UNI T

13 Corrosion of metals and

their protection
Pre-study
A pre-study worksheet by unit / sections is available
Assessment Form
An assessment form for experiments is available
for download from Jing Kung Chemistry Website. for download from Jing Kung Chemistry Website.

13.1 What is corrosion?

1 Do NOT confuse the two words: You probably have seen evidence of the corrosion of metal objects. The 1
‘corrosion’ and ‘corrosive’. surfaces of silver objects get tarnished on exposure to air (Fig. 13.1).
This is due to the formation of black silver sulphide on the surfaces
by the action of hydrogen sulphide gas present in the air.

2 Copper is more suitable than iron for Copper pipes lose their lustre after some time. This is because their 2
making water pipes because
surfaces are attacked by water moisture and carbon dioxide present in
• copper is not so easily corroded
as iron; the air, forming a green coating of copper(II) carbonate (Fig. 13.2).
• copper has a lower tendency to
lose electrons than iron.

Fig. 13.1 Surfaces of silver objects are Fig. 13.2 A green coating of copper(II)
tarnished on exposure to air carbonate is formed on
3 A metal up high in the reactivity series: copper pipes surfaces due to
• reacts vigorously with chemicals; an attack from moist carbon
• readily gives up electrons in
dioxide in air
reactions to form positive ions; and
• corrodes easily.
A metal down low in the reactivity
series:
• does not react vigorously with
chemicals;
• does not readily give up electrons
in reactions to form positive ions;
3
and
• does not corrode easily.
Iron is less reactive than magnesium.
Thus, iron corrodes less readily than
magnesium.

corrosion

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The products of corrosion can affect the strength of a metal as

well as its appearance. In extreme cases, the metal will be effectively
destroyed. The corrosion of iron is called rusting. The rusting of iron
costs society millions of dollars every year.

When iron is exposed to moist air for a long time, its surface gets
covered with a coating of a reddish brown, flaky substance called rust
(Fig. 13.3). The chemical name of rust is hydrated iron(III) oxide.

Fig. 13.3 When iron corrodes, it Rust flakes off from the surface of the iron easily and a fresh iron
reacts with oxygen (from surface is exposed. The rusting process continues until all the iron
the air) and water, to form
has corroded away.
a flaky, reddish brown
coating

Activity 13.1 13.2 Conditions for rusting to occur

You can use the experimental set-up shown in Fig. 13.4 to investigate
the conditions necessary for rusting to occur.

air air air

anhydrous layer of oil

calcium chloride
boiled distilled
cotton wool water
iron nail distilled water
air

tube A tube B tube C

Fig. 13.4 Experimental set-up to investigate the conditions necessary for rusting to
occur

Tube A contains anhydrous calcium chloride which absorbs mosture

from the air inside the tube. The iron nail is exposed to only dry air.

Tube B contains distilled water which is boiled to drive away

any dissolved oxygen. The layer of oil on the water surface prevents
oxygen from dissolving into the water. The iron nail is exposed to
only water.

The iron nail in tube C is exposed to air (oxygen) and water.

After several days, the iron nails in tubes A and B show no signs
of rusting, but the iron nail in tube C has rust on it.

The experimental results show that

4 When iron is completely immersed in

a non-aqueous solvent (e.g. hexane), 4
it does not rust.
rusting

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 111

13.3 What happens during rusting?

You will learn more about You can study what happens during rusting with the help of a rust
phenolphthalein in Topic 4 Acids indicator which is a mixture of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III)
and Bases. (K3Fe(CN)6) and phenolphthalein◀.

Place a nail in a gel containing the indicator for one or two days
(Fig. 13.5). Fig. 13.6 shows the results.

iron nail

gel
containing rust petri dish
indicator

Fig. 13.5 To observe rusting using a rust indicator Fig. 13.6 The iron nail rusts. The blue colour shows the
presence of Fe2+ ions; the pink colour shows the
presence of OH– ions

Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) reacts with iron(II) ions to give a

DSE 2012 Paper 1B Q9(a) blue product, and phenolphthalein gives a pink colour in the presence
DSE 2014 Paper 1A Q21
of hydroxide ions.
DSE 2015 Paper 1A Q5

How are iron(II) ions and hydroxide ions formed?

When the iron nail rusts, some iron atoms lose electrons to form
iron(II) ions (Fig. 13.7).

Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e–

air

1 2+
O + H2O 2OH– Fe
2 2 water
rust
2e–
Fe
iron object
electron flow

Fig. 13.7 Some iron atoms lose electrons to form iron(II) ions when the iron object
rusts; hydroxide ions are formed when the electrons are gained by oxygen
molecules dissolved in water on the iron object’s surface

rust indicator

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The electrons travel through the iron and are gained by oxygen
molecules dissolved in water on the iron surface. Hydroxide ions are
formed (Fig. 13.7).
1
O2(g) + H2O(l) + 2e– 2OH–(aq)
2
The iron(II) ions and hydroxide ions react to form iron(II)
hydroxide.

