c.jenson Pillai Project Copy

A STUDY REPORT ON ROLE IN
BAKERY&CONFECTINARY DEPARTMENT IN
A HOTEL
Submitted in Partial Fullfilment of Requirement
for the award of
DHM for Catering and Hotel Administration
Submitted By,
C.JENSON PILLAI
Reg.No.229017370005
2022-2025
A SPECIALISED INSTITUTION
FOR SPECIALISED EDUCATION
Under The Guidance Of
Mr.G.VIJAY PRAKASH M.T.M.,M PHILL.,
ORIENTAL INSTITUTE OF CATERING TECHNOLOGY&
HOTEL MANAGEMENT
(INCOLLOBORATION WITH ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY)

MADURAI-625107
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that ‘ A STUDY REPORT ON ROLE OF SPICES AND HERBS IN

INTERNATIONAL CUISINES DEPARTMENT TOWARDS IN PRODUCTION is Submitted
in partial fullfilment of the requirement for the award of DHM In Catering And Hotel
Administration To Alagappa University, Karaikudi is the bonafide project done by
Mr.C.JENSON PILLAI, Student of Oriental Institute of Catering Technology and Hotel
Management under the supervision and guidance of Mr.G.VIJAY PRAKASH M.T.M.,M
PHILL., and that no part of this project work has been submitted Diploma or any part of other
similar title.
Signature Of The Guide Examiner
Principal Director
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a pleasure to express my sincere thanks to those who helped me in this project work.
I am grateful to Mr. SURESH BABU.MBA.,PGDCA. Director, Oriental Institute of Catering

And Hotel Management, Madurai for the opportunity bestowed on me carry out this project work.
I am grateful to Mr. J. MANIKANDAN, M.A, PGDCHM, M. Ed, M. Phil., Principal, Oriental
Institute Of Catering Technology And Hotel Management. Madurai. For the opportunity given
to complete this project in successive manner.
It is a privilege to do this project under the supervision and valuable guidance of

Mr.G.VIJAY PRAKASH , MTM, M Phil., Oriental Institute of Catering Technology and
Hotel Management, Madurai. This enables me to present this project report in an orderly
and scholarly manner.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to all the other faculties for their involvement and help to
complete the project work very successfully.
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project entitled "A STUDY REPORT ON ROLE OF SPICES
AND HERBS IN INTERNATIONAL CUISINES DEPARTMENT TOWARDS IN
PRODUCTION " for the partial fullfilment of the bachelor degree of catering and hotel
administration my original work and that it has not previously formed the award of any Degree,
Diploma associate ship, fellowship or other similar report.
Date:
Place: Madurai Signature Of The Candidate

Preface
The main target of writing this book was to give an idea about the functional and other properties of spices to the world.
This book is made up of six main chapters which are saturated with much-needed text. This book provides a good
understanding of the classifications, background knowledge, functional properties including nutritional, medicinal,
insecticidal, anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, sensory properties as well as the value addition methods of different spices.
Even though spices are very popular especially in Asian countries, people do not have an idea about the major
importance of them. The main focus is on the medicinal properties of spices as most of the common and mortal diseases
and syndromes can be controlled if these spices are property utilized with the knowledge.
Thank you.
Table of Contents
Chapter-01-Spices…………………………………………………………1
1.1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 1
5
1.2. Important compounds in spices...................................................................... 2
1.3. Classification of spices .................................................................................... 3
Table 3. Based on the duration of the crops .......................................................... 4
Table 4. Based on the growth habit ....................................................................... 4
Table 5. Based on the plant part ............................................................................ 4
Table 6. Conventional classification ....................................................................... 5
Chapter-02-Popular Spices and Herbs……………………………6

1. Pepper ................................................................................................................ 6
2. Cinnamon ........................................................................................................... 7
3. Cloves ................................................................................................................. 8
4. Nutmeg .............................................................................................................. 9
5. Mace................................................................................................................. 10
6. Ginger .............................................................................................................. 10
7. Garlic ................................................................................................................ 11
8. Fennel ............................................................................................................... 12
9. Cumin ............................................................................................................... 13
10. Cardamom ...................................................................................................... 13
11. Chili................................................................................................................. 14
12. Turmeric ......................................................................................................... 15
13. Vanilla ............................................................................................................. 16
14. Coriander .......................................................................................................17
15. Mustard ..........................................................................................................18
16. Fenugreek ......................................................................................................18
17. Celery seed .....................................................................................................19
18. Chia seeds ......................................................................................................20
19. Dill seeds ........................................................................................................20
20. Paprika ........................................................................................................... 21
21. Saffron ............................................................................................................ 22
22. Sesame ........................................................................................................... 23
23. Garcinia .......................................................................................................... 23
24. Tamarind ........................................................................................................ 24
25. Shallots ........................................................................................................... 25
26. Oregano ......................................................................................................... 26
27. Thyme ............................................................................................................ 26
6
28. Sage ................................................................................................................ 27
29. Rosemary ....................................................................................................... 28
30. Parsley ............................................................................................................ 28
31. Basil ................................................................................................................ 29
32. Bay leaves ....................................................................................................... 30
33. Curry leaves .................................................................................................... 31
34. Mint ................................................................................................................ 31 35. Pandan (Rampe)
............................................................................................. 32
Chapter-03-Nutritional properties………………………………33 Chapter-04-Medicinal

properties………………………………..36
4.1. Anti-carcinogenic .......................................................................................... 36
4.2. Anti-diabetic .................................................................................................. 37
4.3. Anti-obesity ................................................................................................... 38
4.4. Anti- aging ..................................................................................................... 39
4.5. Diuretic ..........................................................................................................40
4.6. Anti-diarrheal ................................................................................................40
4.7. Anti-depressant .............................................................................................41
4.8. Dental health .................................................................................................41
4.9. Boosting immunity ........................................................................................42
4.10. Anti-septic ...................................................................................................42
4.11. Anti-clotting ................................................................................................ 43
4.12. Anti-inflammatory ....................................................................................... 44
4.13. Carminative ................................................................................................. 44
4.14. Anti-lithogenic ............................................................................................. 45
4.15. Anti-asthmatic ............................................................................................. 45
4.16. Anti-allergic ................................................................................................. 45
4.17. Anti-cataract ............................................................................................... 46 4.18. Anti-atherosclerosis
.................................................................................... 46
Chapter-05-Other Effects…………………………………………….52
5.1. Insecticidal Effects ......................................................................................... 52
5.2. Anti- microbial ............................................................................................... 53
5.2.1. Antibacterial activity .................................................................................. 57
5.2.2. Antifungal activity ...................................................................................... 57
7
5.3. Anti-oxidant .................................................................................................. 58 5.4. Sensory properties
........................................................................................ 63
Chapter-06-Value Addition………………………………………….66
6.1. Importance of value-added products ........................................................... 68
6.2. Methods of value addition ............................................................................ 69
There are several methods available for value additions of the spices. .......... 69
6.2.1. Extending the shelf life........................................................................... 69
6.2.2. Polishing ................................................................................................. 73
6.2.3. Milling .................................................................................................... 73
6.2.4. Extraction of oil and oleoresins..............................................................74
6.2.5. Enzymatic treatments and fermentation ...............................................81
6.3. Packaging ......................................................................................................82
6.3.1. Selection of a suitable packaging material ............................................82
6.3.2. Different spice product packaging .........................................................84
6.3.3. Packaging methods ................................................................................85
6.4. Important areas to consider in order to improve the value-added
productions of spices ........................................................................................... 86
8
Chapter-01
Spices & Herbs
1.1. Introduction
Spices are different plant parts, including bark, flowers, roots, seeds, nuts, fruits, etc. which have been derived from
well-known plants. Dried or fresh leaves are not spice as they are considered as herbs [1]. Spices and herbs are most
commonly using to enhance the sensory properties of food since the ancient time as they contain compounds which
are responsible for unique seasoning properties [2]. Not only for this domestic cooking and food industry but also
for pharmaceutical, cosmetic industries spices are an essential part. Spices contain an ample amount of bioactive
compounds that are responsible for medicinal and antioxidative properties, and it helps to alter the shelf life of foods
by reducing the oxidation reactions and also act as an antiaging agent and reduce the risk of non-communicable
diseases as it is consumed by human [2].
Spices have a long history as it is running back hundreds of years. In 1555 BC, ancient Egypt classified fennel,
juniper, cumin, garlic, coriander as health-promoting spices. Also, there are records that onion and garlic were used
as a health-promoting agent by the laborers who constructed the Pyramids. Spices were essential ingredients in the
embalming process and used to cleanse the interior of the abdomen. Aromatic spices were also used as body
ointments in ancient Egypt. Spices which are having anti-microbial properties were used in surgeries for the
sanitization purpose.
In ancient India, spices and herbs were used even before about 1000 BC. Sickrooms, bed sheets of patients,
were fumigated with pungent and aromatic plant vapors for wounds they have applied sesame poultice. Ancient
Indians prescribed the usage of cardamom, ginger, black pepper, cumin, and mustard seeds to remove fat and to
cure urinary complaints. To increase the saliva flow and digestion clove and cardamom wrapped in betel nut leaves
9
were chewed after meals. In China, they used a spice called cassia, which is similar to cinnamon Arab merchants
purchased cinnamon from Sri Lanka and sold it in the Middle East and Europe. Later, Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish,
and English people did the same.
Also, in ancient times there were not any effective preservation techniques like refrigeration, freezing, UHT like
methods which we are using in the present. So, the preservation ability of spices made it even more valuable.
1.2. Important compounds in spices

Important compounds of the spices are given in the Table 1.
Table 1. Important compounds in spices
Compound Description Compound
Glutamic acid (Found in many spices like

Acids Sour taste, often anti septic fennel, mustard,
fenugreek)
Bitter taste, based on alkaline nitrogenous compounds.
Alkaloids Pepper- Piperine
Bitter or sweet, Diuretic, Antiseptic and Anti inflammatory

Flavones Rosemary, Thyme.
Bitter. Iridoide and Sesquiterpenes. Improve digestion.

Bitters Turmeric, Fenugreek
Coumarin Anti-bacterial, Anti-coagulant. Cinnamon
Anthra quinones Bitter. Irritant and Laxative. Acts as a dye. Rhubarb
Bitter compounds. Cardiac glycoside affects the heart rate,

Glycosides respiration, heart construction. Sulphur containing glycosides have Rhubarb
anti-biotic effects.
Gums and mucilage

Bland, sticky or slimy, soothing and softening Ginger
Oleo-resins and Oleo-gum resins. Astringent,

Resins Antiseptic, healing Cardamom
Sweet. Soapy in water. Often anti-inflammatory and diuretic.

Saponins Mustard, Fenugreek
Tannins Often Astringent and Anti-septic. Vanilla, Cinnamon.
Volatile oils Aromatic, Antiseptic, Fungicidal, Irritant and stimulant Clove, Cinnamon
1.3. Classification of spices

Spices can be classified into many different subsections based on the botanical name, duration of the crop, growth
habit, important part of the plant, and the conventional classification. Table 2-6 are representing classification of
spices based on the botanical family,
10
Table 2. Based on botanical family
Botanical fam ily Example
Zingiberaceae Ginger, Turmeric
Maton zingiberaceae Cardamom
Piperaceae Pepper
Solanaceae Capsicum, Chili
Coriander, Cumin, Fennel, Celery,

Apiaceae Aniseed, Ajowan, Caraway, Dill, Asafoetida
Fabaceae Fenugreek
Cinnamon, Cassia
Lauraceae
Caesalpiniaceae Tamarind
Alliaceae Garlic
Myrtaceae Cloves
Orchidaceae Vanilla
Nutmeg, Mace
Myristicaceae
Cupressaceae Juniper berry
Hyssop, Sage, Rosemary, Savory, Thyme,

Lamiaceae
Oregano
Brassicaceae Mustard
Illiciaceae Star Anise
Table 3. Based on the duration of the crops

Duration Examples
Annual (one year) Basil, Coriander, Dill
Biennial (Two years) Caraway, Parsley
Perennial (More than two years) Curry leaves, Mint, Thyme, Oregano
Table 4. Based on the growth habit
11
Table 5. Based on the plant part
Size Example
Herbs (Small) Coriander, mint, oregano, caraway
Shrubs (Medium) Rosemary, Sage, Thyme
Trees (Large) Curry leaves, Pimenta
Plant Part Examples
Coriander, Pepper, Mustard, Cumin, Sesame,

Seeds and Nuts Cardamom
Bark Cinnamon, Cassia
Curry leaves, Parsley, Rosemary, Mint,
Leaves
Coriander, Sage
Flower bud Clove
Roots and bulbs Garlic, Onion, Celery
Flower stigma Saffron
Aril Mace, Nutmeg
Berries Black pepper, Chili
Kernel Nutmeg
Tubers Galangal
Rhizome Turmeric, Ginger
Fruit Cardamom, Vanilla
Table 6. Conventional classification
Classes Examples
Hot spices Chili, Pepper, Ginger, Mustard
Mild Paprika, Coriander
Aromatic Cardamom, Cinnamon, Dill, Clove, Mace, Cumin,

