Lecture review

RO filtration or commonly know as revers osmosis filtration is not a new

type technology of water purification system, a process of osmosis through
semi-permeable membranes was first observed in 1748 by Jean-Antoine Nollet.
For the following 200 years, osmosis was only a laboratory phenomenon. [1] .
RO filtrations was was first described by a French Scientist in 1748, who noted
that water spontaneously diffused through a pig bladder membrane into alco-
hol. Over 200 years later, a modification of this process known as reverse os-
mosis allows people throughout the world to affordably convert undesirable wa-
ter into water that is virtually free of health or aesthetic contaminants. Re-
verse Osmosis is a technology that is found virtually anywhere pure water is
needed;
common uses include drinking water, ice-making, biomedical application and
many more. Continuing, the osmosis filtration can be divided into two different
type, Normal Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis. Normal osmosis works by A semi-
permeable membrane, like the membrane of a cell wall or a bladder, is selec-
tive about what it allows to pass through, and what it prevents from passing.
These membranes in general pass water very easily because of its small molec-
ular size; but also prevent many other contaminants from passing by trapping
them. Water will typically be present on both sides of the membrane, with each
side having a different concentration of dissolved minerals. Since the water is
the less concentrated solution seeks to dilute the more concentrated solution,
water will pass through the membrane from the lower concentration side to the

greater concentration side. Eventually, osmotic pressure (seen in the diagram

below as the pressure created by the difference in water levels) will counter
the diffusion process exactly, and an equilibrium will form. Figure 1 shows the
example of normal osmosis process In action.
Figure 2.1 [2]
The process of reverse osmosis forces water with a greater concentration of
contaminants(the source water) into a tank containing water with an extremely
low concentration of contaminants (the processed water). High water pressure
on the source side is used to "reverse" the natural osmotic process, with the
semi-permeable membrane still permitting the passage of water while rejecting
most of the other contaminants. The specific process through which this oc-
curs is called ion exclusion, in which a concentration of ions at the membrane

surface from a barrier that allows other water molecules to pass through while
excluding other substances. [2] . Figure shows the example of how a RO mem-
brane would work.
Figure 2.2 [2]

Semipermeable membranes have come a long way from the natural pig bladders used in
the earlier osmosis experiments. Before the 1960's, these membranes were too inefficient,
expensive, and unreliable for practical applications outside the laboratory. Modern ad-
vances in synthetic materials have generally solved these problems, allowing membranes
to become highly efficient at rejecting contaminants, and making them tough enough to
withstand the greater pressures necessary for efficient operation. Even with these ad-
vances, the "reject" water on the source side of a Reverse Osmosis (RO) system must be
periodically flushed in order to keep it from becoming so concentrated that it forms a scale
on the membrane itself. RO systems also typically require a carbon prefilter for the reduc-
tion of chlorine, which can damage an RO membrane; and a sediment prefilter is always
required to ensure that fine suspended materials in the source water do not permanently
clog the membrane. Hardness reduction, either through the use of water softening for resi-
dential units or chemical softening for industrial use, may also be desirable in hard water
areas.
A Reverse Osmosis (RO) filtration system is primarily utilized within the residential sector.
Most RO filtration systems in the residential domain are substantial and require a continu-
ous water sup- ply and a con-
stant pressure. Low-pressure
RO systems generally refer
to those sys- tems with a wa-
ter feed pres- sure of less
than 100 psi. These are the
typical counter- top or under
sink residential systems that
rely primarily on the natural
water pressure to facilitate the
reverse osmo- sis process;
Figure 3 pro- vides a
schematic illus- tration of a typi-
cal system.

Figure 2.3 [2]

Another type of RO filtration system is a High Pressure system. High pressure systems
typically operate at pressures between 100 and 1000 psi, depending on the membranes
selected and the water being treated. These systems are usually employed in industrial or
commercial settings where substantial volumes of purified water are required at a high
level of purity. Most commercial and industrial systems utilize multiple membranes ar-
ranged in parallel to meet the required quantity of water. The processed water from the ini-
tial stage of treatment can subsequently be passed through additional membrane modules
to attain even higher levels of treatment for the final water. The rejected water can also be
directed into successive membrane modules for enhanced efficiency. However, flushing
will still be necessary when concentrations reach a level where fouling is probable.

Reverse osmosis (RO) water filtration systems can be utilized in both residential and in-
dustrial settings, offering numerous advantages. RO technology effectively addresses a
wide range of health and aesthetic contaminants. Well-designed RO equipment can effec-
tively treat various aesthetic contaminants, such as chlorides or sulfates, which can impart
a salty or soda-like taste, color, and odor.
RO systems can also be highly effective in treating health contaminants, including arsenic,
asbestos, atrazine (herbicides/pesticides), fluoride, lead, mercury, nitrate, and radium,
when appropriately pre-filtered with carbon (a common feature in most RO systems), addi-
tional treatment can be provided for volatile contaminants like benzene, trichloroethylene,
trihalomethane, and radon. Some RO equipment is also capable of treating biological con-
taminants such as Cryptosporidium. However, the Water Quality Association (WQA) ad-
vises that while RO membranes typically remove virtually all known microorganisms and
most other health contaminants, design considerations may limit the effectiveness of a unit
in providing absolute protection when integrated into a consumer drinking water system.