Fe2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)

The number x in the chemical Iron(II) hydroxide then reacts with more oxygen and water to
formula means that variable form hydrated iron(III) oxide. This is rust and can be represented by
numbers of water molecules can the chemical formula Fe2O3•xH2O◀.
combine with one formula unit
of Fe2O3. 1
2Fe(OH)2(s) + O2(g) + xH2O(l) Fe2O3•xH2O(s) + 2H2O(l)
2
The overall change can be represented by the equation below.

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2xH2O(l) 2Fe2O3•xH2O(s)

rust

13.4 Factors that speed up the rusting

process

A number of factors can speed up the rusting process.

1 Presence of ionic substances

Water with dissolved ionic The rusting process speeds up if

substances has better electrical the water present contains ionic
conductivity. substances ◀ such as sodium
chloride. For example, ships
rust more rapidly in sea water
Activity 13.2 (Fig. 13.8) than in fresh water.

Steel car bodies rust more

rapidly in areas that use road
salt during winter to melt ice.

Fig. 13.8 A rusting ship and a

rusting anchor. Iron rusts
faster in salty water

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 113

5 Alkaline solution (for example, NaOH 2 Presence of acidic pollutants

solution) will not speed up rusting.
Actually they will inhibit rusting by
shifting the position of equilibrium of Acidic gases emitted from factories form acids with moisture in
the following reaction that happens the air. These acids attack the iron. 5
during rusting to the left.
1
O (g) + H2O(l) + 2e
2 2
–
2OH–(aq) 3 Higher temperature

At a higher temperature, chemical reactions become faster. The

rusting process becomes faster too. This is why the exhaust pipes
6 The exhaust pipes rust quickly also of cars rust quickly (Fig. 13.9). 6
because acidic gases pass through
them.

Fig. 13.9 The exhaust pipe of a car rusts quickly

4 Scratching or bending

Rusting occurs more quickly when an iron surface is scratched.

7 Regions of stress (the ends and Bent regions of a bent iron nail rust more quickly. 7
bent regions) of an iron nail release
electrons more easily to form iron(II)
ions. 5 Attachment to a less reactive metal DSE 2015 Paper 1A Q7
DSE 2019 Paper 1A Q15

8 The rusting of the iron hook below is The rusting process speeds up if iron is in contact with a less
speeded up as the hook is in contact reactive metal such as tin or copper. 8
with copper.
Worksheet Assessment Form
copper board A worksheet and an assessment form on this activity are available for download from
Jing Kung Chemistry Website.
iron hook
copper board Pr blem S lving
iron hook
The copper hook shown below does
not corrode easily as copper has a
lower tendency to lose electrons than
iron does. iron board
Problem Solving
copper hook Method
iron board • Set up two tubes each containing an iron nail.
• One nail is in rainwater and the other nail in sea water.
copper hook • Leave the tubes for the same period of time.
• Measure the amount of rusting, e.g. by observation or change in mass of the nail.
• Repeat the experiment.
Conditions for performing a fair comparison
• Use the same volume of rainwater and sea water.
• Use nails of identical shape, size and mass.

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Activity 13.3 13.5 Protecting iron from rusting

Iron and steel weakened by rust can be dangerous. It costs a lot of

money to prevent the corrosion or replace the corroded parts. Most
items made of iron or steel are protected in some way to prevent
rusting. Some common protection methods are discussed below:

• protective coating on surface;

• sacrifical protection;

• impressed current cathodic protection; and

• use of stainless steel.

Protective coating on surface

With this method, the surface of an iron or steel object is covered
with a protective coating. The coating stops the air and water from
reaching the iron underneath.
DSE 2019 Paper 1A Q15

9 Paint lasts longer if it is put on a really Coating with paint 9

clean surface. Any trace of water, oil
or rust makes the paint peel off more
easily.
Painting the metal surface is a cheap and simple protection method.
This method is commonly used for large iron and steel objects. Some
10 The frame of a bicycle can be examples are cars, ships, bridges (Fig. 13.10) and gates (Fig. 13.11). 10
protected from rusting by painting. DSE 2013 Paper 1A Q7
A disadvantage of painting is that if the paint is scratched, the
iron underneath can rust (Fig. 13.12).

Fig. 13.10 This bridge is painted to Fig. 13.11 This gate is painted to Fig. 13.12 Rusting occurs when the
protect it from rusting protect it from rusting paintwork is damaged

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 115

Coating with oil or grease

Bicycle chains and moving parts of an engine cannot be painted.
This is because they are rubbing against other pieces of metal, so the
paint will wear away. They can be oiled or greased to keep out air and
water (Fig. 13.13). Oil or grease also helps in lubrication. However,
oil or grease must be applied at suitable intervals. DSE 2013 Paper 1A Q7

Fig. 13.13 Oiling bicycle chains helps

in keeping out air and Coating with plastic
water to prevent rusting
Small iron and steel objects are often covered with a thin layer of
plastic to keep out air and water. Examples include paper clips, clothes
hangers (Fig. 13.14) and legs of garden chairs.