Nutmeg
Herbs Bay leaves, Thyme, Dill leaves
Aromatic vegetables Onion, Garlic, Celery
12
Chapter-02 Popular Spices and Herbs
1. Pepper
Types: Black pepper, White pepper, Long pepper
Botanical name: Piper nigrum
Family: Piperaceae
Plant part: Seeds/Fruits
Major compound (Most prominent bio active compound): Piperine (2%-7.4%)
Flavor and aroma: Pungent, hot and biting to taste.
Special health benefits: Reduce the risk of cancer, diabetic, promoting digestion, increase the nutrition
absorption, treat ulcers, reduce inflammation [3, 4, 5].
13
Figure 1. Pepper
2. Cinnamon
Types: Ceylon cinnamon, Chinese, common cinnamon, cassia (C. cassia)
Botanical name: Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cinnamomum verum, Cinnamon Cassia
Family: Lauraceae
Plant part: Bark
Major compound/s: Cinnamaldehyde (65%- 75%) , Eugenol Flavor and aroma: Pungent and sweet.
Special health benefits: Reduce cholesterol levels, Support insulin production, Protects against cancer,
Anti- inflammatory properties [6, 7, 8].
Figure 2. Cinnamon
14
3. Cloves
Botanical name: Syzygium aromaticum (synonym: Eugenia cariophylata)
Family: Myrtaceae
Plant part: Flower bud
Major compound/s: Eugenol (80%-95%)
Flavor and aroma: Pungent and aromatic.
Special health benefits: Dental health, fighting bacteria, Protects liver, Anti- cancer properties, improve
digestion, Protects liver, Lowers high blood pressure, Regulates blood sugar, Treat acne [9, 10, 11, 12,
13, 14].
Figure 3. Cloves
4. Nutmeg
Botanical name: Myristica fragrans Houtt.
Family: Myristicaceae
Plant part: Kernel
Major compound/s: Sabinine, Alpha- Pinene (Total 45- 77%)
Special health benefits: Supports oral health, Promote digestion, detoxification, Good for kidney health
(A good detoxifier), Brain booster, Removes bad breath, Pain reliver [15, 16, 17, 18].
15
Figure 4. Nutmeg
5. Mace
Botanical name: Myristica fragrans
Family: Myristicaceae
Plant part: Aril
Major compound/s: Sabinine, Alpha- Pinene, Beta- pinene (Total 61%)
Special health benefits: Anti-carcinogenic, good for diarrhea, nausea and stomach pain [19].
16
Figure 5. Mace
6. Ginger
Botanical name: Zingiber officinale
Family: Zingiberaceae
Plant part: Rhizome
Major compound: Gingerole (5-8%)
Flavor and aroma: Pungent and aromatic. Flavour is a unique combination of citrus, soapy and musty
flavors.
Special health benefits: Flue, Anti-carcinogenic, for high blood pressure [20, 21, 22, 23].
Figure 6. Ginger
17
7. Garlic
Botanical name: Allium sativum
Family: Alliaceae
Plant part: Root bulbs
Major compound: Allicin (1-2%)
Special health benefits: Reduce blood pressure, Lower LDL levels, Anti-oxidant activity [24, 25, 26, 27].
Figure 7. Garlic
8. Fennel
Botanical name: Foeniculum vulgare
Family: Apiaceae
Plant part: Seeds
Major compound: methyl ester of trans anithole ( 50-90%), Fenchole (2-4%), Limonene
Special health benefits: Immunity booster, Anti-inflammatory effects, Manage high blood pressure ,
helps kidney function, good for muscle and bone health, Beneficial for menopause [28, 29, 30].
Figure 8. Fennel
18
9. Cumin
Botanical name: Cuminum cyminum
Family: Apiaceae
Plant part: Seeds
Major compound: Cuminaldehyde (8%-30%), α-pinene, β-pinene.
Flavor and aroma: Aromatic and pungent. Have earthy flavor.
Special health benefits: Promote digestion, control diabetes, rich in iron, Promote weight loss [31].
Figure 9. Cumin
10. Cardamom
Botanical name:(Elettaria cardamomum);
Plant part: Seeds
Major compound/s: terpinyl acetate, linalool, 1-8-cineole
Flavour and aroma: Pungent, sweet and aromatic
Special health benefits: Anti- diabetic properties, Improve digestion [32, 33].
19
Figure 10. Cardamom
11. Chili
Botanical name: Capsicum spp.
Family: Solanaceae
Plant part: Berries
Major compound: Capsaicin (150-300 mg /100g of dry weight)
Special health benefits: Pain relief, help weight loss, Enhance the Immunity, act as an antioxidant, anti-
carcinogenic agent , antiarthritic and analgesic properties [34].
Figure 11. Chili
12. Turmeric
Botanical name: Curcuma longa
20
Plant part: Rhizome
Major compound: Curcumin (3.14%) ,Curcuminoids (3-6%)
Flavor and aroma: Earthy, pungent and slightly bitter.
Special health benefits: Improve liver function, Anti-inflammatory, relieve pain, Anti- carcinogenic [35,
36, 37, 38, 39].
Figure 12. Turmeric
13. Vanilla
Botanical name: Vanilla fragrans, vanillus planifolia, vanillus tahitensis
Family: Orchidaceae
Plant part: Fruit
Major compound: Vanillin (2%)
Flavor and aroma: Highly aromatic, Sweet, bitter flavor. Highly fragrance.
Special health benefits: Treat intestinal gas and fever, Anti-aging due to antioxidant properties, Anti-
carcinogenic, cure dysmenorrhea [40, 41, 42].
21
Figure 13. Vanilla
14. Coriander
Botanical name: Coriandrum sativum
Family: Apiaceae
Plant part: Seeds
Major compound: Linalool ( >50% from the essential oil)
Special health benefits: Appetizer, diuretic, Anti- carcinogenic., Anti-aging [43, 44].
Figure 14. Coriander
15. Mustard
Botanical name: Brassica juncea L.
Family: Brassicaceae
Plant part: Seeds
Major compound of mustard oil: Ally isothiocyanate (0.4%-0.6%)

22
Special health benefits: Anti-inflammatory, Anti-oxidant, Benificial for dental health, Boosts blood cell
formation and important for the cellular metabolism, Helps to get rid of toxins from the body due to emetic
properties [45].
Figure 15. Mustard
16. Fenugreek
Botanical name: Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Family: Fabaceae
Plant part: Seeds
Major compound: 4-hydroxyisoleucine (0.09%- 4%),β-pinene, βcaryophyllene, camphor, and neryl

acetate (Polypheol compounds)
Special health benefits: Good for vitamin deficiencies like beriberi, To treat infections on the skin and
tissues [46].
Figure 16. Fenugreek
17. Celery seed

Botanical name: Apium graveolens
23
Family: Apiaceae
Plant part: Leaves, Seeds
Major compounds: d-Limonene, Beta- pinene, limonene, selinene, flavonoids
Special health benefits: Have a low glycemic index (Good for diabetic patients), Contains vitamins (A, K,
C) and minerals (Potassium) , Reduce inflammation, Supports digestion, Anti carcinogenic effects,
Prevents cardiovascular diseases [47, 48, 49, 50, 51].
Figure 17. Celery seed
18. Chia seeds

Botanical name: Salvia hispanica L.
Family: Lamiaceae
Plant part: Seeds
Major compounds: alpha- linolenic acid, caffeic acid – (refer ncbi.nlm.nih.gov site to find more Details)
Special health benefits: Rich in omega 3, dietary fiber and proteins, Treat diarrhea and problems in
gastrointestinal tract, boost immunity [52, 53, 54].
Figure 18. Chia seed
24
19. Dill seeds
Botanical name: Anethum graveolens
Family: Apiaceae
Plant part: Seeds
Major compound: quercetin, kaempferol, catechins, myricetin, isorhamnetin, limonene, carvone, α-

pinene, α-phellandrene, limonene, linalool, myristicin, and α-thujene
Special health benefits: anti-inflammatory, diuretic, good for brain function, appetizer [55, 56, 57, 58, 59,
60].
Figure 19. Dill Seed
20. Paprika
Botanical name: Capsicum annuum.
Family: Solanaceae
Plant part: Pods
Major compounds: Capsaicin, Carotenoids
Flavor and aroma: Slightly sweet, pleasant fragrant aroma.
Special health benefits: Anti- inflammatory, Anti-bacterial, Anti- oxidant, improve digestion, Anti-
carcinogenic effects [61, 62].
25
Figure 20. Paprika
21. Saffron
Botanical name: Crocus sativus
Family: Iridaceae
Plant part: Stigma
Major compound: safranal
Flavor and aroma: Bittersweet flavor and astringent.
Special health benefits: Good for nervous system, Heart health and menstruation, Diuretic, Immunity
stimulant [63, 64, 65, 66].
Figure 21. Saffron
22. Sesame
Botanical name: Sesamum indicum
Family: Pedaliaceae
Plant part: Seeds
26
Major compounds: Sesamin , Sesamolin
Special health benefits: Anti- carcinogenic, Anti- aging, Alter sex hormones [67, 68, 69, 70, 71].
Figure 22. Sesame
23. Garcinia
Botanical name: Garcinia gummi-gutta
Family: Clusiaceae
Plant part: Fruit
Major compound: -Hydroxycitric acid (HCA)
Special health benefits: Anti carcinogenic, Good for weight loss, anti-ulcer, Anti- oxidant, anti-
inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, anti-fungal properties [72, 73, 74, 75].
Figure 23. Garcinia
27
24. Tamarind
Botanical name: Tamarindus indica
Family: Fabaceae
Plant part: Fruit
Major compound: Tartaric acid
Special health benefits: asthma, bacterial skin infections, wound healing properties, diabetes, diarrhoea, nausea,
promote digestion by stimulating saliva production, sore throat, good for liver, suitable for pregnancy related
vomiting, reduce urinary stones formation [76, 77, 78, 79, 89, 81, 82].
Figure 24. Tamarind
25. Shallots
Botanical name: Allium ascalonicum
Family: Liliaceae
Plant part: Bulb
Major compound: Allicin
Flavour and aroma: Strongly pungent and aromatic.
Special health benefits: Anti-inflammatory properties, Good for arthritis, diarrhea, stomach pain, anti-carcinogenic,
Good for kidney health, antioxidant [83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88].
28
Figure 25. Shallots
26. Oregano
Botanical name: Origanum vulgare
Family: Lamiaceae
Plant part: Leaves
Major compound: d a-pinene, pcymene.
Flavor and aroma: Strongly aromatic, Slightly bitter and pungent.
Special health benefits: diarrhea, promote digestion, Treat asthma, stomach aches , Anti- inflammation,
boost immunity, manage diabetic and cardiovascular diseases [89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95].
Figure 26. Oregano
27. Thyme
Botanical name: Thymus vulgaris
Family: Lamiaceae.
Plant part: Leaves
29
Major compound: Thymol
Special health benefits: Anti- inflammation, wound healing, Treat cough [96].
Figure 27. Thyme
28. Sage
Botanical name: Salvia
Family: Lamiacea
Plant part: Leaves
Major compound:1,8-cineole, camphor, borneol, bornyl acetate, camphene, α- and β-thujone, linalool
Flavor and aroma: Strongly aromatic, piney-woody flavor.
Special health benefits: Anti- carcinogenic effects, inflammations, depression, digestive system, nervous
system [97, 98, 99, 100, 101].
Figure 28. Sage
29. Rosemary
Botanical name: Rosmarinus officinalis L
Family: Lamiaceae
Plant part: Leaves
Major compound: 1,8-cineole, camphor, and α-pinene Flavor and aroma: Bitter sweet flavor.
30
Special health benefits: Anti- carcinogenic [102].
Figure 29. Rosemary
30. Parsley
Botanical name: Petroselinum crispum
Family: Apiaceae
Plant part: Leaves
Major compound: α- -pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, β-phellandrene,

1,3,8-p-menthatriene and apiole
Special health benefits: Anti- carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, Protects against diabetes, Diuretic effect,
Improve liver health [103, 104, 105, 106, 107].
Figure 30. Parsley
31
31. Basil
Botanical name: Ocimum basilicum L
Family: Lamiaceae
Plant part: Leaves
Major compounds: Methyl chaviole and Linalool. (Also contains estragole, eugenol, cintronellol,
apigenin, limonene, methyl cinnamate, ursolic acid, 1,8-cineole, α-terpinene, β-sitosterol, anthocyanins,
p-coumaric acid, rosmarinic acid, carvacrol)
Special health benefits: Reduced stress, anxiety, Improved immune responses, Anti-aging effects [108,
109, 110].
Figure 31. Basil
32. Bay leaves

Botanical name: Laurus nobilis L
Family: Lauraceae
Plant part: Leaves
Major compound: 1,8-cineole (Also contains α-terpinylacetate, cinnamtannin, sabinene, and α-pinene)
Special health benefits: Improves Digestion, Anti-inflammatory Activity, Prevent Cancer, Reduce
Anxiety & Stress, Anti-diabetic [111, 112, 113, 114].
32
Figure 32. Bay leaves
33. Curry leaves

Botanical name: Murraya koenigii Spreng
Family: Rutaceae
Plant part: Leaves
Major compound: β-caryophyllene, β-elemene, β-gurjunene, βphellandrene, α-pinene, sabinene, and β-

pinene
Special health benefits: Anti-Diabetic, Stimulating The Salivation Process and Stimulates Digestive
Enzymes , Anti-Inflammatory Activity, Anti-Oxidation, Wound Healing Effect, Eye Sight Improvement
[115, 116, 117].
Figure 33. Curry Leaves
34. Mint
Botanical name: Mentha L.
Family: Lamiaceae
Plant part: Leaves
Major compound: menthol, menthone, and menthyl acetate
33
Special health benefits: gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, freshness
in breath [118].
Figure 34. Mint
35. Pandan (Rampe)

Botanical name : Pandanus amaryllifolius
Family: Pandanaceae
Plant part : Leaf
Major compounds : 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline
Flavour and aroma: Highly aromatic and have a unique flavour. Special health benefits: Reduce fever,
Improve the digestion, A good cardiotonic [119, 120].
Figure 35. Pandan
Chapter-03 Nutritional properties

Spices are a good source of macro and micronutrients. Other than that, spices from seeds are rich sources of fat,
protein and carbohydrates [121]. Most of the spices are rich in calcium, phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg) and zinc
(Zn). In addition to that, spices are also rich sources of Phenolic compounds with antioxidant activity that influence
34
nutrition through many pathways. Generally, spices are adding into the meals as small quantities, but they
additionally give nutritional value other than enhancing food’s palatability.
• Contain protein, fat and fibres.
• Presence minerals such as calcium, potassium, sodium, iron
Fennel and phosphorus.
• Rich in vitamins such as thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and
vitamin C. [132, 133]
• Rich source of vitamin C.
• Other than that rich source of vitamin A, B, and E.
Chilli
• Good source of potassium, magnesium, iron, calcium,
pepper
phosphorus. [134, 135, 136, 137]
• rich in dietary fibre, carbohydrate, protein and energy

respectively.
• It contains potassium, manganese, iron, selenium and
Clove
magnesium.
• Good source of vitamin A, other than that it contains vitamin
K, B6, B1 and riboflavin. [138]
• Has high content of water, dietary fibre, sugar but low in
calories and lipid.
Onion
• High content of vitamin B6, folic acid, calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus and potassium and sulphur. [139]
• Has carbohydrate, protein, energy, fat and dietary fibre no
cholesterol found.
• Source of minerals like copper, potassium, calcium,
Saffron
manganese, iron, selenium, zinc and magnesium.
• Rich in vitamins including vitamin A, C and riboflavin, niacin,
folic acid. [140]
• Vitamin A and E main vitamins that can be found.
• Choline, folic acid, niacin, pyridoxine, riboflavin, thiamine are
Black
other vitamins which presence in pepper.
pepper
• Calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus,
zinc are the main minerals found in the black pepper. [141]
• Rich in fibre and protein such as globulin, albumin, histidine
and lecithin.
• Not good source of minerals but has some amount of
Fenugreek phosphorus and sulphur. While calcium, iron and zinc
presence as considerable amount. [142, 143, 144, 145]
• Energy, protein, fat and carbohydrate contain as macro

molecules.
Coriander • Calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and iron presence
in coriander as minerals.
• Rich in vitamin C. [146]
• Carbohydrate, protein and dietary fibre presence as macro
nutrients.
• Rich in vitamin A, C and E.
Nutmeg
• Sodium, potassium, calcium, copper, iron, magnesium,
manganese, phosphorus and zinc presence in nutmeg as
minerals. [147]
• Riches sources of potassium iron, calcium, manganese,
magnesium and selenium.
Thyme
• Fat, protein, crude fibre contains as macro nutrients.
35
• Vitamin A, B complex, K, E, C and folic acid presence in
thyme. [148,
149]
• Rich in fat.
• Other than that presence in protein, dietary fibre, energy,
carbohydrate.
• No cholesterol found in Mustard.
• Rich in vitamin E.
Mustard
• Thiamine, folate, pyridoxine, niacin, Riboflavin, vitamin C
presence in respectively.
• Low in vitamin A.
• Rich in selenium, manganese andiron.
• Low in sodium and potassium. [150]
• Contain protein, carbohydrate sugar fat and fibre.
•
Garcinia • Iron, calcium, ascorbic acid and oxalic acid contain in
Garcinia. [151]
Spice Nutritional value
• Contains carbohydrate, protein and fat.