The project assigned to my team was to design and develop a compact and mobile solar-
powered reverse osmosis (RO) water purification unit. This concept has been explored ex-
tensively during our research, and Figure 4 presents one of the various designs we found.
[3]

Figure 2.4 [3]

In comparison to the existing designs available online, our design is significantly more
compact and incorporates both a carbon-based filtration system and a reverse osmosis fil-
tration system. Additionally, our system is considerably more mobile than the designs we
have researched. Inspired by Figure 4, our design underwent modifications to accom-
modate stacking. Figure 4 depicts a cylindrical design, whereas ours employs a
cube-shaped structure that is significantly more rigid and enables the solar panel to
be flush with the frame of the system.

Through ongoing research, we have discovered that the implementation of solar power
water purification systems in the rural region has brought significant benefits to the local
population. This study presents the development and implementation of a solar-powered
reverse osmosis (RO) water purification system at Pondok Pesantren Tijarotul Qur’aniyah,
Sub-district of Bulu, District of Sukoharjo, Indonesia. [4] The project aimed to provide a
sustainable solution to the urgent need for clean drinking water in there community. [4]
The implementation process was divided into four main phases: comprehensive survey
and needs analysis, prototype development and testing, system implementation, and long-
term monitoring and evaluation. [5] The initial survey identified significant issues with water
quality and accessibility, leading to the design of a tailored RO system powered by solar
energy. [6] The prototype was rigorously tested and adjusted based on user feedback to
ensure it met community requirements. The system was implemented on a small scale, in-
volving the construction of necessary infrastructure and integration of solar panels for reli-
able power. Post-implementation water quality tests showed substantial improvements in
key parameters. Results included a pH level of 7.20, hardness (CaCO₃) at 252.87 mg/L,
total dissolved solids (TDS) at 0.023 mg/L, and iron (Fe) at 0.2639 mg/L. [7] Chlorine and
chromium levels were 0.00 mg/L, manganese (Mn) was 0.1001 mg/L, ammonia (NH₃) was
1.14 mg/L, and sulfate (SO₄) was 11.26 mg/L. All parameters met the quality standards
set by the Indonesian Ministry of Health and Government Regulation on Water Quality
Management. Continuous monitoring and educational programs were incorporated to en-
sure local engagement and long-term sustainability. This study demonstrates that the so-
lar-powered RO system effectively purifies water. [7]

Reverse osmosis undergoes a comprehensive testing process to test its pH levels and
other contaminants after purification. A research shows that The boron content of seawa-
ter RO desalination product was found to be too high for direct use. Regular RO mem-
branes reject boron to a level of about 40–78% while the rejection of seawater salt is
above 99% [1], [2] . The reason of the low rejection of the boric acid is due to the ability to
diffuse through the membranes in a non-ionic way, similar to that of carbonic acid or water
[3]. This property of the boron, poses serious problems in the use of normal RO permeate
water.
Laboratory experiments indicate that boron induces male reproductive impediments in lab-
oratory animals. As a result of these findings, the 1993 WHO Guidelines for drinking water
quality was set a recommended maximum value of 0.3 mg boron/L. Later, the 1997 WHO

guidelines value increased to 0.5 mg boron/L, while the Japanese increased it to 1.0 mg
boron/L. [6] As for irrigation water, boron is required for certain metabolic activities in
plants. However, higher boron levels accelerate plants decay and expiration. [7] Different
plants can withstands different boron levels. For example the optimal boron concentration
range is 0.3–0.5 mg/L, for citrus and grapes or 0.5–0.75 mg/L for corn.

Figure 2.5 [7] Figure 2.6 [7]

Continuous irrigation by desalinated waste-water may increase boron concentrations in

plant leaves by about three times the rate of increase caused by regular surface or under-
ground water irrigation, due to high boron concentrations. Single-stage RO membranes
are able to turn seawater of boron concentrations (4–5 mg/L) into permeate water with
boron concentrations of about 0.9–1.8 mg/L. In some cases even a two-stage RO process,
at normal operation conditions, are insufficient for reducing boron concentrations to meet
the drinking water quality requirements. High boron concentrations exist not only in sea-
water but also in some ground waters up to about 3 mg boron/L. [8]

Another source is the residual water from perborate uses as detergents or areas use pesti-
cides and fertilizers with appreciable quantities of boron [5] . Desalinated wastewater for ir-
rigation is typical and will be increased in some arid and semi-arid areas [5] . Extensive
use of detergents and laundry powders in area with fresh water shortage results in high
boron concentrations in the wastewater. For example Israel which has a semi-arid area,
sets a boron upper limit for laundry powders to 4.2 g boron/kg laundry powder in 2002, and
in 2008 this level must reduces to 0.5 g boron/kg laundry powder. This trend indicates that
countries with fresh water shortage intensify their efforts in reducing boron concentrations
in wastewater. [6]