Tin-plating
Iron and steel objects can be protected from rusting by coating them
with tin. This is called tin-plating. 11
DSE 2016 Paper 1A Q5

Some food cans are made of steel coated with a thin layer of tin
(Fig. 13.15). Tin is less reactive than iron and does not react with
Fig. 13.14 Steel clothes hangers
air or water at room temperature. The tin layer stops air and water
coated with plastic to
keep out air and water to reaching the steel. Furthermore, tin ions are non-poisonous.
prevent rusting
There is one drawback with tin-plating. The coating is easily
11 Examination questions often test scratched to reveal the steel underneath. In such case the steel rusts 12
whether students know that ‘tin more quickly than normal (Fig. 13.16).
CANNOT prevent iron from rusting
via sacrificial protection’ as tin is DSE 2019 Paper 1B Q9(a)(i)–(ii)
less reactive than iron.

12 It is NOT advisable to buy cans of

food with scratches on the cans.

Fig. 13.15 Food cans made of steel are Fig. 13.16 A tin-plated steel can rusts
coated with tin more rapidly after being
scratched

tin-plating

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Electroplating
Electroplating is the process of coating an object with a thin layer
of a metal using electrolysis.

For example, objects such as vehicle parts and boat parts made
from steel may be plated with chromium (Fig. 13.17). The thin layer
of chromium gives a decorative finish as well as protection to the
steel underneath. This plating is not easily chipped off. However, the
Fig. 13.17 The chromium-plated rim cost of chromium plating is quite high.
of a vehicle wheel

Sacrificial protection
Sacrificial protection involves a metal which is more reactive than
iron, such as magnesium or zinc. As long as the iron or steel object
is in contact with it, the more reactive metal corrodes first — it
‘sacrifices’ itself to protect the iron or steel.
DSE 2015 Paper 1B Q3(c)

Galvanising
Iron and steel objects can be protected from rusting by coating them
with zinc. This method is called galvanising. The layer of zinc does
two things:

• It stops air and water reaching the iron or steel underneath.

• It acts as a sacrificial metal so that the object is protected, even

13 Zinc would be preferentially oxidised if the zinc layer is damaged (Fig. 13.18). 13
according to the equation:
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e–

broken surface

zinc coating

iron does not rust

Fig. 13.18 Zinc acts as a sacrificial metal so that the iron does not rust even if the
zinc layer is damaged

electroplating sacrificial protection galvanising

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 117

Objects made from galvanised iron include dustbins (Fig. 13.19),

fences and roofs of houses (Fig. 13.20). Galvanised iron is not used
DSE 2019 Paper 1B Q9(a)(iii)
for making food cans because zinc ions are poisonous.
DSE 2012 Paper 1A Q16

Fig. 13.19 This bin is made of

galvanised iron

Fig. 13.20 Roofs made of galvanised iron

Protecting ships
With sacrificial protection, it is not always necessary to coat the
whole steel surface. Ships have zinc or magnesium blocks bolted onto
14 The two traditional methods used to their hulls below the waterline (Fig. 13.21). These blocks protect the 14
prevent the rusting of ships are:
hull from rusting, but they gradually corrode away and have to be
• seal the surface with paint,
grease, plastic, tin, etc., or replaced at regular intervals.
• ‘sacrifice’ pieces of a more
reactive metal attached to the
iron hull.

Fig. 13.21 New blocks of zinc bolted onto a ships’s hull and rudder

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Protecting underground steel objects

Underground steel pipelines can be protected from rusting by
connecting them to blocks of magnesium or zinc using insulated
copper cables (Fig. 13.22). The magnesium or zinc blocks protect the
pipelines by corroding slowly in place of the steel.

ground level
steel
pipeline
insulated copper cable

block of magnesium

Fig. 13.22 A magnesium block is used to protect an underground steel pipeline

Impressed current cathodic protection

You will learn more about Impressed current cathodic protection is a technique used to prevent
a cathode in Topic 5 Redox the rusting of iron by making the iron the cathode◀ of an electric
Reactions, Chemical Cells and circuit. The cathode is the electrode into which electrons flow from
Electrolysis. the direct current power source.
DSE 2019 Paper 1A Q15
15 An iron nail corrodes fast when it is Fig. 13.23 shows an impressed current cathodic protection system
connected to the positive terminal of
used to protect a steel pier pillar. 15
a direct current power source. The
iron loses electrons to form iron(II)
ions.
direct current
power source
conducting conducting wire
wire

iron nail copper rod

1 M NaNO3(aq)

steel pier pillar conductor (anode◀)

The electrode connected to the

positive terminal of the direct sea water
current power source is called
the anode. Fig. 13.23 A schematic diagram of an impressed current cathodic protection system
for protecting a steel pier pillar

impressed current cathodic protection

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 119

The pier pillar is connected to the negative terminal of a direct

current power source while a conductor such as graphite is connected
to the positive terminal. The pier pillar receives electrons from the
power source. Hence the iron cannot lose electrons to form iron(II)
ions.