• Rich in vitamin c and B complex.
• Mainly potassium and calcium presence in the garlic. In addition to that iron, zinc, sodium, magnesium
Garlic and phosphorus [122, 123, 124, 125]
• rich in carbohydrate, starch, fat, protein, crude fiber and reducing sugar.
• Cardamom rich in vitamin C, B6, thiamine, riboflavin and niacin.
• Zinc, copper, iron, sodium, manganese, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus respectively.
Cardamo m [126, 127, 128]
• contain crude fibre, fat, crude protein, carbohydrate.

• Rich source of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin.
Turmeric • Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, iron presence as minerals. [129]
• Contain Energy and carbohydrate.

• Iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium contains in cinnamon as minerals.
• Rich in vitamin A while vitamin B and K presence as trace amounts.[130]
Cinnamon
36
• Contain energy, protein, carbohydrate and fat.
• Potassium, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, magnesium presence as minerals.
• Rich source of vitamin C, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin presence as vitamins. [131]
Dill
Chapter-04 Medicinal properties
Different parts of spices such as bark, seeds, flower buds, roots are shown medicinal properties. The most common
medicinal properties can be listed as, antithrombotic, anti-carcinogenic, antiarrhythmic, anti-rheumatic,
antisclerotic, lipid-lowering actions and gastroprotective. Other than that, spices can provide protection against
radiation and also inhibit the oxidation of protein glycation and low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Most of the time,
traditional ancient people used to utilize various kinds of spices to overcome a wide range of health problems and
diseases, although they didn’t know the scientific background. But nowadays there are proven results of the
37
beneficial effects of these natural sources. It is possible to add spice for our day to day meal which will help to heal
some of the common diseases as well as syndromes and to increase the disease resistance.
Using spices as a source of medicine for serious health issues highly preferable as they have been used for many
years without toxic effects. They are considered safe and have fewer side effects when compared with chemical
medicines [152]. Also, most of them are highly available and less expensive [153]. Also, it is always better to avoid
those health issues by using spices and herbs like natural sources without going into synthetic drugs with other side
effects after the health issue occurs. Proper knowledge about the medicinal properties of the spices is essential for
that.
Even the World Health Organization supports to develop treatments by using these natural sources to reduce
the side effects [154].
4.1. Anti-carcinogenic
Cancer is one of the most common non-communicable diseases which is having high mortality, and there are many
types of it. Commonly lung, rectum, colon, and prostate cancers are seen among men and breast, colon, rectum and
stomach cancer are seen among women [155]. Normally, there are cancer cells in everyone’s body by the
transformation of normal cells into cancer cells through many stages. But our immune system controls the growth
of them. Cancer which is known as the growth of tumour cells uncontrollably and undesirably in high amounts by
the cell division can occur mainly if the immune system is weak or if we increase the number of tumour cells in our
body by stimulating their growth. This stimulation can occur by various environmental factors and carcinogenic
compounds we consume in our day to day life.
There are different stages in the development of cancers. The first stage is known as the initiation and there will be
a reaction between cancerproducing substance, and DNA of tissue cell. This stage is dominant, and the development
of cancer can be easily controlled at this stage. It takes a long time to go up to the second stage, and at this stage
also it can be controlled easily. But it is very hard to control it at the third, and final stages and it spreads rapidly at
these stages [156].
In most cases, the symptoms are showing when it is too late. So, it is very important to consider about controlling
the growth of cancer cells before those irreversible stages occur. Also, most of the time, the synthetic drugs used to
treat cancer will the damage healthy cells as well. That is the reason behind the many side effects occurs after those
treatments. There are natural sources, including many spices which can reverse or prevent the development of cancer
cells.
• Spices that can be used for this condition: garlic, turmeric, cinnamon, clove, black pepper, fenugreek, ginger,
onion, mustard, thyme, fennel, saffron, coriander, chilli pepper.
Garlic, onions reduce stomach cancer risk [157]. Rosemary, sage contains carnosic acid and rosemary acid (RC-
18), which reduce the risk of cancer [158, 159]. Curcumin which is mainly found in turmeric, is good for colon
cancer, breast cancer [160, 161]. Saffron is also listed as an agent for anticancer drugs [162]. The gingerol, which
is containing in ginger, also helps to control the growth of tumors, breast cancers, ovarian cancers [163, 164, 165].
4.2. Anti-diabetic
Diabetes is a metabolic syndrome, and it will not allow using the energy of the food we consume properly. It either
happens if the pancreas is not secreting the required amount of insulin or if the insulin secreted by the pancreas does
not work as required. (Insulin resistance) So, there are two types of diabetes.
Type 01- Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). It is only seen among 5-10% of diabetes patients. It most
commonly happens due to genetic reasons and autoimmune; environmental factors also increase the risk of this type
of diabetes.
38
Type 02- Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It is seen among 90-95% of diabetes patients. Obesity
increases the risk of these type of diabetes, and this type is easy to control by controlling the diet, exercise and
medications. It can also occur during pregnancy and disappears when the pregnancy is over.
• Spices that can be used for this condition: garlic, cinnamon, fenugreek, ginger, onion, mustard, fennel, saffron,
garcinia, tamarind, coriander, chilli pepper.
Garlic- Oral consumption of the garlic extract have increased the insulin secretion of the rats which were having
diabetic and not in normal rats [167].
Side effects of some synthetic anti-diabetic drugs are listed below[166],
Insulin- Insulin allergy, Hypoglycemia, Weight gain, Lipodystrophy at injection sites.

Thiazolidinedions- Cardiovascular risk, weight gain Water retention, Bladder cancer.
Sulphonylureas- Weight gain, Cardiovascular risk, rash, Hypo glycaemia, Bone marrow damage.
Biguanides (Metformin)- Gastrointestinal effects, Lactic acidosis.
DPP-4 inhibitors (Saxagliptin) - Risk for cancer, kidney impairment
4.3. Anti-obesity
Obesity is a common issue, and also it is severe as it directly links with cardiovascular diseases as well as
hypertension, Type 2 diabetes, respiratory disorders and strokes. It is not a disease, and it is metabolic syndrome.
This can occur when the body accumulates fat in massive amounts. Fat accumulation can occur due to undesirable
dietary pattern, lack of physical activities (sedentary behaviour), genetic problems, age, depression, etc. When we
consume fat (triglycerides), it is converted into energy in the body, and the surplus will be stored in different areas
of our body for later usage. Fat is stored in adipose tissue, liver, and muscles as glycogen. This storing mechanism
should take place properly because if not, the blood triglyceride levels will be increased and cause serious heart
diseases. When they are stored in high amounts, it will increase body weight, and that’s the reason for obesity. So,
there should be a balance between fat intake and energy production. The body required energy for many purposes
like brain functions, other internal body functions, physical activities, and etc. So, fat is also an important source
for a healthy life, but managing the level is important to get rid of adverse effects. BMI (Body mass index) is used
to measure the degree of obesity.
Several spices help to burn the excess fat, but it is better if it is combined with the exercises to spend the energy
because sometimes it can increase the blood glucose level when dissolving the stored fat in our body. Considering
about thatis also essential when treating obesity with oral medicine [168, 169].
• Spices that can be used for this condition: turmeric, onion, garcinia
4.4. Anti- aging

By reducing the oxidation in the human body, the aging process can be slow down. When a human breathes oxygen,
our cells produce energy and also as a by-product free radicals are also forming in this process. These radicals are
highly reactive, and they damage cells, mitochondria, and even DNA by interacting with the molecules in the human
39
cell. With the emotional and physical stress, this process can beaccelerated. Other than that, when our cells produce
energy by glucose, when the immune system is fighting with a disease and when our body detoxify toxic compounds
coming into our body, free radical formation occurs. Therefore, complete elimination of free radical formation is
not possible, but the number of free radicals should not exceed the anti-oxidant amount because if so, there will be
a harmful effect on our cells and DNA. The largest organ of the human body is the skin. Aging is usually determined
by the changes occurring in the skin over time. Exposing to UV radiation (Sunlight) accelerates the oxidation in the
skin by forming free radicals. These radicals destroy the collagen and elastin fibers in the skin and attack the skin
structure. Wrinkles, dyschromia, skin relief changes are some results of it [170, 171].
Effects of oxidation:
• Memory loss
• Fatigue
• Muscle/joint pain
• Wrinkles
• Headaches
• Decreasing the eye sight.
Also, oxidation is strongly associated with an ample amount of noncommunicable diseases such as diabetes, anxiety,
cancer, chronic fatigue syndrome, insomnia, fibromyalgia, etc. By increasing the amount of antioxidant usage,
oxidative stress can be reduced as they will block the formation of free radicals [172]. Increasing the consumption
of spices which are having anti-oxidant compounds is a better solution without any harmful effect.
• Spices that can be used for this condition: garcinia.
4.5. Diuretic
Diuretic effects enhance the secretion of urine. The significant advantage is, it reduces the sodium chloride levels
in the body. Diuretics are commonly, used in situations like hypertension, kidney diseases like renal failure, heart
failure, cirrhosis, and nephrotic syndromes (pass considerable amount of protein with urine) [173].
There are synthetic diuretics, and doctors are often prescribing their patients. But the diuretics which are derived
from the natural sources have more beneficial effects for humans. As natural diuretics are more favorable for the
natural body functions, they have minimum side effects and toxicity. Synthetic diuretics and their side effects are
mentioned below [174, 175, 176].
• Loop Diuretics
• Thiazide Diuretics
• Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitor
• Potassium-Sparing Diuretics
• Osmotic Diuretics
Side effects: Hypokalaemia., Hypomagnesemia, Hypercholesterolemia, Allergic, Hyper glycaemia, Abdominal
discomfort, fever, rashes, nausea, dizziness and muscle cramps, headache, nausea [177].
• Spices that can be used for this condition: cardamom, black pepper, mustard, dill, fennel
40
4.6. Anti-diarrheal
Diarrhea is not a very serious health issue. It is a temporary problem as most of the time it will only last for a few
days. But it can be severe for infants as several child deaths are reporting due to this condition as it causes
dehydration. The main symptoms are watery stools, abdominal pain, fever, bloody stool, etc. The patient can quickly
become dehydrated if this problem lasts for a considerable period. This condition can occur due to different causes,
mainly including bacteria, parasites, viruses, medications, and digestive disorders. Herbal medicines can easily be
used to manage this condition [178]. This anti-diarrheal plant extracts act against microbes like Staphylococcus
aureus, Vibro cholera, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysentery, Shigella flexneri, Shigella sonnei and
etc. which cause abdominal disorders [179].
• Spices that can be used for this condition: cardamom, turmeric, black pepper, dill, tamarind, coriander, chilli
pepper
4.7. Anti-depressant
Depression is a mental health issue as it affects the brain, and that can be found among anyone at any age. It can
even cause physical problems as it directly affects the way someone feels, thinks, and also behaves. Genetic,
environmental, biological, psychological factors can affect human mental health. There are some chemicals in our
brain call neurotransmitters, and when they are not working correctly, this problem can occur as it affects the nerve
connections. Anti-depressants are used to control depression by balancing these chemicals. There are many synthetic
anti-depressant medicines, but they can cause different side effects like nausea, sexual problems, constipation,
dizziness, dry mouth, and etc. So, focusing on natural anti-depressants is a better option, and most of the spices
contain these compounds. Plant extracts aid proper neural communication by binding with the neurotransmitters or
the neuromodulator receptors and altering the neurotransmitter synthesis [180, 181].
• Spices that can be used for this condition: saffron
4.8. Dental health