Further research revealed additional complications within our system that require attention.
[9] One of the advantages of state-of-the-art polyamide composite RO membranes is their
high water permeability, which is achieved commercially by tailoring interfacial polymeriza-
tion chemistry, coating conditions, and support membrane skin layer porosity to minimize
film thickness, maximize cross-linking density and surface area (roughness), all to mini-
mize the effective path length for diffusion through the composite structure. [9] An unin-
tended consequence of composite RO membranes with rough surfaces is enhanced foul-
ing rates due to: (1) enhanced local fouling rates due to flux “hot spots” and (2) dispropor-
tionately reduced repulsive (e.g., electrostatic and hydrophilic/hydrophobic) interfacial
forces. Localized flux hot spots due to support membrane pores and coating film surface
roughness may elevate local fluxes 3–6X higher than the average flux, resulting in dramat-
ically higher local CP modulus and, consequently, higher rates of fouling and scaling. Re-
duced repulsive interaction forces make rough membrane surfaces appear “stickier”—i.e.,
more fouling prone and challenging to clean. [9]

Another complication, specific to RO membranes, is the presence of mesh feed spacers in

the cross-flow channels. Such materials are currently necessary to provide the flow chan-
nel and promote mixing via the undulating flow field that develops. While we have empiri-
cal models to describe channel-averaged impacts of mesh feed spacers on mass transfer
and pressure drop, the role of these feed spacers on CP modulus and biofouling is just be-
ginning to emerge. [9] From computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, it appears
that wherever the woven mesh spacer contacts an RO membrane surface a stagnant zone
forms, in which, localized CP modulus levels for dissolved solutes can spike as high as
1.8–2.0 for certain spacer geometries. [9] For woven mesh spacers, contact occurs pre-
dominantly at the “node” where filaments pass over and under each other, whereas for bi-
planar spacers contact may occur continuously along each filament.[9]

In conclusion, the reverse osmosis system is neither an ancient nor a novel technology;
rather, it is a technology that has been developed over centuries and has significantly con-
tributed to the advancement of water purification methods. The reverse osmosis purifica-
tion system was designed to assist humans in purifying cleaner water. Although the initial
reverse osmosis system was created and utilized in laboratories, it has since evolved into
a consumer product that can be placed on a countertop. While the reverse osmosis
process does have some limitations and shares certain challenges with traditional water
purification systems, it offers a more efficient and cleaner method of water purification.
This ensures the removal of impurities and chemicals, making clean drinking water a ne-
cessity. In this context, our project aimed to implement the reverse osmosis water purifica-
tion system into a compact design, thereby enhancing its mobility and enabling its deploy-
ment in both civilian and military settings. This was the primary objective of our project that
we hope we can achieve.

[1]PURE-PRO WATER CORPORATION, “Reverse Osmosis Water Filter

Systems,” PurePro® Reverse Osmosis Water Filter Systems - Manufacturer &
Exporter, https://www.pure-pro.com/What-is-RO.htm (accessed Nov. 21, 2024).

[2]Jack E. BarkerCarmen L. Barker, “self powered water purification sys-

tem,” Google Patents, https://patents.google.com/patent/US8186518B2/en?q=
%28solar%2Bpowered%2Bwater%2Bpurification%2Bsystem%29&oq=solar
%2Bpowered%2Bwater%2Bpurification%2Bsystem%2B&page=2 (accessed
Nov. 21, 2024).

[3] Jack E. BarkerCarmen L. Barker, “self powered water purification sys-

tem,” Google Patents, https://patents.google.com/patent/US8186518B2/en?q=
%28solar%2Bpowered%2Bwater%2Bpurification%2Bsystem%29&oq=solar
%2Bpowered%2Bwater%2Bpurification%2Bsystem%2B&page=2 (accessed
Nov. 21, 2024).

[4] S. Suyitno et al., “Implementation of solar-powered water purification

technology to enhance quality of life in rural areas,” SEMAR (Jurnal Ilmu Penge-
tahuan, Teknologi, dan Seni bagi Masyarakat), https://jurnal.uns.ac.id/jurnal-
semar/article/view/90334 (accessed Nov. 25, 2024).

[5] Author links open overlay panelAbraham Sagiv et al., “Analysis of pa-
rameters affecting boron permeation through reverse osmosis membranes,”
Journal of Membrane Science,
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376738804004132 (ac-
cessed Nov. 25, 2024).

[6] “Guidelines for drinking-water quality: Fourth edition incorporating

the first and Second addenda,” World Health Organization,
https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064 (accessed Nov. 25,
2024).
 [7] “Reverse osmosis technology, its applications and nano-enabled
membrane,” International Journal of Advanced Research in Chemical Science,
vol. 5, no. 2, 2018. doi:10.20431/2349-0403.0502005

[8]Hoek, E.M.V., Weigand, T.M. & Edalat, A. Reverse osmosis membrane

biofouling: causes, consequences and countermeasures. npj Clean Water 5, 45
(2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-022-00183-0

[9]J. Kucera, Reverse Osmosis. Hoboken, NJ, Beverly, MA: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. ; Scrivener Publishing LLC, 2023.