This method is commonly used to protect steel pipelines and

tanks, steel pier pillars, ships and offshore oil platforms.

Use of stainless steel

The composition of stainless steel varies. Apart from iron, chromium
and carbon, stainless steel can also contain nickel, manganese and
titanium.

Stainless steel has excellent resistance to corrosion. All types of

stainless steel contain a minimum of about 11% chromium, which
permits a thin, protective surface layer of oxide of chromium to form
when the steel is exposed to oxygen.

As metals such as chromium and nickel are more expensive than

iron, using stainless steel is the most expensive way to prevent rusting.
However, this method is the best as no maintenance is needed.

The most well-known use of stainless steel is probably for making

cutlery and kitchenware (Fig. 13.24). Other uses include making medical
instruments used in hospital operations as well as some objects used
in chemical factories.

Fig. 13.24 Cutlery and kitchenware made of stainless steel

stainless steel

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 120 TOPIC 3 Metals

E xamp e 13.1

DSE 2012 Paper 1B Q9(b)

DSE 2012 Paper 1B Q9(b)

Worksheet Assessment Form

A worksheet and an assessment form on this activity are

Discussion Discussion available for download from Jing Kung Chemistry Website.

In order of reactivity, copper is the least

reactive, iron is next and aluminium is the
most reactive.
If a copper gutter is used, the steel nails,
instead of copper, will corrode.
If only reactivity is considered, aluminium,
instead of iron, will corrode. A hole would
form in the aluminium gutting around the
nail. (This is true in environments where sea
salt disrupts the oxide layer on aluminium.)
However, as aluminium has an oxide layer
on its surface, contact with steel nails in
normal conditions should not be a problem.

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 121

P
Practice 13.1

Titanium is very resistant to corrosion. One of its uses is to serve as an electrode in the protection of steel oil rigs
from rusting.

power
supply

steel oil rig

titanium

sea water

a) Name the protection method.

Impressed current cathodic protection
b) Explain why the oil rig does not rust.
The steel oil rig receives electrons from the direct current power source. Thus, the iron cannot lose electrons to form iron(II) ions.
c) The diagram below illustrates another protection method.

Auto-Stop
Auto-Stop

underground
steel tank
copper wire magnesium

i) Explain why the underground steel tank does not rust.

Magnesium is more reactive than iron. It, instead of iron, corrodes.
ii) Give ONE difference between the two protection methods.
Any one of the following:
• The first method needs a power source while the second does not.
• The first method needs an inert electrode while the second method needs a more reactive metal.

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13.6 Socioeconomic implications of rusting

of iron

The effects of rusting in your daily life are both direct, in that rusting
shortens the useful service lives of your possessions, and indirect, in
that producers and suppliers of goods and services incur corrosion
costs which they pass on to consumers.

At home, rusting is readily recognised on car bodies, outdoor

furniture and metal tools. Rust protection facilities are built into all
major household appliances such as water heaters, furnaces, washers
and dryers.

Rusting can even affect your life when you travel from home to
school. The rusting of steel reinforcing bars in concrete (Fig. 13.25)
can proceed out of sight and may cause sudden structural failures of
highways, buildings and bridges. These failures may lead to significant
repair costs as well as endanger public safety.

Perhaps the most dangerous of all is rusting that occurs in

industrial plants. Plant shutdowns can occur as a result of rusting.
Some consequences are economic and cause the following:

• replacement of rusted equipment;

Fig. 13.25 Rusted steel reinforcing
bars are exposed under a • preventive maintenance, for example, painting;
bridge where some of the
concrete has spalled off
• shutdown of equipment due to corrosion failure;

• contamination of a product;

• loss of valuable product, for example, from a container that has

rusted through.

Other consequences are social and can involve the following

issues:

• safety — for example, sudden failure can cause fire, release of

toxic product and construction collapse;

• health — for example, pollution due to escaping product from

rusted equipment;

• depletion of natural resources — including metals and the fuels

used to manufacture them;

• appearance — rusted material is unpleasing to the eye.

Several studies over the past 30 years have shown that the annual
direct cost of corrosion to an industrial economy is approximately
3.1% of the country’s Gross National Product (GNP).

Gross National Product (GNP)

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 123
Worksheet Assessment Form
A worksheet and an assessment form on this activity are available for download from
Jing Kung Chemistry Website.

Decision Making
Protecting a steel bridge from rusting Refer to page T40.