Most of the time, dental issues are occurring due to microbial effects [182]. Tooth decay, cavity formation, bad
breath, gum disease, and infections are the most common oral issues. Dental decay occurs when calcium phosphate
in teeth starts to dissolve by the activities of some gram-positive bacteria. As they metabolize sucrose into organic
acids like lactic acid, which dissolves calcium phosphate. This process is known as decalcification [183].
Gum inflammation and dissolving are occurred by the action of anaerobic gram-negative bacteria [184]. Bleeding
and inflammation are the common symptoms of this issue, and it occurs when the attachment of collagen between
the tooth and bone is reduced. Bad breath and discolored teeth are also occurring due to microbial activities and
coatings, but they are not very serious issues. Washing off and rubbing the teeth by using proper anti-microbial
extracts will help to overcome this issue easily.
Before manufacturing the toothpaste and mouthwashes, ancient people used to clean the mouth with natural
ingredients, and most of them are spices. They were effective as they contain highly effective antimicrobial
compounds. Even recently, people manufacture oral cleaning products by incorporate with those ingredients [183].
• Spices that can be used for this condition: cinnamon, clove, cardamom, nutmeg
41
4.9. Boosting immunity
The immune system is doing an incredible job by fighting against potential factors like microbes and poisons that
can cause harm and make the human body ill. White blood cells, antibodies, complement system, lymphatic system,
spleen, bone marrow, thymus are the main parts of the immune system.
The immune system can be weaker as we get older due to nutrition deficiencies, stress, bad habits, and medical
conditions. When it is malfunctioning, the risk of getting infected and be sick will be increased. So, it is important
to make sure our immune system is functioning properly. Boosting the immune system can be done by incorporating
natural sources like spices.
• Spices that can be used for this condition: garlic, turmeric, clove, black pepper.
4.10. Anti-septic
Words antiseptic and disinfectants most popular among the medical field and other health care settings. So, in those
kinds of places they use chemical agents such as alcohol, iodine, chlorine. Generally, we call them as biocides. They
have been used for hundreds of years. The main targetof using these biocides is destroying microbes effectively
than antibiotics. because most of the time antibiotics have specific intracellular targets while biocide has multiple
targets. In addition to that when antibiotics involve destroying selective microbes at low concentration biocides
destroy or inhibit microorganisms in or on living tissue. The mechanism behind the inhibition of microbes due to
the action of antiseptics is leakage of intracellular constituents inhibition of enzymes, electron transport and
oxidative phosphorylation, but the problem is by using these chemical antiseptic agents it is difficult to eliminate
some microorganisms as well such as Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Escherichia coli (E. coli), and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) due to rapid growth [185, 186, 187].
So, some natural pants have various bioactive compounds which have antiseptic properties. Because they are
recognized as safe than chemicals. Most of the time essential oils of spices are rich in antiseptic properties.
Microorganisms presence in food will lead to various kinds of harmful diseases. Therefore, using spices that have
antiseptic properties inhibit those harm full reflections as well as extend the shelf life of particular food as well. On
the other hand, natural spices help to increase consumer acceptance because it is good for health.
• Spices that can be used for this condition: cardamom
4.11. Anti-clotting
Anti-clotting is done by anti-coagulant agents. Those can be either artificial or natural. So, the thing is doing by an
anticoagulant agent is preventing the formation of blood clots and reduce the thickness of blood. If blood getting
thickerit will, cause for the formation of blood clots and it will lead to serious health problems such as heart attack,
strokes, deep vein thrombosis (blood clots in the leg or lower extremity) and stent thrombosis. Anti-clotting agents
prevent the formation of new blood clots in veins, arteries, heart and the brain of humans. So, nowadays people
move on to artificial medicines due to availability and convenience and for preventing blood clots. But the thing is
those chemical medicines almost have many side effects such as abdominal pain, bleeding, gastrointestinal
dysfunctions, headache, fever, nausea and diarrhea [188]. So, as a substitute, it is better to use spices as a natural
42
product to prevent thrombotic disease which comes from common diseases such as myocardial infarction and stroke.
As well as spices eliminate undesirable side effects and providing additional advantages as well.
• Spices that can be used for this condition: garlic, clove, ginger, chilli pepper
4.12. Anti-inflammatory
Inflammation can be either acute or chronic [4]. Acute inflammation involves to immunity by immune cells and
occurs for a short duration while chronic inflammation occurs due to continuing acute inflammations for a long
time and lead for arthritis, cancers, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and neurological diseases [189].
So, inflammation is a situation which expects redness, swelling and pain in a particular body part. So, to eliminate
those kinds of things it is better to use natural or artificial anti-inflammatory agent. Most of the time almost all
artificial agent or medicines have considerable side effects, especially to our liver and kidney. Therefore, to prevent
those things better to use natural spices because spices have anti-inflammatory properties.
• Spices that can be used for this condition: turmeric, cinnamon, clove, cardamom, black pepper, ginger,
rosemary, nutmeg, saffron, tamarind, coriander, chilli pepper
4.13. Carminative
The agent which avert or mitigate flatulence (intestinal bloating and gas in the intestinal tracks).So, some of the
spices help to cure those kinds of situation as well as stimulate digestive functions, enhance the secretion of digestive
enzymes to promoting proper digestion.
• Spices that can be used for this condition: cardamom, dill

4.14. Anti-lithogenic
The lithogenic effect is increasing the formation of stones (calculi) within the body. Usually composed of mineral
salt. Commonly occur as renal calculi, gallstones likewise. Gallstones are categorized as cholesterol, black pigment
and brown pigment. All those gallstones have unique structural properties. To the formation of cholesterol crystals,
it is important to have either single requirement or multiple requirements such as cholesterol supersaturation,
accelerated nucleation, bile salt likewise. Other two type of gallstones are formed due to precipitation of bilirubin
in bile. So, to reduce these kinds of health effects it is important to consume spices which have anti lithogenic
properties because it will heal you from lithogenesis.
• Spices that can be used for this condition: cardamom, chilli pepper
4.15. Anti-asthmatic
Asthma is a respiratory disease of lung's airways. Most of the time dust, mould spores, mites, animal hair or feathers
are cause for asthma while cold air affecting too. Asthma is a global disease which thousands of people are suffering.
So, nowadays many kinds of artificial treatments such as nebulization and chemical medicines are available in the
43
world, but there are so many side effects too. Such as dryness or irritation in the throat and mouth, unpleasant taste
in the mouth likewise. Other than that, pills consumption will cause long term diseases as well. Therefore, some
spices have an anti-asthmatic property and it is a good way to cure asthma by using a natural product.
• Spices the can be used for this condition: cardamom, ginger, onion, chilli pepper
4.16. Anti-allergic
Allergy is a situation of the internal body to react to a specific substance by identifying it as a toxic or harmful
compound while it is not. So, these allergen substances can be in a wide range such as dust, food compound, animal
part, medications, pet and pollen likewise. So, these allergens are varied person wise. However, genetics, age, sex,
time and climate can be affecting these allergies. Most of the time allergies are not involved in major problems
while anaphylaxis like allergies needs sudden treatments and medications. In addition to that although artificial
medicines available, they have side effects too as other medicines. Therefore, it is better to use a natural anti-allergic
agent.
• Spices that can be used for this condition: ginger, onion
4.17. Anti-cataract
A cataract is a common disease which occurs in the human's eye. A dense cloudy like layer will form in the lens of
the eye. Then it is impossible to send a clear picture to the retina through the lens. The picture comes to the retina
as light through the lens. The retina is the place which converts that light into a signal and facilitates to send that
signal to the brain through the optic nerve. So, a cataract will cause for blurry vision, trouble seeing at night, seeing
colours as faded likewise. Smoking, UV radiations, long term steroids and medications and radiation therapies might
cause for cataracts. By doing a surgery it is possible to recover that problem but prevention is better than cure.
• Spices can be used for this condition: fenugreek
4.18. Anti-atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is a serious disease which plaque (plaque is a substance which made up from fat, cholesterol,
calcium and other substances that presence in blood.) Deposit in the blood arteries (blood arteries are the type of
blood vessels which carry and circulate oxygen-rich blood all over the body). So, due to deposition of plaque in
blood arteries the arteries getting narrow and blood flow getting slower. Because of that reason heart attacks, stokes
can be expected while increasing the blood pressure also. Finally, these things can be led to even death. Therefore,
better to use spices which have anti-atherosclerosis property. Then it may delay the deposition of plaque in arteries.
• Spices can be used for this condition: garlic, saffron
Bellow Table 8 gives a summarization of the medicinal properties of each spice.
Table 8. Medicinal Properties of the spices

44
spices Medicinal properties
• Garlic boost the heart health by lowering blood pressure
• Prevention of atherosclerosis
• Reduction of serum cholesterol, LDL and triglycerides
• inhibition of platelet aggregation as well as it helps to increase fibrinolytic activity.
• Inhibition carcinogen activation.

Garlic • Improved detoxification
• Protect DNA from activated carcinogens.
• Due to presence of volatile sulphur compounds such as alliin, allicin, diacyl disulphide garlic help to
reduce the glucose content of blood serum Use as a treatment for cold, flu and some skin diseases. [190,
191, 192, 193, 194].
• Anti-inflammatory activities.
Turmeric
45
• Boost the immunity system.
• Cure athlete’s foot and nail fungal diseases.
• Clearing the nasal track.
• Prevent lung cancers.
• Stimulate the blood circulation.
• Inhibiting platelet aggregation.
[208, 209, 210, 211]
• Act as antiseptic, diuretic, stomachic, carminative, digestive, tonic
and stimulant agent.
• Has anti-inflammatory activities.
• Use for treatment as bronchitis, renal and vesical calculi, anorexia,
haemorrhoids, dyspepsia, and gastropathy.
• In Ayurvedic medicine cardamom use as a treatment for heart
Cardamom diseases, kidney diseases, urinary diseases, bacterial infections, asthma, oral
infections, food poisoning, tuberculosis, digestive disorders, eye lid
inflammation, bladder diseases, colds, constipation, scorpion and snake
bites.
• Lowering the blood pressure.
• Use against cigarette addiction. [212, 213, 214]
• Boost digestive activities, appetite.

• Good medicine for cold, cough, diseases of the throat and worms
and piles.
• Has anti-inflammatory actions.
• Enhance the nutritional absorption and digestion and promote
intestinal health.
Black • Piperine give good protection against oxidative damages.
pepper • Increase the effectiveness against cancers.
• Lowering the cholesterol level by break down the complex fat
molecules into simple molecules and inhibit fat accumulation.
• Boost immunity.
• Promote urinary activities.
[215, 216]
• Able to regulate metabolism of glucose in the digestive track.

• Due to high content of fibre prevent colon cancers.
• Reduce LDL and cholesterol level of blood serum and boost
cardiovascular health.
Fenugreek • Due to high amount of phytochemicals such as flavonoids, steroids
and alkaloids it is helps to hormonal control activities.
• Reduce the sugar level in blood serum.
• Boost anti-cataract activities.
• Reduce cholesterol and LDL level in blood.

• Good medicine for respiratory illnesses such as asthma.
Ginger • Prevention of allergic diseases.
• Have effective results for treating dementia.
• Ginger is a anti-inflammatory and anti -carcinogenic agent other than
• Medicine for rheumatoid arthritis, chronic anterior uveitis,
conjunctivitis, skin cancer, small pox, chicken pox, wound healing, urinary track infections and liver
ailments.
• Use to reduce digestive disorders boost immunity.
• Use for dyspeptic conditions including loss of appetite, liver and gallbladder complaints and
postprandial feelings of fullness.
• Improving fat digestion and help to wight control and reduce bloating.
46
• Use for treat to the colon cancers.
• Use as a medicine for arthritis.
• inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis and boost anticancer activities.
• Prevent cold, flu and control glucose level. [195, 196, 197, 198, 199]
• Help to refresh mouth and facilitate breath well.

• Reduce the risk of colon cancers.
• Good blood coagulant and prevent bleeding.
• Increasing the blood circulations.
Cinnamon
• Anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory agent.
• Boost oral health by reducing dental problems.
• Enhance anti-diabetic activities.
[200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 205, 207]
• Improve overall dental health by relive pains and clean entire mouth
• Use as anti-inflammatory agent because of its high number of flavonoids.
Clove • Use as a treatment for acnes by incorporating with honey.
• Good medicine for digestive disorders.
that anti-nausea compound.

• Inhibit oxidative damages, ulcerative colitis, cardiovascular diseases and platelets aggregations.
• Reduce the glucose level of the blood.[217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226]
• Enhance anti carcinogenic and anti- mutagenic activities.

• Improving the cardiovascular protective effects.
• Increasing platelet activities.
• Reduce the risk of diabetes and obesity.
• Reduce the level of cholesterol and LDL.
• Reduce the blood pressure.
onion • Increasing Anti-asthmatic activity • Shown anti-allergic effects.
• Stimulating the digestive activities.[227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232]
47
• Enhance urinary activities.
• Improve digestion process.
• Use as treatment for cracked skin, leprosy, swelling, neurological disorders, leukoderma, arthritis,
rheumatoid, wounds, acne vulgaris, eruptions in oral cavity.
• Purging the body of toxins.
• Good for inhibiting cardiovascular diseases.
• Lowering the cholesterol content.
• Use as medicine for haemorrhoids and wounds.
• Good for lowering sugar content.
mustard • Inhibit carcinogenesis and tumerogenesis in colon, breast, skin and lung tissues in animals.[233, 234]
• Enhance the brain functions.

• Show anti-inflammatory activities.
• Protect neuronal cells from oxidative damages.[235, 236]
rosemary
• Good medicine for respiratory diseases such as whooping, cough, bronchitis and asthma.
• Prevent hardening of the arteries.
• Good medicine for dyspepsia, tooth ache and urinary tract infections.
• Kill pathogens in intestinal track and increase he appetite.
• Good substitute for cancer preventive agent.
• Use as a treatment for insect bites, muscle swelling likewise.
thyme • Improve liver functions.
• Use for cure skin issues.[237, 238, 239, 240]
• Use as ingredient of grip water to cure colic pain in babies and flatulence in children.
• Seeds are carminative, diuretic, stimulant, stomachic and galactagogue.
• Contained essential oil of seeds relieves intestinal spasms and griping.
• Chewing seeds cause for fresh breath.
• Cure gas and aids digestion.
• Stimulate milk flow in nursing mothers.
Dill
• Good medicine for urinary issues and mental disorders.
• Increasing appetite
• Use to treat for fever, diarrhoea, vomiting and abdominal distension.
[241, 242, 243, 244, 245]
48
• Stimulating brain functions by improving blood circulations to brain.
• Good medicine for cardiovascular diseases due to increment of blood circulation and stimulation of
heart functions.
• Helps to detoxify the liver and kidney.
Nutmeg • Nutmeg helps to induces sleep.
• Involves to fresh breath and cure dental problems.
• Improve appetite by decreasing stomach disorders.
• Has anti-inflammatory properties and it can be use as pain reliever.
• Cure cold and cough.[246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251]
• Chewing seeds may inhibit the abdominal noise.

• Helps to give good eyesight
• Facilitate digestion process and decreasing bloating of stomach.
• Good medicine for diabetes, bronchitis, chronic cough and kidney stones.
• Has diuretic properties and therefore good for kidney and bladder diseases.
• Inhibit vomiting and nausea.
fennel • Good for cardiovascular diseases.
• Reduce the blood glucose content.
• Exhibit anti-cancer, hepato protective(Protects the liver) and memory protective activities.[252, 253,
254, 255]
• Reduce the body weight

• Reduce LDL, VLDL and cholesterol level.
• Exhibit anti-cancer, anti-toxic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic and antiatherosclerosis properties.
Saffron • Showing anti-depressant and mood improving effects.[256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262]
• Use as a medicine for inflammatory ailments, bowel complaints and rheumatic pains.
• Facilitate proper digestion.
• Relieve gastric ulcerations and burning sensation.
Garcinia • Use to treat for ulcers, haemorrhoids, diarrhoea, ear infection.
• Exhibit antiaging, anti-diabetic and gastroprotective effects.
• Involves to weight loss by decreasing obesity.[263, 264, 265, 266, 267]
• Good for cardiovascular diseases, vomiting, fever, microbial infections, lactation, pregnancy.
• Exhibit antidiabetic, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antivenom
activities.
Tamarind • Help to weight reducing activities.
• Showing Hepatoprotective, anti-diarrheal wound healing activities.[268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273]
• Exhibit anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic and cholesterol lowering effects.

• Has anti-mutagenic effects.
Coriander • Control of swellings, diarrhoea, mouth ulcers, anemia, small pox,
eyecare, skin disorders and conjunctivitis.

