi Date: May 2016
STATEMENT OF ETHICAL APPROVAL FOR PROPOSALS SUBMITTED TO THE

INSTITUTE ETHICS COMMITTEE
This project has been considered using agreed Institute procedures and is now approved.
Signed: Print Name Andy Kempe Date 9.6.16
(IoE Research Ethics Committee representative) *
* A decision to allow a project to proceed is not an expert assessment of its content or of the possible risks involved
in the investigation, nor does it detract in any way from the ultimate responsibility which students/investigators
must themselves have for these matters. Approval is granted on the basis of the information declared by the
applicant.
415
Appendix 21: Risk Assessment Form for Research Activities
Risk Assessment Form for Research Activities February 2014
Select one:
Staff project: ☐ PGR project: MA/UG project: ☐
Name of applicant (s): Kafa Alenezi
Title of project: " The effectiveness of the preparation for administrators in term of their
leadership and management role in the Ministry of Education and Educational Districts in
the State of Kuwait"
Name of supervisor (for student projects): Dr. Chris Turner & Tony MacFadyen
A: Please complete the form below
Brief outline of Questionnaires and semi-interviews with education administrators.

Work/activity:
Where will data be In the Education Ministry and Districts in the State of Kuwait.
collected?
Significant hazards: There is no potential risk.
Who might be exposed N.A

to hazards?
Existing control N.A

measures:
Are risks adequately Yes ☐ No ☐ N.A

controlled:
If NO, list additional Additional controls Action by:

controls and actions ------------ ---------
required:
416
B: SIGNATURE OF APPLICANT:
I have read the Health and Safety booklet posted on Blackboard, and the guidelines overleaf.
I have declared all relevant information regarding my proposed project and confirm risks
have been adequately assessed and will be minimized as far as possible during the course of
the project.
Signed: … … Print Name: Kafa Alenezi Date: May 2016
STATEMENT OF APPROVAL TO BE COMPLETED BY SUPERVISOR (FOR UG AND MA STUDENTS)

OR BY IOE ETHICS COMMITTEE REPRESENTATIVE (FOR PGR AND STAFF RESEARCH).
This project has been considered using agreed Institute procedures and is now approved.
Signed: Print Name Andy Kempe Date 9.6.16
* A decision to allow a project to proceed is not an expert assessment of its content or of the
possible risks involved in the investigation, nor does it detract in any way from the ultimate
responsibility which students/investigators must themselves have for these matters. Approval is
granted on the basis of the information declared by the applicant.
Guidance notes for the completion of the risk assessment form
Significant hazards:
- Only list those that you could reasonably expect to cause significant injuries or
affect several people
- Will the work require the use of machines and tools? How could you or anyone
else be injured? Will injury be significant?
- Will the research take place in a high-risk country?
- Will the work require the use of chemicals? Check safety data sheets for harmful
effects and any exposure limits?
- Will the work produce any fumes, vapours, dust or particles? Can they cause
significant harm?
- Are there any significant hazards due to where the work is to be done, such as
confined space, at height, poor lighting, high/low temperature?
Who might be exposed?
- Remember to include yourself, your supervisor, your participants, others working

in or passing through the work area.
- Those more vulnerable or less experiences should be highlighted as they will be
more at risk, such as children, people unfamiliar with the work area, disabled or
with medical conditions e.g. asthma.
417
Existing control measures:
- List the control measures in place for each of the significant hazards, such as
machine guards, ventilation system, use of personal protective equipment (PPE),
generic safety method statement/procedure.
- Existing safety measures and procedures in place in the establishment
- Remember appropriate training is a control measure and should be listed.
- List any Permits to Work which may be in force.
Are risks adequately controlled?
- With all the existing control measures in place, do any of the significant hazards
still have a potential to cause significant harm.
- Use your judgement as to how the work is to be done, by whom and where.
Additional controls:
- List the additional control measures, for each of the significant hazards, which are
required to reduce the risk to the lowest so far as is reasonably practicable.
- Additional measures may include such things as: increased ventilation, Permit to
Work, confined space entry permit, barriers/fencing, fall arrest equipment, etc.
- PPE should only be used as a last resort, if all else fails.
418

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Leadership Development of Managers Working in the

Ministry of Education and Educational Districts in

A Thesis Submitted for the

Praise be to Allah for His grace and gifts

been properly and fully acknowledged.

In the name of Allah, Most Gracious and Most Merciful.

useful meetings and discussions.

Mohammad Al-Qaryouti from the Business Administration College (Department of Public

me during the research sample selection and pilot study stages.

through their scientific discussions.

dream come true.

encouragement during my studies: my husband and best supporter, Metab; my children

Finally, I extend my love to my wonderful grandchildren, who created joy in my life.

be equipped to work in a rapidly changing environment driven by the competitive

consequences of globalisation is certainly a key aim of the government in Kuwait. Thus,

the analysis of the questionnaires.

provide them with appropriate leadership skills. Although professional development

majority of participants were unable to demonstrate a clear understanding of

management or leadership or distinguish between them.

formalised professional development courses has little influence on these managers'

leadership knowledge and understanding.

Chapter 2: International Context 8

Chapter 3: Literature Review 35

Chapter 4: Research Design and Methodology 102

Chapter 5: Research Findings 138

Chapter 7: Conclusion 293

Table 4.1: Numbers and Percentages of Questionnaires Distributed, Collected, and

Table 5.12: Effectiveness of Professional Development Programmes Provided

Table 5.18: Demographic Data of Interview Samples 182

Figure 5.1. Interviewees’ Distribution According to Their Perception of Themselves as

Figure 5.2. Interviewees’ Distribution According to Their Perception of Themselves as

Figure 7.1. A Formal Learning Leadership Development Model 296

Appendix 1 Kuwait’s Ranking in TIMSS 2015 (Mathematics and Science) 354

Appendix 2 Structure of the Ministry of Education (MoE) 356

Appendix 3 Structure of the Public Education Sector 357

Appendix 4 Structure of an Educational District (ED) 358

Appendix 5 Emerging Conception of Leadership Learning 359

Appendix 6 Questionnaire (English version) 360

Appendix 7 Prompt Card 369

Appendix 8 Interview Questions (pilot study) 370

Appendix 9 Interview Questions (main study) 371

Appendix 10 Participant Information Sheet 372

Appendix 11 Questionnaire Participants' Consent Form 374

Appendix 12 Interview Participants' Consent Form 375

Appendix 13 Interview Transcript Sample (pilot study) 376

Appendix 14 Interview Transcript Sample (main study) 389

Appendix 15 Demographic Data 402

Appendix 16 Coding Process of the Training Programmes Impact 406

Appendix 17 Participants’ Understanding of Level of Management and

Appendix 18 Kolb's Learning Theory 409

Appendix 20 Ethical Approval to conduct the study 411

Appendix 21 Risk Assessment Form for Research Activities 416

BERA British Educational Research Association

CSC Civil Service Commission

ELT Experiential Learning Theory

InFL Informal Learning

KTS Kuwait Teachers Society

MoE Ministry of Education

NPM New Public Management

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development