Tasks

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13.7 Corrosion resistance of aluminium

16 Advantages and disadvantages of Iron and aluminium are both extensively used. Why is the corrosion or 16
using aluminium over iron:
rusting of iron such a major problem, but the corrosion of aluminium
• advantages
– aluminium is lighter; is not? The answer lies in the nature of the oxide that forms on the
– aluminium is more corrosion surface of the metal.
resistant; DSE 2015 Paper 1B Q3(d)
– aluminium can be dyed more
easily. A freshly cleaned surface of aluminium rapidly reacts with oxygen
• disadvantages in air to form aluminium oxide. The oxide adheres tightly to the surface
– aluminium is more expensive;
– aluminium is not so strong.
of the metal and is impermeable to oxygen and water. It protects the
metal underneath from further attack (Fig. 13.26).
DSE 2019 Paper 1B Q9(b)(i)
oxygen protective layer
of oxide

aluminium aluminium

surface attacked by
oxygen of the air

Fig. 13.26 When aluminium reacts with oxygen in the air, the oxide layer formed
adheres tightly to the surface of the metal

Aluminium anodisation DSE 2015 Paper 1B Q3(d)

DSE 2019 Paper 1B Q9(b)(ii)

The thickness of the oxide layer on the surface of aluminium can

be increased by a process called anodisation. This process gives the
aluminium extra corrosion resistance.

Fig. 13.27 shows the experimental set-up for anodisation. The

aluminium object is connected to the positive terminal of the direct
current power source. It is the anode. The oxygen produced at the
anode reacts with the aluminium object to increase the thickness of
the oxide layer.

platinum electrode
(cathode)

aluminium object dilute sulphuric acid

(anode)

Fig. 13.27 Experimental set-up for anodisation

DSE 2013 Paper 1A Q6
impermeable anodisation

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 125

◀
Anodisation does NOT increase The oxide layer increases both the hardness and corrosion
the strength of aluminium. resistance of the aluminium surface. The oxide layer absorbs dyes
easily (Fig. 13.28). DSE 2016 Paper 1A Q23

17 Anodised aluminium is NOT an alloy. Examples of anodised aluminium objects include window frames 17
(Fig. 13.29), drink cans and saucepan lids. 18
18 A n o d i s e d a l u m i n i u m i s m o re
commonly used than iron for making
window frames because anodised
aluminium is more corrosion resistant
than iron. However, anodised
aluminium is NOT as hard as iron.

Fig. 13.28 These carabiners have an Fig. 13.29 This window frame is made
anodised aluminium surface of anodised aluminium
that has been dyed in
different colours

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Have you mastered ?

Key terms

corrosion 109 rusting 110 rust indicator 111 tin-plating 115

electroplating 116 sacrificial protection 116 galvanising 116

impressed current cathodic protection 118 stainless steel 119

Have you mastered?

anodisation 124

Checklist

After studying this unit, you should be able to

describe the nature of iron rust;

describe the essential conditions for the rusting of iron;

describe and explain factors that influence the speed of rusting of iron;

describe the observations when a rust indicator (a mixture of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) and
phenolphthalein) is used in an experiment that investigates rusting of iron;

describe and explain the methods of rusting prevention as exemplified by

• protective coating on surface;

• sacrificial protection;

• impressed current cathodic protection;

• use of stainless steel;

be aware of the socioeconomic impact of rusting;

understand why aluminium is less reactive and more corrosion resistant than expected;

describe how the corrosion resistance of aluminium can be enhanced by anodisation.

(Put a ‘✔’ in the box if you have acquired the knowledge concerned.)

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 127

Summary

1 The deterioration of a metal caused by chemical interaction with oxygen, moisture or other substances
in the environment is called corrosion.

2 The corrosion of iron is called rusting. The chemical name of rust is hydrated iron(III) oxide
(Fe2O3•xH2O).

3 Both air (oxygen) and water are needed for iron to rust.

4 Rusting can be studied using a rust indicator, a mixture of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) (K3Fe(CN)6)
and phenolphthalein.

Have you mastered?

Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) reacts with iron(II) ions to give a blue product, and phenolphthalein
gives a pink colour in the presence of hydroxide ions.

5 Factors that speed up the rusting process include:

a) presence of ionic substances;

b) presence of acidic pollutants;

c) higher temperature;

d) scratching or bending; and

e) attachment to a less reactive metal.

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6 Methods to protect iron from rusting include:

a) protective coating on surface — coating with paint, coating with oil or grease, coating with
plastic, tin-plating, electroplating;

b) sacrificial protection — galvanising;

c) impressed current cathodic protection; and

d) use of stainless steel.

7 a) Aluminium oxide adheres tightly to the surface of the metal and is impermeable to oxygen and
water. Thus, aluminium does not further corrode.
Have you mastered?

b) The thickness of the oxide layer on the surface of aluminium can be increased by aluminium
anodisation. This gives the aluminium extra corrosion resistance.

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 129

Explanation
Unit Exercise

Note: Questions are rated according to ascending level of difficulty (from 1 to 5):
question targeted at level 3 and above; question targeted at level 4 and above;
question targeted at level 5. ‘ ’ indicates 1 mark is given for effective communication.