• Promoting digestive health.[274, 275]
49
• Showing anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, pain relieving, anti-diabetic, anti-cholesteremic, anti-
diarrheal, anti-lithogenic and anticlotting activities.
• Use as a treatment for microbial diseases.
• Good medicine for asthma.
Chilli pepper • Better for extreme, toothache, wounds, ulcers, arthritis, headaches and night blindness.
• Treating for hypersensitivity.
• Promote and maintain good health.[276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282]
Chapter-05 Other Effects
50
5.1. Insecticidal Effects
Insects have over one million species that live in a wide range of places in this world. On the other hand, insects
being a carrier for parasites and microbes that effect for humans by transmitting various kind of diseases. other than
that, insects are involved in damage, penetrating foods. So due to attracts of insects most of the time total economic
cost getting very high. Therefore, nowadays people use a wide range of synthetic artificial insecticides and due to
toxicity, most of them have been restricted. That is why, the green insecticides becoming prominent which provides
a simple and effective method for insect control. Most of the spices have been used for a hundred years as a source
of bioactive compounds. Spices and their extracts have different insecticidal properties assessing their toxic,
repellent, antifeedant, fumigant, growth regulations. Those spices have either single bioactive compounds or a
mixture of bioactive compounds.
It has been suggested that the disagreeable odor of essential oils or oleoresin can prevent insect attacks.
Eg: Clove is a good mosquito repellent. Eugenol, isoeugenol and methyl eugenol show insecticidal activity to the
storage pathogens such as sitophilus zeamais and tribolium castaneum.
The clove's leaf and bud oils show excellent insecticidal activity against the human head louse(pediculus_capitis)
[283, 284].
Other than that, larvicidal against eggs, larvae and adults of Callosobruchus maculatus [285].
•Ginger and clove containing essential oils were effectively inhibited insects in maize during storage. Eugenol
repellent of maize weevil.
•Black peppercorn exhibits insecticidal properties against moth in clothing.
•Garlic used as a bee repellent and exhibit insecticidal properties against
Delia radicum and Musca domestica
•Bay leaf and basil used as an insect repellent
In order to inhibit insects cause diseases and damages it is better to use spices like green insecticides to save
environmental pollution while improving the quality of human health. In addition to that by using insecticides
contribute for food contamination as well. So, it involves for bring hazardous effects for both environmental and
humans as well. To prevent those harmful things spices and their extracts provide a huge support.
5.2. Anti- microbial

Most of the time microorganisms can affect humans in various ways. So, in their those microorganisms mainly
affect humans by incorporating with their meal. That is the major reason which causes food borne illnesses. Among
all microorganisms E Coli and Salmonella Sp. Are the organisms who Mainly cause food borne illnesses. So, to
solve that problem modern people willing to move for easiest and quick methods rather than concerning its side
effects. Therefore, as a result of that nowadays antibiotics became prominent. But there is a key problem that is
antibiotics destroy both desirable and undesirable microbes who lives in our intestinal tract as a micro flora. Due to
the imbalance of these microbes, it is impossible to carry out proper nutritional absorption. That is the reason most
of the time after taking antibiotics human feels diarrheal symptoms including loose motion. Therefore, frequently
going for a antibiotic is not good for health. So, to resolve this matter prior researcher have struggled and found out
that spices have shown natural antimicrobial properties due to some compounds.
51
Traditional people used some spices to treat for injuries without knowing its scientific background. According to
prior researches, it is revealed that black pepper, clove, cinnamon and turmeric has antimicrobial properties due to
its unique compounds,
• clove -eugenol
• cinnamon -eugenol and cinnamic aldehyde [286, 287]. • black pepper- Piperine [288] • turmeric- curcumin
[289].
Naturally, those spices are in their dry form so it is compulsory to get an extraction by using appropriate solvent.
So, when using a solvent, it is important to concern about the properties of solvents, the purpose of extraction
likewise. because as revealed in previous researches ethanolic extracted extraction have shown higher anti-microbial
properties than other extractions. And also, most of the time those above-mentioned spices have exhibit good
influence against the e-coli bacteria.
And also, active compounds of spices shown their antimicrobial effect by degrading cell wall of microbes,
disrupting cytoplasm membrane and leaking cellular constituents, effects to RNA and DNA likewise.
• Volatile compounds which containing in cardamom helps to inhibit gram negative bacteria [290].
• Possible to inhibit Listeria growth by adding ground rosemary in to pork during its refrigerated storage
[291].
• Essential oils of Cinnamon, bay, thyme, clove and nutmeg effectively inhibit twenty-five general of bacteria
[292].
In addition to that most of foods may susceptible for microbial effects due to its chemical composition and physical
properties. So, due to that case food manufactures using chemical preservatives to extend its shelf life. But the thing
is most of those chemical preservatives have bad side effects. There is a risk of liver cancers if the standard quantity
of nitrite application in to food is exceeded. Therefore, the reason it is better to use natural alternatives to extend the
shelf life of foods.
Spices is one of them it is possible to apply for food to prevent bacterial and fungal infections as well. Generally,
spices have volatile compounds and also those volatiles are recognized as safe [293]. Other than that plant
synthesizes secondary metabolites which have complex molecular structure. So, some of them have antimicrobial
properties. Alkaloids, tannins, cumarin, glycosides, phenolic compounds, terpenes, flavonoids and isoflavonoids are
those secondary metabolites which have antimicrobial properties [294]. And also, the type of spices, the
concentration of spices, the composition of spices, processing condition, storage conditions, microbial content and
species of microbes like factors can be affected for the antimicrobial activity of spices.
Due to the antimicrobial properties of spices Cytoplasm granulation, cytoplasmic membrane rupture and
inactivation and/ or inhibition of intracellular and extracellular enzymes can be expected causes of inhibitory actions
on moulds. Most of spices such as clove, oregano, thyme, cinnamon, and cumin are used as food preservatives.
Spices have secondary metabolites and they are named as antimicrobial agents. Therefore, spices help to develop
new natural antimicrobial agents against the pathogens.
Clove
clove exhibit good antimicrobial activities against oral bacteria [295]. And also, this is generally used in food
industries as a natural flavour enhancer as well as a natural antiseptic agent to increase the shelf life of food by
inhibiting food borne pathogens [296]. Eugenol is the main active component of clove oil and extracts [297]. Clove
inhibiting pathogens by destroying cell walls and membranes of microorganisms and permeate the cytoplasmic
52
membranes either enter to the cells. Then stop the normal DNA and protein synthesis. Eugenol helps to inhibit the
production of amylase and protease enzymes of Bacillus cereus and has the ability to deteriorate the cell wall and
cell lysis.
Oregano
Generally, oregano has applied as a food seasoning and flavouring agent. Carvacrol and thymol are the main
components responsible for the antimicrobial activities in oregano[298]. It is possible to bind with the sterols in the
fungal membranes of C. Albicans strains [299]. Carvacrol could interact with cell membranes by changing the
permeability for small cations[300].So, as the chemical compounds in oregano extract is complex, and it is possible
to inhibit microorganisms through different cell targets.
Thyme
Widely apply as a spice to add a special flavour to foods. In addition to that thyme used to extend the shelf life of
foods due to its antimicrobial activities. The main compound of thyme is thymol. It exhibits its antimicrobial
properties by binding to membrane proteins from hydrophobic and hydrogen bonds and then changing the
membrane’s permeability [301]. On the other hand thymol helps to decrease the intracellular ATP content of E.coli
while increasing the extracellular ATP which can inhibit the functions of plasma membranes [302].
Cinnamon
cinnamon has three major compounds which names are Cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate and cinnamyl alcohol
[303]. Due to its antimicrobial activities cinnamon use as a health-promoting agent to treat diseases like urinary
infections, inflammation and gastrointestinal disorders [304]. Among them, Cinnamaldehyde helps to stop
biosynthesis of cell walls, membrane functions, and specific enzyme activities as well.
Cumin
Cumin has used as an antiseptic and disinfectant agent in India for a long time [305]. The cumin has major bioactive
compounds such as Cuminaldehyde, cymene and terpenoids [306].
Garlic
Allicin, a diallyl thiosulfinate are the major bioactive compounds present in garlic [307]. Garlic inhibits
microorganisms by penetrating their membranes and destroy its internal organelles then C. albicans like
microorganisms proven to die [308].
Ginger a-pinene, borneoland linalool like volatile compounds contribute for the enhancing antimicrobial activities
of ginger [309].
Fennel
Fennel has significant antifungal and antibacterial activities. It helps to disrupt the permeability of the cell membrane
of S. dysenteriae and result in the leakage of electrolytes, losses of proteins, reducing sugar likewise. Finally, cell
lead for its death [310].
Coriander coriander lead to inhibit all cellular functions of microbes by permeating the membrane [311].
53
Black pepper
It helps to leak electrolytes, ATP, proteins and DNA materials of E.coli by physical and morphological alterations
in the cell walls and membranes [312].
5.2.1.Antibacterial activity
Almost all spices have antibacterial properties. Specially thyme and mint have shown inhibitory actions against
bacteria[313]. Other than that mixture of spices can involve for proper inhibitory actions opposing for various meat
spoilage responsible microbes[314]. In addition to that it is possible to affect bacteria which presence in fish sauce
by using spice mixture which incorporate with cumin, coriander, mustard, black pepper and lemon. On the other
hand, ginger, garlic, mustard and ground clove can be used for retard the growth of E-coli and Salmonella who exist
on mayonnaise[315, 316].
Essential oil of oregano can reduce the log phase of S.typhimuriumwhich presence in the sterilised and natural form
of beef fillets that stored in aerobic and modified atmospheres (An artificially flushed predetermined gases like CO 2,
N2, O2,Ar individually or as a mixture) [317]. Antimicrobial activity of spices can be divided into three groups.
Such as strong, medium and weak likewise. While cinnamon, clove, pimento, thyme, oregano and rosemary had
strong and consistent inhibitory effects against the pathogens[318, 319].
5.2.2Antifungal activity
Cinnamon, clove and oregano can help to inhibit Aspergillus parasitic sand Fusarium moniliforme while clove
contribute for the decreased the aflatoxin synthesis in infected grains[320]. Other than that various concentration of
mint, sage, bay, anise and ground red pepper help to inhibition of Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL 2999 and its
aflatoxin production[321].
Chilli, coriander, pepper, cumin help to inhibit the activities of Rhizopus zygospores, Mucor dimorphosphorous,
Penicillium commune, Fusarium solani like food spoilage responsible microorganisms in addition to that essential
oil of oregano has shown higher inhibitory effect than sorbic acid and effectively retard the activities of
Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Geotrichumcandidum, Mucor spp., Penicillium roqueforti like
microorganisms[322, 323].
54
5.3. Anti-oxidant
Anti-Oxidant is an any agent that helps decrease the oxidation process which is undesirable in many ways. This
reduction is done by neutralizing the free radical formation. When considering a food, oxidation cause spoiling and
for human, it causes the aging.
Most common oxidation is the lipid oxidation. This process is known as rancidity. It is impossible to completely
stop this process but it can be reduced by incorporating antioxidant compounds with the product. It happens by the
action of oxygen, when fat and oils transformed in to free radicals which are highly reactive and these radicals will
transform into primary oxidative products like peroxides, hydro peroxides [324].
Inside the human body, high concentration of free radicles can be formed due to various negative factors such as
gamma, UV, X-ray radiation, psycho-emotional stress, adverse environmental conditions, smoking, alcoholism and
drug addiction. Those kinds of free radicles are not good for health because it improved the oxidative stress of the
body. And also, when this oxidative stress getting high cells and tissues can be damaged. Because free radicles are
more unstable and reactive substances. Therefore, these conditions can lead for a cancers and heart-related diseases.
Both spices and herbs are very good sources of natural antioxidant. Antioxidant has beneficial effects especially on
food preservation and in the protection of sensory properties. Most of the time in industrially food manufactures are
using BHT, BHA like synthetic antioxidant agents instead of natural things. That kind of synthetic antioxidant agents
may lead to liver damages and carcinogenesis like diseases [325].
There is a large group of bioactive compounds can be expecting from spices which consist of phenolic compounds,
tannins, alkaloids, phenolic diterpenes, vitamins and flavonoids[326, 327].
These compounds perform various kind of antioxidant activities. Eg; flavonoids inhibit the free radicles and form
complexes with catalytic metal ions and inactivate them.
As well as antioxidants can prevent lipids and oils in foods against oxidative degradation. By doing that it helps to
prevent the development of oil and fat rancidity while increasing the nutritional quality and shelf life too. When
considering the lipid oxidation process it is possible to divide it into three groups.
Initiation phase
In this initiation phase, it creates fat-free radicles due to the exposure of an unsaturated hydrocarbon into heat or
light like factors. (most of the time unsaturated fats more prove to oxidation due to its structural double bonds.)
RH H. +R.
it is possible to control the oxidation process in this stage.
Propagation phase
In this stage, peroxide radicals are formed by reacting fat-free radicals with oxygen. then the formed peroxide
radicals react with healthy fat molecules to form hydro peroxide and another fat-free radical. Hydro peroxides are
also readily decomposed by heat, radiation, metals and enzymes to form additional radicals which added to the
chain reaction.
R. +O2 ROO.
ROO. + RH ROOH+R.
55
Termination phase
When two radicals interact with each other termination occurs to form secondary oxidative products. They are non-
reactive products but not good for health.
ROO. + R. ROOR
ROO. + ROO. ROOR +ROOR +O2
R. + R. RR
As mentioned previously many spices act as a primary antioxidant and neutralizing lipid free radicals as well as
terminating free radical chain reaction by donating hydrogen or electron to free radicals by converting those into
stable compounds [328].
Eg. Ginger rhizomes prevent lipid oxidation in animal fat.