Part I Knowledge and understanding

1 Complete the following concept map.

protective
coating on
surface

(b)

and
(h)
(c) corrosion
protection
together

of iron object is

Unit Exercise
(i)
cause prevent
protection

(a)
use of
(j)
gives
steel

(d)

and
(e)

colours

a) rusting
with hexacyanoferrate(III) b) air (oxygen) / water
and phenolphthalein, c) water / air (oxygen)
(f) showing d) blue / pink
e) pink / blue
and f) iron(II) / hydroxide
g) hydroxide / iron(II)
(g)
h) sacrificial / impressed current cathodic
ions are present i) impressed current cathodic / sacrificial
j) stainless

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 130 TOPIC 3 Metals

Part II Multiple choice questions

2 The diagram below shows three iron nails of the same 5 In which of the following cases would the iron nail
size and shape each immersed in a liquid. corrode fastest?

iron nail 95% C2H5OH(aq)

1M 1M H2O(l)
AgNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)2(aq)

B
X Y Z
iron nail 1 M NaNO3(aq)

Which of the following arrangements represents the

ascending order of rate of corrosion of the iron nails?
C
A Z<Y < X
conducting wire
B Y<Z < X
C Z<X < Y
D X<Z < Y iron nail copper rod

(HKDSE, Paper 1A, 2014, 3) 1 M NaNO3(aq)

3 A gel containing NaCl(aq), K 3 Fe(CN) 6 (aq) and D

Unit Exercise

phenolphthalein is yellow in colour. An iron nail is

conducting wire conducting wire
put into the gel and corrodes after a period of time.
Which of the following colours would NOT be observed
in the gel after the iron nail corrodes? iron nail copper rod
1 M NaNO3(aq)
A Blue
B Pink (HKDSE, Paper 1A, 2017, 13)
C Grey
D Yellow 6 Sacrificial protection is one of the methods to prevent
(HKDSE, Paper 1A, 2015, 5) corrosion. Which of the following metals CANNOT be
used as a sacrificial metal to prevent iron from rusting?
4 Four steel paper clips are treated as described below,
A Aluminium
before being placed in a beaker of water. Copper is less reactive than iron and
B Copper
CANNOT be used as a sacrificial metal.
Which paper clip rusts most quickly? C Magnesium
D Zinc
A Coated with grease
B Dipped in paint and allowed to dry 7 Which of the following combinations is INCORRECT?
C Electroplated with zinc
D Washed with soap and rinsed Iron article Method to prevent iron from rusting
(Cambridge IGCSE, 0620/13, Paper 1, Jun. 2014, 33)
A Food can galvanisation
B Bath tap chromium-plating
C Fence painting
D Ship’s hull sacrifical protection
Zinc ions are poisonous and thus galvanisation is NOT used to
prevent iron food can from rusting.

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 131

8 The reactivity of aluminium is compared to zinc 10 Which of the following ions are present when iron
by observing their reactions with water and dilute rusts?
hydrochloric acid. Aluminium has a lower rate of
reaction as compared with zinc in both reactions. This (1) Fe2+
is because (2) Fe3+
(3) OH–
A aluminium is less reactive than zinc.
B aluminium has a coat of aluminium oxide. A (1) and (2) only
C aluminium is an alkali metal while zinc is not. B (1) and (3) only
D aluminium has three outermost shell electrons while C (2) and (3) only
zinc has two. D (1), (2) and (3)

9 Aluminium surfaces are often ‘anodised’. This means 11 Which of the following are advantages of using
the deposition of a layer of anodised aluminium to make drink cans?

A chromium oxide. (1) The strength of the cans can be increased.

B aluminium oxide. (2) The cans become more easily dyed.
C nickel(II) oxide. (3) The corrosion resistance of the cans can be
D zinc oxide. enhanced.

A (1) and (2) only

B (1) and (3) only
C (2) and (3) only (1) Anodisation CANNOT increase the
D (1), (2) and (3) strength of aluminium.

Unit Exercise
12 c) Iron atoms lose electrons to form iron(II)
ions. (1)
Part III Structured questions Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e– (1)
Answers for the questions of the public examinations in Hong Kong are not provided (if applicable).
The electrons are gained by oxygen
12 Iron is a useful metal. One problem with using iron is that it can rust. molecules dissolved in water. Hydroxide
ions are formed. (1)
1 – –
a) Name the compound present in rust. O2(g) + H2O(l) + 2e 2OH (aq) (1)
2
Hydrated iron(III) oxide (1) The iron(II) ions and hydroxide ions react
b) Name TWO substances that iron reacts with when it rusts. Air (oxygen) (1) to form iron(II) hydroxide. (1)
Water (1) Iron(II) hydroxide then reacts with more
c) Explain, using chemical equations, how iron rusts. oxygen and water to form hydrated iron(III)
oxide.
13 The diagram below shows an experimental set-up for investigating the factors affecting rusting. Blue and pink colours
develop around iron rod A after one day.

gel containing NaCl(aq),

K3[Fe(CN)6](aq) and
phenolphthalein
iron rod C coated with
zinc with scratches

iron rod B coated

with tin

iron rod A

a) Name the ion that gives a blue colour with the gel.
Iron(II) ion (1)
b) Name the ion that gives a pink colour with the gel.
Hydroxide ion (1)
c) Both iron rods B and C do NOT rust after one day. Explain why.
The tin coating stops air and water reaching iron rod B. (1)
Zinc is more reactive than iron. It corrodes first and protects iron rod C from rusting. (1)

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 132 TOPIC 3 Metals

14 The diagram below shows an experiment used to investigate the factors affecting rusting. Different metals were
wrapped around iron nails and left in water for two days.

copper magnesium zinc

a) Any two of the following:

a) Suggest TWO ways in which you could ensure that this was a fair test. • Use the same volume of water. (1)
• Use the same mass of metal. (1)
b) Which of the iron nail(s) would NOT rust after two days. Explain your choice. • Use nails of the same type and size. (1)
Iron nails wrapped with magnesium and zinc would NOT rust. • Keep at the same temperature. (1)
Magnesium and zinc are more reactive than iron. They corrode instead of iron. (1)
15 Iron fencing can be coated with zinc to prevent rusting.

State the name of this type of protection and explain how it works.
Galvanising / sacrificial protection (1)
Zinc is more reactive than iron. It corrodes instead of iron. (1)
16 Outline the limitation(s) of using paint to protect ships that are in constant use.
Refer to the next page.

17 In an experiment to investigate the rusting of steel, three pieces of steel were used. One piece of steel was coated
with tin, the second piece was coated with zinc and the third piece was left uncoated. All three pieces were left in
the laboratory.

a) The uncoated piece started to rust. Name the TWO substances which caused the steel to rust. Air (oxygen) (1)
Unit Exercise

Water (1)
b) The coating on both of the other two pieces was scratched, exposing the steel. b) The piece of steel coated with
scratched zinc would NOT rust.
thin layer of Zinc is more reactive than iron. (1)
metal steel exposed Zinc protects the iron from rusting
by sacrificial protection. (1)
The piece of steel coated with
scratched tin would rust.
Tin is less reactive than iron. (1)
steel Iron acts as a sacrificial metal for tin
and it rusts faster than normal. (1)
Suggest whether each piece of steel would rust. Explain your answer in each case.

18 The diagram illustrates one method of protecting a steel pipe.

direct current
power supply
ground level

anode steel pipe

a) Name this method.

Impressed current cathodic protection (1)
b) Explain how this method works. The steel pipe receives electrons from the direct current power supply. (1)
Thus, the iron cannot lose electrons to form iron(II) ions. (1)
c) Suggest ONE alternative method of protecting the steel pipe. Explain how this method works.
The pipe could also be protected by adding a sacrificial metal (e.g. zinc) in contact with the steel pipe. (1)
Zinc would corrode instead of iron. (1)

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 UNIT 13 Corrosion of metals and their protection 133

19 Aluminium is protected by an oxide layer on its surface.

a) Explain why an aluminium article coated with aluminium oxide is protected from further corrosion, but a steel
article coated with rust continues to corrode.
The aluminium oxide layer is impermeable to oxygen and water. (1)
b) The thickness of the oxide layer on aluminium can be increased by anodising.

Draw a labelled diagram of the experimental set-up for the process, using dilute sulphuric acid as the electrolyte.

platinum electrode
(cathode)

aluminium object dilute sulphuric acid

(anode)
(2)

16 • Paint must be constantly reapplied to maintain the ship due to scratches and other damages, and this might be very time consuming.
(1)
• The ship must be checked regularly, otherwise the exposed iron can become pitted and eventually perforated. (1)
• The process requires the ship to be removed from the water. (1)

Unit Exercise

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 134 TOPIC 3 Metals

Explanation
Topic Exercise

Note: Questions are rated according to ascending level of difficulty (from 1 to 5):
question targeted at level 3 and above; question targeted at level 4 and above;
question targeted at level 5. ‘ ’ indicates 1 mark is given for effective communication.

Part I Multiple choice questions

1 Which of the following metals can be extracted from 4 Consider the following information concening metals
its oxide by heat alone? W, X, Y and Z:

A Aluminium (1) Heating oxide of W gives metal W.

B Iron (2) Heating metal X in steam gives a colourless gas.
C Lead (3) Putting metal Y in CH3CO2H(aq) gives a colourless
D Mercury gas.
(4) Putting metal Z in CuSO4(aq) gives a reddish-
2 Stainless steel is an alloy of iron and other metals. It brown solid.
is strong and does not rust, but it costs much more
Which of these metals has the lowest reactivity?
than normal steel.
A W
What is NOT made from stainless steel?
B X
A Cutlery C Y
B Pipes in a chemical factory D Z
C Railway lines (HKDSE, Paper 1A, 2015, 14)
D Saucepans
(Cambridge IGCSE, 0620/13, Paper 1, Jun. 2017, 28) 5 What is the number of atoms in 51.8 g of dinitrogen
tetroxide (N2O4)?
3 The metal beryllium does not react with cold water.
(Relative atomic masses: N = 14.0, O = 16.0; Avogadro
It reacts with hydrochloric acid but cannot be extracted constant = 6.02 x 1023 mol–1)
Topic Exercise

from its ore by using carbon.