· Rosemary, sage, bay and thyme have been used for baked goods.
In addition to that some spices act as secondary antioxidants such as chelators or synergists.
Due to these presences of antioxidant, it is possible to inhibit oxidation reaction as well as increase the shelf life of
the food. eugenol, camphene, carvacrol, piperine, myristic acid, myristicin and ascorbic acid are some of the natural
antioxidants which contain in the spices [329].
While the growth of plant it is possible to expose to various stress conditions. So as a response for that kind of
stresses reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration if getting high. These ROS can harm to the plant tissue.
Therefore, to prevent damages which comes from ROS plants have preventive actions naturally. One is enzymes
activities along with nonenzymatic antioxidants such as ascorbate, glutathione and terpenoids (carotenoids,
tocopherols) which helps to neutralize ROS.
So human bodies also react for the stresses is same as plants. But the thing is most of the time inside the human
body in between the levels of endogenous antioxidant and ROS can be an imbalance. That can be a reason for cell
damage [330]. So, it is important to gain anti-oxidants with the regular meal to prevent cell damages from formed
free radicals and eliminate cancer, cardiac diseases likewise.
There are several factors can be affecting for the antioxidant activity of spices such as the botanical origin of the
spices, place of production, environmental stressors, time of harvest. There are some spices which have active
antioxidant responsible compounds ,
• Turmeric -curcumin
• Red chili- capsaicin
• Clove-eugenol
• Coriander-linalool
• Black pepper- piperine
• Ginger- zingerone
• Cumin- cuminaldehyde
56
These compounds help to prevent lipid oxidation [331]. Based on the literature, an aqueous plus ethanolic extracts
of spices (ginger, garlic, onion, mint leaves, cinnamon, cloves and pepper) exhibit that it is possible to inhibit the
activities of lipoxygenase dependant enzymatic lipid peroxidation. Clove has higher antioxidant activity while onion
showed the least level. (clove > cinnamon > pepper > ginger> mint > onion). In addition to that BHT, BHA like
synthetic antioxidants have higher antioxidant power than natural spices although they are having bad health effects.
And also, when comparing the natural form and extract of spices, extracts have higher antioxidant power than its
natural forms. However, some spices may contain more than one antioxidant responsible compounds. [332, 333]
• Fresh pepper- capsaicin, luteolin, flavonoids- quercetin and ascorbic acids
• Ginger -gingerol and hexahydrocurcumin.
So, these bioactive compounds are responsible for the inhibition of enzymatic lipid peroxidation. When considering
the thermal stability of antioxidant compounds in spices, significant antioxidant power exhibit from the crude
gingerol and garlic which mixed up with groundnut and soybean oil at the 1050C- 1650C [334]. And also, when
spices (turmeric, capsicum and pepper) heated with a souring agent such as tamarind solution there will be
considerable quantitative losses can be expected [335]. Moreover, oleoresin of red pepper (capsaicin) showed
medium antioxidant activity at 1000C and 1500C no antioxidant effect due to the degradation of capsaicin[336]. The
antioxidant activity depending on their chemical composition mainly based on polyphenolic and other biologically
active compounds. Below table listed down the primary antioxidants and the biologically active compounds found
in spices including flavonoids, phenolic acids, essential oils, alkaloids and lignans likewise and those compounds
are identified and quantified by using chromatographic methods (Table 9).
Table 9. Important chemical constituents [337]

Spices and herbs Important chemical constituents
Allyl isothiocyanate, kaempferol glucoside,
Mustard
isorhamnetin, isorhamnetin-7-O-glucoside, carotene
Quercetin, apigenin, dipyridyl disulphide, rutin, quercetin-4-
Onion
glucoside
Apigenin,luteolin, kaempferol, myricetin, quercetin, caffeic acid
Parsley
Capsaicin,tocopherol,lutein,carotene, capsanthin, quercetin, ascorbic acid
Red pepper
Carnosol, rosmanol, geraniol, pinene, limonene, apigenin, naringin, luteolin, rosmarinic,
rosemary vanillic, ursolic, caffeic acid
Geraniol, pinene, lomonene, carnosol, saponin, catechins, apigenin, luteolin, rosmarinic

Sage acid,carnosine,vanillic,caffeic acid
Nutmeg Catechins, lignans, myricetin, orgentin, caffeic acid

Eugenol, isoeugenol, acetyleugenol, sesquiterpene, pinene, vanillin, gallic acid,
Clove
flavonoids, phenolic acids.
Eugenol, limonene, terpineol, catechins, proanthocyanidins, tannins,
Cinnamon linalool, safrole, pinene, methyleugenol, benzaldehyde
Limonene,1,8-cineole,terpinolene, myrcene, caffeic acid, quercetin, kaempferol,luteolin,

Cardamom
pelargonidin
Linalool, borneol, geraniol, terpineol, cumene, pinene, terpinene, quercetin, kaempferol,
Coriander caffeic, ferulic, ncoumaric and vanillic acids, rutin, tocopherols, pyrogallol
57
Crocin (water soluble carotenoids), safranal, flavonoids, gallic, caffeic, ferulic, syringic,n-
Saffron catechuic salicylic and vanillic acids
Curcumins, essential oils, eugenol, carotene, ascorbic acid, caffeic, protocatechuic,

Turmeric syringic, vanillic acid, pcoumari.
Gingerol, turmeric, paradol, geraniol, geranial, borneol, linalool,camphene, zingerol,

Ginger
zingiberon
Fenugreek Sesquiterpenes, aromatic aldehydes, terpenes
Piperine, pinene, camphene, limonene, terpenes, piperidine, isoquercetin, sarmentine

Black pepper
Apigenin, quercetin, luteolin, myricetin, diosmetin, eriodictyol, carvacrol, thymol,

Oregano rosmarinic, caffeic, protocatechuic acid, p-coumaric
Quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, catechins, isorhamnetin, carvone,

Dill
limonene.
Allicin, diallyl sulphide, diallyl disulphide, diallyl trisulfide, allyl isothiocyanate, S-allyl
Garlic
cysteine.
There are two main phenolics in spices flavonoids and phenolic acids. Those two contribute to the antioxidant
activities. flavonoids commonly occur as glycosylated derivatives with apigenin and luteolin are generally found in
aromatic herbs such as parsley, rosemary, thyme, quercetin and kaempferol in onion. The antioxidant activities of
phenolic compounds are mainly because of their redox properties (absorbing and neutralizing free radicals)
flavonoids has multiple hydroxyl groups. So, it has higher antioxidant activities against peroxyl radicals than
phenolic acids.
5.4. Sensory properties

Spices are substances which use for enhance the flavour, appearance of the food product by either in their dried or
whole form. Most of the spices occur as its dried form when herbs remain in its fresh form. However, whole spices
release their flavour compounds too slowly than their grounded form due to rapture cells during milling. All spices
are parts of the plant but each of them has its unique part when its usage. So due to contained essential oils, oleoresins
and other phytochemicals spices give a wide range of tastes, aromas, pungency and colour [338]. Essential oil
responsible for flavour. The flavouring compounds of spices consists of alcohol, aldehyde, esters, terpenes, phenols,
organic acids, flavonoids and other compounds. Seasonings involve enhancing the flavour of food directly. So,
most of the time one or mixture of spices are acting as seasonings. Either during preparation or before preparation
it can introduce seasonings to increase the palatability and acceptance. Occasionally, spices are acting as colouring
materials in some foods. Ginger used as a tenderizing agent of meat. Spices act as natural healthy alternatives to
salt and chemical additives. It is important to select appropriate spice individually or mixture wise for the proper
outcome of food. Not only enhancing the properties, they also used as a mask for unpleasant taste, odors of food
[339].
Black pepper.
Prominent spice of the whole world and consider as the king of spices world.
58
There are three major flavour compounds those are, Piperine, s-3-carene, β- caryophyllene likewise. It gives biting,
hot and pungent flavour to the food by acting as a good seasoning agent. Piperine is the main constituent which
responsible for pungency while essential oil brings aroma and flavour. Black pepper has flavouring, preservative
and medicinal properties. Black pepper is better for dishes of meat, eggs and seafood and acting as a multifunctional
spice and contributing the flavour, colour and overall acceptance of the food.
Chili
Capsanthin is the pigment responsible for red colour and contain in all capsicum. Capsaicin is the compound which
gives the pungency. Other than that, dihydro capsaicin gives the unique flavour to the chilli. Chilli uses to enhance
the pungent flavour and colour of foods.
Cardamom
Named as the queen of spices world. there are two types of cardamom such as small and large cardamom. α- terpinyl
acetate, 1-8 cineole, linalool are compounds which help for giving the flavour. Cardamom use for enhancing the
flavour and consumer acceptance of meat, soups and confectionery items.
Cinnamon
Often use as a seasoning agent for meat and fast foods and use for culinary purposes. Use as either ground form or
pieces of bark. Use for culinary purposes preparation of pickle. Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol responsible for the
flavour.
Clove
It contains eugenol and eugenol acetate and it give flavour as well as aroma. Clove is a spice which has strong aroma
and pungency. Both those two involves constructing the spicy taste of clove. Generally, clove use for domestic
culinary uses and in processed meat industry use grounded form of clove. Especially in the processed meat industry
clove use to reduce unpleasant odour and flavour by increasing customer acceptability and palatability.
Coriander
Both leaves and seeds are used and have a mild spicy and sweet flavour. That unique flavour comes from d-linalool,
C10-C14 alkenals which is in coriander. This is an essential component of curry powder. Asians are widely use and
prefer to consume this spice. Popular as pickling spice and seasoning agent of meat products.
Cumin
Cuminaldehyde, p-1,3-mentha-denial are the flavour compounds which gives the characteristic flavour of cumin.
Use to make curry powder and use to make marinates for various kind of meats. Other than that, it helps to enhance
flavour and the overall acceptability of foods.
Turmeric
Use as a colourant and curcumin help to get that unique yellow colour. Use for domestic culinary purposes. Enhance
the appearance of food by acting as a disinfectant agent.
59
Garlic
Allicin is the major component of garlic and it gives the pungent flavour too. It improves the taste and aroma of
food. Mainly use for the preparation of meat and, fish soups. Use as a seasoning agent too.
Ginger
Important spice due to its characteristic aroma and pungency. Gingerol, shogaol, neral, geranial compounds give
the flavour of ginger, increase the organoleptic properties of food and improve the pleasant aroma. Ginger is a major
spice due to its refreshing flavour and aroma and uses for culinary purposes. In addition to that ginger helps to
improve the tenderness of meat due to ginger contained proteolytically active principle named zingibain.
Onion
Commonly used for culinary uses both in industrially and domestically. Unique aroma and pungency give due to
the presence of volatile compounds.
Chapter-06 Value Addition
Value addition means the maximum realization of the process of the product through processing, packaging and
marketing. Value addition is essential for the modern competitive world. The original product will be transformed
into a more valuable form by value addition. Consumers pay higher prices willingly for value-added products when
they fulfil their satisfaction. It can be done by farmers, suppliers, processors or distributors [340]. The basic
information related to value added products are given in the Table 10.
Table 10. Value added products

Spice Value added products
60
Black pepper Sterilized black pepper, ground black pepper, cryoground black-pepper powder, pepper
oil and oleoresin, white pepper powder, pepper in brine, frozen green pepper, dehydrated
pepper, green pepper pickle, green pepper sauce, pepper mayonnaise, pepper cookies,
pepper tofu
Ginger Ginger powder, Ginger oil, Ginger oleoresins, Salted ginger, Wines.
Cardamom Seed powder, Cardamom volatile oil, Cardamom oleoresin, Bleached cardamom,
Cardamom tea, coffee, soft drink mix.
Turmeric Turmeric powder, Turmeric oil, Turmeric oleoresin, curcuminoids, Natural pigments.
Chili Chili powder, Paste, Oil, Oleoresin, Dehydrated chili, Canned chili, Brined chili, pickled
chili and fermented chili
Cinnamon Bark/leaf Oil, Oleoresins, Powder, essence
Nutmeg and mace Oil, Oleoresins, Powder, Nutmeg butter, Pickle, Candy
Seed spices Ground spices, Curry powder
Paprika Colour, Paprika flavor
After extracting the oils and oleoresins, the spent spices also can be used for other productions by value addition as
they contain a very high amount of nutrients in them especially including dietary fiber, vitamins and minerals (Table
11).
Table 11. Value added products
Spice Composition Product
Spent cumin Dietary fiber 62.1%, zinc 6.5 mg/100 g iron 6.0 protein supplements, [341]
mg/100 g
Spent chili Dietary fiber 44.4%, insoluble dietary fiber 34.9%, Used as an egg yolk coloring agent
soluble dietary fiber of 9.5%, protein by incorporating spent chili in
(19.7%) leghorn layers.[342]
61
Spent ginger Crude fiber 21.9%, Potassium Starch with high gelatinization
0.98ppm, Calcium 0.68ppm, property, Bio ethanol, Production of
(white type) Phosphorus 0.42ppm polyurethane green composites,
[343], [344], [345], [351]
Spent turmeric Dietary fiber (45%), insoluble fiber 43%, soluble Starch, bio films for packaging,
fiber 2% [346], [347]
Spent clove Carbohydrate 51.3%, fat 16.6%, fiber 11.5%, Can be used as a source of fiber,
protein 6.9%, and ash content 6% protein and mineral. [348]
Spent celery Dietary fiber, protein enriched

biscuit [349]
Spent coriander Dietary fiber - 51.7%, Mineralscalcium (4013 Can be incorporated in the flour for
ppm), potassium (4151 ppm), iron (124 ppm), zinc bread preparation [350]
(19.7 ppm), and manganese (34.7 ppm)
6.1. Importance of value-added products

• Preservation
Even though spices containing a considerable amount of anti-microbial and anti-oxidant compounds, they still can
be deteriorated if not properly processed and value-added. Especially, removal of moisture, pathogenic and toxic
microbes is essential to preserve a spice. Preservation can be achieved by drying (to remove excess water) and
application of different treatments (to reduce microbial content) like ethylene oxide treatment, fumigation,
irradiation, steam treatments, high hydrostatic pressure method and also by proper packaging the product can be
preserved for a considerable period.
• Safety
Pathogenic and toxic microbes can grow in spices which may cause serious health issues. By value addition, they
will be controlled and destroyed.Eg: Salmonella, E.coli, Aspergillus which is responsible for the aflatoxin
production.
62
• Convenience
Value addition facilitates easy handling, storing, transportation and most of all it is easier to use a value-added
product rather than a raw product. Due to the packaging, there will be different quantities separately packed, so the
required quantity can be easily collected without any quantitative losses.
• Consumer acceptance
As it increases the continence, appearance and shelf life, it attracts the consumer. Also, when presenting even the
same spice in different valueadded products, people tend to buy them.
• Increase the profit

When the buying rate goes up, the profit will also go up eventually.
• To reduce waste
At some seasons the production of some spices is high. So, there will be a surplus. If this is not managed well it will
be wasted. Value addition helps to preserve and it converts the product into different forms that can be used in other
seasons and also will be able to export.
• Facilitates exports
By enhancing the shelf life, properly packing and by marketing the export market will be opened.
6.2. Methods of value addition

There are several methods available for value additions of the spices.
6.2.1.Extending the shelf life

Even though spices contain a lot of anti-microbial and anti-oxidant compounds, they still get spoiled and deteriorate
after a certain period as each spice is not resistant to all types of microbes and oxidation [352].
Eg:Fusarium proliferatum (36%), Penicillium sp. (20%), Rhizopus oryzae (11%), Aspergillus niger(33%) involve
for onion spoilage although it has anti-microbial properties against Aspergillus, fumigatus, Candida albicans and
Aspergillus flavus like fungus.
So, spices should also be properly preserved to reduce the losses, consume in off seasons and for the export
purposes.
6.2.1.1. Freezing
Freezing is one of the easiest methods that can be followed to preserve spices. The danger zone is the temperature
range that has the highest microbial activity and it is known as 7.2 °C - 60 °C. This temperature should be avoided
either by increasing or decreasing the temperature. Freezing will reduce the temperature below the lower range of
the danger zone and reduce the microbial growth and activities but it will not destroy microbes. Generally, the
freezing temperature is known as bellow -18 °C [353].
The water activity is the other main factor that should be reduced in order to preserve any kind of food including
spices and herbs as free water is essential for the spoilage reactions and activities like microbial spoilage, enzymatic
spoilage (rancidity, discolouration and etc.).Water activity and moisture content are two different factors and they
are not equal. Water activity is only the free water content and the moisture content includes the bound water content
which is not responsible for any spoilage activity as they are tightly bound to the internal proteins and other
molecules. So, managing the water activity is important. (when the water activity decreased, the moisture content
63
will also eventually be decreased as water activity is a part of it). By freezing the free water will be solidified and
thereby the water activity will be reduced. So, it will be preserved to some extent.
The initial investment is high as this method required freezing facilities during the transportation, storing and
marketing steps [354]. Also, choosing a proper packaging material is essential for frozen products. It should be a
good barrier for moisture and vapour evaporation should be easy to seal and should not form cracks at low
temperatures.
6.2.1.2. Drying and dehydration

Drying is the most common preservation method for spices and herbs. The main target of this process is to preserve
the raw materials by removing the excess water. Thereby the water activity will be reduced. Water activity is
essential for microbial growth and undesirable enzymatic activities. So, by reducing the water activity, the spices
can be kept for a longer time. Other than that, microbial content will also be reduced due to the high temperature
incorporated to remove the moisture.
There are different types of drying methods used to dry spices including sun drying, hot air drying, microwave
drying, vacuum drying, freeze-drying and etc. The time/temperature required for each method is different
Choosing a drying method with a good time/temperature combination is important as this combination influences
the product quality directly.
• Sun drying
Sun-drying is the oldest and easiest drying method and it is inexpensive as it uses natural sources for the drying
process. But the drawbacks are, there is a high risk of contamination, the conditions cannot be regulated as we want,
time-consuming, high labour cost, only can apply in the day time and cannot apply in every season.
• Hot air drying

Known as a conventional method and hot air is circulated to remove the surface moisture. Mainly by using
convection, heat is transferred to the surface of the raw material and that heat will be conduct into the material. This
heat will evaporate the moisture.
• Microwave drying
Microwave drying is also known as dielectric heating. It is less time and energy-consuming method and it uniformly
dries the raw materials. Normally, 0.3 GHz- 3 GHz frequencies are used for the process. In this method, heat is
generating inside the raw materials so the heating is volumetric (inside to out). Microwave can be combined with
other drying methods like hot air drying, vacuum drying and etc. get a better-quality product [355].
Moisture content is important in this method as the microwave radiations will be absorbed mainly to the water in
the material and these water molecules will move/rotate rapidly due to this energy difference as water molecules
have a positive and negative charge ends and when they try to align with the microwave electrified, they will rotate
fast. A considerable amount of heat will generate due to the friction occurred by the rotation. This heat helps to
evaporate excess water [356].
• Vacuum drying
This method also gives a good quality dried product as it doesn’t require a high -temperature to remove excess
moisture from the raw materials.The temperature and pressure are the most important factors for the drying process.
When the temperature is increased, the drying rate will also be increased. But high levels of temperature will
deteriorate the product by destroying the essential heat-sensitive compounds. So, drying can be obtained at a safe
temperature level by managing the other factor (pressure) [357].
By creating a vacuum, the surrounding pressure will be reduced and the pressure inside the raw material will be
higher than the outer pressure. So, there will be a pressure gradient. This pressure difference pulls out the moisture
64
from the high-pressure zone (inside the food) to the low-pressure zone (surrounding). Thereby the excess moisture
will be reduced at ambient or slightly elevated temperatures.
• Freeze drying
Freeze drying also gives a high-quality product with minimal organoleptic changes compared with the other methods
as it uses very low-temperature levels. It dehydrates the product at a very low temperature by the sublimation of
solidified water (solidified water will directly be vaporized without passing the liquid phase). Microbial activities
will be reduced due to the absence of liquid water. This method will not make a huge difference in the primary
structure, shape and the volume of the raw materials as well as the thermally sensitive compounds. But the
disadvantage is, this method is the most expensive among all the dehydrating methods therefore it is not widely in
the food industry [358].
6.2.1.3. Fumigation
Ethylene Oxide is most commonly used for this process. Carbon dioxide is commonly used to dilute Ethylene oxide.
It acts as a fumigant, sterilizing agent, disinfectant and insecticidal agent. It eliminates microbes including yeast,
mould, bacteria (salmonella, E.coli, coliforms) and other undesirable micro-organisms and pests. Laphygma exigua,
Pseudococcidae, Geometridae,Thrips, Acari are some pests which are commonly affecting. [359]. The main benefit
of this method is, it preserves the appearance and flavour of the spice which is very important as it has a very low
impact on them. A small amount of volatile compounds can be lost as this method uses a low pressure in order to
remove ethylene oxide [360].
The major disadvantage is ethylene oxide can form Ethylene chlorohydrin and ethylene bromohydrin by reacting
with the compounds in spices. These forming products are not safe and specially chlorohydrin is known as a
carcinogen. So, some countries like Japan, European countries have banned the usage of ethylene oxide.Apart from
ethylene oxide, Methyl bromide (32/m3 for 24-48 hours) and aluminum phosphide (3-6 g/m3 for 7 days) are also
used for this purpose.
6.2.1.4. Irradiation
This method is also used for the decontamination purpose. Gamma rays (most common), Electron beam and X-rays
are effectively using for this method. Should not exceed the recommended dose of 3-10 kGy as safety issues may
occur. This method is energy efficient, effective [361]. It allows decontaminating dried aromatic spices, herbs and
other vegetable seasonings as well. To avoid re-contamination products to be treated should pre-packed. However,
there is an issue of the consumer acceptance of irradiated products.
6.2.1.5. Steam treatment

Suitable for whole spices before grinding. Steam with a high temperature is used to eliminate mould growth. The
moisture can be condensed on the raw materials when the temperature drops. So, this moisture should be removed.
Due to the high temperature, this method may affect the thermally sensitive compounds in spices and by that the
flavor colour of the product can be changed. Also, if the moisture is not removed properly it can accumulate and
may cause caking.
6.2.1.6. High hydrostatic pressure

A very high hydrostatic pressure helps to inactivate microbes and also water activity is very important in this method
as if the water activity is below 0.66 there will be no reduction of microbial content. Normally 100 – 1000 Mpa is
used for this.
65
6.2.2. Polishing
Polishing is done to improve the outer appearance of dried spices like ginger and turmeric by removing the wrinkles
on the surface. Traditionally the dried spices were rubbed on a hard surface and now there are power operated
polishers for the purpose.
6.2.3. Milling
Milling means reducing the particle size of the raw material. Spices are different plant parts including barks,
rhizomes, seeds, roots etc. Spices can be incorporated as it is but they have a small surface area. The compounds in
spices are responsible for the nutritional, medicinal, sensory, preservation properties. So, milling process is essential
to facilitate incorporation of those compounds with another product well and to enhance its texture.
Milling is done by breaking the internal bonds between particles and it required a force. Shear, compression and
impact forces are used individually or as a combination for this purpose.
The main importance of milling are,

• Increase the convenience,
• Increase the mixing efficiency and uniformity by giving very small particles,
• Facilitate further processing like heat transfer treatments, oil/oleoresin extraction and etc.
In traditional milling, there is a major disadvantage due to heat generation. This heat generation mainly occurs due
to friction. High levels of temperature are not suitable as it destroys the thermally sensitive compounds in spices
and thereby affect the colour, aroma, taste like sensory properties as well as the medicinal and nutritional properties
in spices. Normally, it increases the temperature up to 43-95 °C [362].
Shifting towards cryogenic milling is a great solution for this. This method uses refrigerants like liquid nitrogen at
-196.6 °C,Carbon dioxide (CO2), Dichlorodifluoromethane (freon-12), Xenon krypton, Neon which are having a
very low temperature to reduce the temperature of the raw materials. By reducing the temperature they will be able
to absorb more heat without making any harm to the thermally sensitive compounds [363].
Eg: When the temperature is reduced down to -30 °C, and the heat generation due to the friction may cause rising
of the temperature in 30 °C, still the raw material will have 0°C. So, this temperature is safe for the thermally
sensitive compounds and they will be preserved. So, by that, the moisture losses, volatile oil losses, damages to the
chemical composition, oxidation will be reduced.
Apart from that there are many more other advantages of the cryomilling over the traditional milling such as, milling
efficiency and production rate is high (Due to Fast freezing cause internal cracks due to the stress and spices with
high amount of fats will be solidified and avoid melting and sticking on the surface), Low energy consumption,
gives finer particles and Suitable for materials which are more prone to ignite [364].
Grounded spice products are more convenient to use but they are more susceptible for the spoilage, oxidation,
flavor/colour/aroma losses. So, proper handling, packaging and other preservation techniques should be followed
after milling.
Eg: Chili powder, turmeric powder, pepper powder, cumin powder, coriander powder, Culinary powders such as
rasam powder, Masala blends such as Garama masala and Meat masala, Seasonings like green chili masala, noodles
tastemakers, mint powder and etc.
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6.2.4. Extraction of oil and oleoresins
Most popular oil and oleoresin extraction methods are steam distillation, Solvent extraction/ Hydrocarbon
extraction, Super critical carbon dioxide extraction and Enzymatic treatments.
Essential oil
Essential oils are responsible for the aromatic characteristics of a spice and they are a mixture of volatile compounds.
Essential oils are 75-100 times concentrated with the flavor producing compounds than in raw spices (Table 12).
Table 12. Spices and Essential Oil content

Spice Essential oil content Reference
Black pepper 2–3% [365]
Ginger (1.8 %) [366], [367]
Cardamom 11% [368]
Cinnamon Bark-2.8% [369]
Buds-15–20% , leaf- 3.0– [370]

4.8%
fruit- 2.0%, stem- 6%
Clove
Coriander 1–3% [371, 372, 373, 374]
Cumin 2.3–5% [371, 373]
Dill 1–8% [372, 373, 375]
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Garlic 0.1–0.4% [375]
Turmeric 3-5% [374]
Mustard 1.7% [377]
Nutmeg 16% [372]
Fennel 6% [376]
Fenugreek 0.2–0.3% [378]
Saffron 0.4–1.5% [371]
Oleoresin
Oleoresin is made of oil and resins. It can be in liquid, semi-solid or solid form. They are extracted by the solvent
extraction method. An oleoresin contains different compounds including essential oil, pigments, fixed oils, natural
anti-oxidants, pungent constituents and etc.
The quality of the oleoresins is based on raw material quality. Oleoresins are mainly used for flavoring and many
of them contain natural anti-oxidants. But it can be hard to handle as it is very concentrated. Also, the flavour profile
depends on the solvent used for the extraction.
Oleoresins can be extracted by grounded fresh spices or by the residual part after the essential oil extraction. The
strength of the flavor and the yield of the oleoresin extracted can be varied with the cultivars, maturity and quality
of the raw material, chosen solvent (alcohol/ acetone/ ethylene dichloride) and the method of extraction.
Major considerations of oleoresin extraction:
68
o Raw material selection o Milling and obtaining suitable size particles o Solvent
selection o Extraction type o Miscella distillation o Blending
The important parameters of the Oleoresins are given in the Table 13.
Table 13. Oleoresins

Spice Conten Characteristics of the Importance Refer
t oleoresin ence
Black Thick/Viscous, green Anti-oxidant, [379]

pepper 6–13% colour liquid, Antiinflammatory,
Pungent flavor Antimicrobial.
Ginger 6.5 % Dark brown, visous liquid Anti-inflammatory, anti- [380]

which oxidant, antithrombosis.
contain 20-25% volatile
oil. Good for memory
disorders, coughing and
Gingerol and sogaol are
hyperlipidemia.
main constituents.
Capsicu m Viscous liquid oil which Good for muscle or joint

11.5 to has bright red colour with pains which caused stain,
16.5% typical pepper aroma. sprains, arthritis, bruising
or
backache. Heal the nerve
pain
69
Cardam om Dark brown oleoresin is a antibacterial and [381]
yellow liquid antifungal properties.
with a sweet spicy, warming
fragrance. Treatment for fever,
digestive and urinary
disorders.
Cinnam on Dark reddish brown powder Provide strong antioxidant [382]

10–12% support,
control blood sugar level.
Exhibit
antifungal and antibacterial
property.
Clove 22–31% Extremely concentrated Shown antiseptic, antibiotic [383]

product which has more and
flavoring ingredient. antiviral property.
Enhancing oral health.
Use as a treatment for

arthritis,
asthma, acnes and pains.
Coriand er 1.5% Brownish-yellow Natural anti-oxidant and [384]

liquid pigment.
Turmeri orange-red in color. Use as a flavoring and

c 7–15% Contain an oily layer at the top coloring agent
and
crystalline layer at the bottom. Reduce blood glucose level,
abdominal fat mass.
70
Nutmeg Yellow- reddish brown viscous coloring and [383]
18 to liquid which has spicy odor flavoring agent in the food
26% industry
(extracte d
with use as a treatment for kidney
and digestive problems.
ethanol)
31–37%
( nzene)
6.2.4.1. Conventional steam distillation

This is the most popular method for essential oil extraction since the 1980s [385]. Most of the substances to be
extracted have very high boiling points between like 200 °C to 300 °C. This process helps to extract those
compounds at 100 °C (water boiling point) with the help of steam at normal atmospheric pressure [386].
Either dried or fresh plant materials can be used in this method and they should be tightly compacted inside the
extraction chamber. Steam generated by a boiler and supplied from the bottom of this extraction vessel through the
perforated bottom to travel upward. Steam extracts the volatile compounds from the plant material and carry them
to the condenser. The condenser liquefies the steam and gaseous compounds into water and oil. In the separator, the
oil will come to the top due to the density difference and it can be easily collected at this stage.
Time-temperature and pressure are the most important factors affecting the final quality of the extract. Normally
93% of the essential oil content can be extracted by this method and the residual can be further extracted by using
other methods [387, 388].
6.2.4.2. Solvent extraction

The Soxhlet extraction method is used for solvent extraction. It is comparatively a cheap and simple technique. The
most important part of this method is the selection of the most suitable solvent because it required different solvents
to extract different compounds based on their characteristics. Hexane is the most common solvent used due to the
low boiling point and it is soluble in most of the oils. But the major drawback it is hazardous. Apart from hexane,
ethanol, hydrocarbons, isopropanol is used as alternative solvents. To increase the extraction yield and kinetics,
hexane and iso-propanol like a mixture of solvents can be used [389, 390, 391].
6.2.4.3. Super critical carbon dioxide extraction

Super critical carbon dioxide is a novel method of extracting oil. It overcomes most of the issues related to the
solvent extraction method such as losses of volatile compounds, low extraction efficiency and toxic effect.
Therefore, it is safe for food and pharmaceutical industries [392]. It is an interesting method as it uses processed
which is having both solvent and gas properties and it doesn’t have any greenhouse effect. There are so many
advantages of using supercritical CO2 as it is non-toxic, low-cost, environment-friendly, non-flammable and inert.
Also, the loss of volatile compounds is low due to the low process temperature. It extracts non-polar or few polar,
low molecular weight compounds and to extract polar, high molecular weight compounds pressure can be increased
and adding a little amount of polar solvents can be used as a co-solvent. This process consists of two main steps as
extraction and separation. The separation step either can be done by modifying the thermodynamic conditions
(Temperature, pressure) or by using external adsorption/ absorption agents [393].
71
6.2.4.4. Microwave-assisted extraction method (MAE)
MAE is a rapid, simple extraction method which is having benefits over the solvent extraction method. For this
method, a solvent and electromagnetic radiations with frequencies between 300 MHz- 300 GHz are used. To extract
polar compounds hexane is used and for non-polar compounds, methanol or methanol mixed with water is used.
During this process, the cell membranes of the plant cell will be swelled and ruptured due to the microwave effect
as moisture contains in the plant material absorbs the energy and evaporates. This will increase the pressure on the
cell wall and rupture the cell as membrane and release the constituents to the solvent [394]. Additionally, this method
required a filtration or centrifugation step to separate the residuals. There are both open and closed vessels for the
MAE method. Close vessels are used to extract the compounds at high temperatures and pressure and open vessel
are used for the extraction at ambient conditions [395, 396].
6.2.4.5. Ultrasonic assisted extraction method (UAE)

UAE method is an energy-efficient, fast extraction method with a higher extraction yield. Uses ultra-sonic waves
which are having frequencies above the audible range (20 kHz) and bellow microwave frequencies (10 MHz). These
waves are responsible for the fluctuation of the pressure by creating cycles with rarefactions and compression
respectively. This process creates bubbles, grow bubbles and move bubbles. These fast-moving bubbles will
collapse with the plant material and damage the cell wall to facilitate the extraction [397, 398].
6.2.4.6. Soxtec method

Soxtec method is developed by improving the Soxhlet extraction method and uses the same principle. This method
reduces the amount of solvent required and increase efficiency by introducing two stages as boiling and rinsing
[399]. After the extraction, the evaporation step should be carried out to separate the extracted compounds and the
solvent. The extraction efficiency of the novel technique is accelerated by totally immersing the raw materials in
the boiling solvent and that is the main difference between Soxhlet and Soxtec methods.
Heat is supplied at the boiling stage when the thimble which contains the plant materials is directly immersed in
the solvent. Imminently after the boiling stage thimble will be held above the solvent surface when the rinsing step
begins in order to drip down the residual solvent. Proper rinsing stage is essential to ensure complete extraction.
After that, the solvent should be boiled and evaporated. This solvent can be used again by condensing [400]. Should
avoid excess heating during the evaporation stage as it can oxidize the extracted compounds, make erroneous
readings and cause weight changes.
6.2.5. Enzymatic treatments and fermentation

This is an environmentally friendly method which is used to enhance the extraction yield without changing the
physical and chemical characteristics of the constituents [401]. The oil extraction is facilitated by using enzymes
which destruct the cell wall and membrane. The plant cell wall is made of cellulose, hemicellulose and polymers
and they act as a barrier to extract the internal constituents. Enzymes like cellulase, hemicelluloses brakes cellulose
and hemicellulose into small fractions [402]. Main advantages of this method are, this process required mild
conditions, saves energy and increase the yield.
It is found that the extraction yield of ginger and garlic essential oils have been increased by 50% by using this
method. Also, studies show that the essential oil yield of black pepper was increased from 0.9 to 1.8%, cardamom
from 1.9 to 2.5% [403, 304].
72
6.3. Packaging
Packaging plays a very important role in preserving the product as well as to maintain the quality and safety of the
product. If the product is not packed properly the composition of the compounds which are responsible for the
aromatic and flavor properties can be changed undesirably and that will be a serious issue, especially for spices and
herbs.
Importance of packaging:
• Avoid the loss of aroma and flavor

• Preserve the colour
• Avoid product leaking, splitting to the environment (Reduce quantitative losses)
• Avoid oxidation and other unfavorable reactions • Act as a barrier to the external deteriorating factors
• Avoid microbial spoilage.
• Protects from insects and rodents.
• Enhance the convenience
• Provide a uniform measure of the contents.
• Acts as a communication medium by displaying the brand, labeling, nutrition special features and standards.
• Promote and influence to by the product
6.3.1. Selection of a suitable packaging material

There is a vast amount of different packaging materials which have different properties. So, selecting the most
suitable packaging material which fulfills the requirements is directly influencing the product quality, storage
capability and duration because different spices and products are having different properties.
Disadvantages of poor packaging o Flavour and aroma losses
Mainly can happen by evaporating the volatile compounds due to the high temperature.
o Colour bleaching
73
This happens specially in spices which contain natural pigments like paprika, turmeric, saffron, red chilies
and etc. Colour loss occurs mainly due to the oxidation and it is directly accelerated by environment factors
like light, temperature and humidity.
o Moisture absorption
Specially powders like free-flowing materials will be soggy and also caking can be observed if the packaging
material is not a proper moisture barrier. Also, this moisture absorption will accelerate the oxidation,
microbial spoilage and insect attacks.
o Insect attacks and infections

Insect contaminations can be occurred in any stage of processing but the risk is high at the storage. It is
important to get non-infected products for packaging. There after by using a proper packaging material, the
insect penetration can be controlled.
o Microbial storage
Can occur when the moisture content is high, temperature is maintaining at the danger zone (specially the
room temperature) and also due to the non-hygienic practices.
Requirements of a packaging material for spices o Should have an enough strength to hold
materials o Should avoid spillage
o Should protect the contents from microbes and insects o Should be a good barrier for environmental factors
like temperature, light, humidity and oxygen.
o Should be a good aroma and flavor barrier to avoid aroma losses and any gains of undesirable foreign odors
o Should be a good oil/fat resistance as most of the spices contain high amount of oil.
o Should not react with the product or mix with the product o Should be attractive and convenient to handle
o Should be economical, available o Better if the packaging material is environment friendly, reusable and
recyclable.
6.3.2. Different spice product packaging

Whole spices
• Bulk packaging:
Whole spices will have a lower risk of oxidation, loss of volatile compounds and sensory properties as the surface
area is lower when compared with other disintegrated spices. The major consideration is preventing the penetration
of insects and pests. Other than that, it is better if the packaging is also a good barrier to moisture to avoid any
moisture uptakes and infections. Polythene lined bags have the ability to fulfil this requirement.
Packages- Gunny bags, A twill bags, B twill bags, Multiwall paper sacks, cotton bags, Polythene lined jute bags,
HDPE/PP woven sacks
74
• Unit packaging:
Even though the whole spices are mostly bought in loose, mostly in cities packed whole spices is a requirement.
Especially people used to buy branded spices and they are identified by the package. Spices are commonly packed
in 50g – 1kg units. Consumer preference is considered when choosing packaging materials.
Eg: Polyolefin pouches, PET/PE laminated packages, Aluminium foil laminated packages (Good barrier for light),
Glass bottles
Spice powders
Powdered spices should be properly packed because they have lost their natural protective barriers like cell
membranes, cell walls due to the milling process. So, the compounds which are responsible for flavour and aroma
like sensory properties can be easily lost and also due to the high surface area, these products are more prone to
oxidation, moisture pickups and other undesirable reactions. Also, they can be easily spilt out.
• Bulk packages
Most commonly bulk spice powders are required by the industries and also for wholesales.
Packages: Multiwall paper bags, Glass containers, Metal containers, lined textile sacks.
• Unit packages
Packages: PET containers, PET-G co polymer containers, Glass containers, metal containers, polyolefin pouches,
Al foil laminated pouches, Metalized polyester pouches.
It is found that Aluminium foil laminated, double pouch of glassine and LDPE packages provided good protection
for turmeric powder as there were no significant changes in the quality for six months.
Oleoresins and volatile oils:

They should be packed in sealed containers as they are concentrated with very sensitive and volatile compounds
that can be destroyed easily. They should be packed in a proper moisture, light, heat and oxygen barrier as they are
very sensitive for the oxidation reaction due to the high-fat content. The container should also be a proper
greaseproof material.
Packages: Glass bottles, Aluminium containers, HDPE containers and etc
6.3.3. Packaging methods

Vacuum packaging and modified atmosphere packaging methods are preferable for spices. It is found that these
packaging methods help to retain most of the properties of spices for a longer time than normal atmospheric
packaging as in vacuum packaging it removes all the air inside and in modified atmosphere packaging it replaces
the air in the headspace with a sterilized neutral air like nitrogen. Normal atmospheric air may contain contaminants,
microbes as well as oxygen which is undesirable for the product shelf life.
The flavour of savoury (Satureja hortensis L.) packed in polyethylenealuminium-polyethylene bags by using
vacuum packaging and modified atmosphere by using 100% nitrogen methods was preserved for 9 months of
storage better than the savoury packed in glass jars. Also, the odour and taste of dill (Anethum graveolens L.) were
preserved in a vacuum package better than in glass jars and paper bags for 1 year [405, 406].
6.4. Important areas to consider in order to improve the value-added
productions of spices
• Supply good quality planting materials to the cultivators as the quality of the planting material is the initial
factor which affects the quality of the final product. No matter how effectively we try to add value to the product,
if the planting material is poor quality, the quality of the end product will also be poor.
75
• Improve the technical skills of farmers will also affect to improve the value-added products. Should improve
the knowledge of farmers about the latest skills and technologies required to optimize the cultivation, management
and processing. They should be advised to follow the proper GAP, GMP practices.
• Reduce the residual toxic chemicals in the final product. Toxic compounds can be accumulating in raw
materials in the field due to the application of different chemicals in order to manage pests, increase the production
and etc. Promoting organic practices can reduce this to a considerable level. Especially, reducing the residual toxic
compounds is very important to reduce the health issues as well as for exporting, as many developed countries are
concerning about this.
• Following proper post-harvest practices will reduce the quality and quantity losses. Any practice which will
be followed after harvesting is considered as post-harvest practices and they can be storage, drying, sorting, grading,
milling, packing and etc. If they are not carried out in the proper manner it affects the end product quality and safety.
Eg: If chilli is not dried properly, the fungus can be grown. Also, If the storage conditions are not managed properly
it accelerates the microbial and rodent attacks.
• Improve harmless preservation methods. Addition of chemicals is not safe at all. Therefore, shifting into other
preservation methods and use those methods individually or as a combination effectively should be done to improve
the value addition. Steam sterilization
• Improve packaging to enhance the shelf life of the product and also it helps to attract consumers. Should choose
a package which will act as a good barrier to external factors. It also should not be reacting with the product and it
should be facilitating the handling.
• Ensure the safety is also a must. There can be so many physical, chemical microbial hazardous compounds
incorporated with a value-added product. So, to avoid the harmful effects of them, the products should be properly
tested before the distribution.
Improve storage conditions
Some of the value-added products like powdered spices are more susceptible to the spoilage as the surface area have
been increased. So, they should be stored in proper conditions to avoid any harmful losses. The storage facilities
should be improved and the temperature, humidity, light conditions should be properly maintained and regulate
during the storage period. It is recommended to store spices in a cool, dry, hygienic place.
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A STUDY REPORT ON ROLE IN

DHM for Catering and Hotel Administration

Under The Guidance Of

Mr.G.VIJAY PRAKASH M.T.M.,M PHILL.,

ORIENTAL INSTITUTE OF CATERING TECHNOLOGY&

(INCOLLOBORATION WITH ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY)

This is to certify that ‘ A STUDY REPORT ON ROLE OF SPICES AND HERBS IN

Signature Of The Guide Examiner

I am grateful to Mr. SURESH BABU.MBA.,PGDCA. Director, Oriental Institute of Catering

It is a privilege to do this project under the supervision and valuable guidance of

Place: Madurai Signature Of The Candidate

Chapter-02-Popular Spices and Herbs……………………………6

Chapter-03-Nutritional properties………………………………33 Chapter-04-Medicinal

1.2. Important compounds in spices

Table 1. Important compounds in spices

Compound Description Compound

Glutamic acid (Found in many spices like

Bitter or sweet, Diuretic, Antiseptic and Anti inflammatory

Bitter. Iridoide and Sesquiterpenes. Improve digestion.

Coumarin Anti-bacterial, Anti-coagulant. Cinnamon

Anthra quinones Bitter. Irritant and Laxative. Acts as a dye. Rhubarb

Bitter compounds. Cardiac glycoside affects the heart rate,

Gums and mucilage

Oleo-resins and Oleo-gum resins. Astringent,

Sweet. Soapy in water. Often anti-inflammatory and diuretic.

Tannins Often Astringent and Anti-septic. Vanilla, Cinnamon.

1.3. Classification of spices

Botanical fam ily Example

Zingiberaceae Ginger, Turmeric

Maton zingiberaceae Cardamom

Solanaceae Capsicum, Chili

Coriander, Cumin, Fennel, Celery,

Hyssop, Sage, Rosemary, Savory, Thyme,

Illiciaceae Star Anise

Table 3. Based on the duration of the crops

Annual (one year) Basil, Coriander, Dill

Biennial (Two years) Caraway, Parsley

Herbs (Small) Coriander, mint, oregano, caraway

Shrubs (Medium) Rosemary, Sage, Thyme

Trees (Large) Curry leaves, Pimenta

Plant Part Examples

Coriander, Pepper, Mustard, Cumin, Sesame,

Fruit Cardamom, Vanilla

Table 6. Conventional classification

Hot spices Chili, Pepper, Ginger, Mustard

Mild Paprika, Coriander

Aromatic Cardamom, Cinnamon, Dill, Clove, Mace, Cumin,

Herbs Bay leaves, Thyme, Dill leaves

Aromatic vegetables Onion, Garlic, Celery

Botanical name: Piper nigrum

Plant part: Seeds/Fruits

Major compound (Most prominent bio active compound): Piperine (2%-7.4%)

Flavor and aroma: Pungent, hot and biting to taste.

Botanical name: Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cinnamomum verum, Cinnamon Cassia

Plant part: Bark

Plant part: Flower bud

Major compound/s: Eugenol (80%-95%)

Flavor and aroma: Pungent and aromatic.

Plant part: Kernel

Major compound/s: Sabinine, Alpha- Pinene (Total 45- 77%)