A 3.39 x 1023
Where should it be placed in the reactivity series? B 5.42 x 1023
C 2.03 x 1024 Refer to page T41.
magnesium D 2.87 x 1024
A
6 How many moles of ammonia contain y hydrogen
zinc atoms?

B (L represents Avogadro constant)

iron y
A
L
C L y
B 3
moles of ammonia (NH3) molecules contain
copper y y moles of hydrogen atoms.
y y
D C \ moles of ammonia contain
3L 3L
y
(Cambridge IGCSE, 0620/13, Paper 1, Jun. 2014, 26) 3y moles of hydrogen atoms (i.e. y hydrogen
D L
Zinc can be extracted from its oxide by using carbon. Beryllium L atoms).
cannot be extracted from its ore by using carbon. Thus, beryllium
should be more reactive than zinc.

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 135

7 A sample of gas was prepared for use in helium-neon 11 An impure sample of tin(IV) oxide of mass 24.0 g is
lasers. It contained 10.0 g of helium and 10.0 g of reduced to tin by heating with carbon. 16.4 g of tin
neon. What is ratio of helium atoms to neon atoms are obtained.
in the sample?
What is the percentage by mass of tin(IV) oxide in the
(Relative atomic masses: He = 4.0, Ne = 20.2) sample?

A 1:1 (Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Sn = 118.7)

B 2.5 : 1
C 5:1 Refer to page T41.
A 39.4%
D 10 : 1 B 68.3%
C 77.5%
D 86.7% Refer to page T42.
8 The percentage by mass of titanium in an oxide of
titanium is 59.9%. What is the chemical formula of
the oxide? 12 Which of the following iron objects is suitable for
galvanising?
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Ti = 47.9)
A Bicycle chain
A TiO B Bucket
B TiO2 Refer to page T41. C Car engine
C Ti2O3 D Drink can
D Ti3O4
13 Consider the following set-ups:
9 Element X forms an oxide X2O3 when heated in oxygen.
In an experiment, 20.9 g of X give 23.3 g of X2O3 (1)
aluminium board
upon heating.

What is the relative atomic mass of X? iron hook (1)

(Relative atomic mass: O = 16.0)

A 93 (2)
B 105 copper board
C 186
iron hook (2)

Topic Exercise
D 209

10 A factory wanted to make 70.0 tonnes of zinc oxide

by heating zinc carbonate. (3)
aluminium board
ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
copper hook (3)
What mass of zinc carbonate should be heated?

(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Zn = 65.4)

(4)
A 108 tonnes Refer to page T42. iron board
B 127 tonnes
C 145 tonnes copper hook (4)
D 190 tonnes
9 Let m be the relative atomic mass of X.
Mass of oxygen in X2O3 = (23.3 – 20.9) g Which hook would corrode first?
= 2.4 g
20.9 g
A Iron hook (1)
Number of moles of X 2 m g mol–1 B Iron hook (2)
= =
Number of moles of oxygen 3 2.4 g C Copper hook (3)
16.0 g mol–1 D Copper hook (4)
m = 209 (HKDSE, Paper 1A, 2015, 7)

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 136 TOPIC 3 Metals

14 Tin plating is used to prevent iron cans from rusting 17 Which of the following combinations is / are correct?
because
Corresponding corrosion
A tin provides sacrificial protection to iron. Object prevention method
B tin layer prevents iron from exposure to air.
C tin is higher than iron in the metal reactivity series. (1) Aluminium window cathodic protection
D tin and iron form an alloy which does not corrode. frames
(2) Bicycle chain greasing
(HKDSE, Paper 1A, 2016, 5)
(3) Tin-plated food cans sacrificial protection

15 Which of the following oxides can be reduced to the A (1) only

respective metal(s) by heating with carbon? B (2) only
C (1) and (3) only
(1) Aluminium oxide D (2) and (3) only
(2) Lead(II) oxide
(1) Aluminium window frames are protected by anodisation.
(3) Zinc oxide (3) Tin is less reactive than iron. It CANNOT provide sacrificial
protection to iron.
A (1) only
B (2) only
C (1) and (3) only
D (2) and (3) only

16 The set-up of an experiment for studying the movement

of ions is shown below.
Topic Exercise

FeSO4(aq) filter paper soaked K3Fe(CN)6

with K2SO4(aq) [component of rust
indicator consisting
of K+(aq) and
Fe(CN)63–(aq) ions]

Which of the following statements is / are correct?

(1) FeSO4(aq) is yellow-brown in colour.

(2) The filter paper is soaked with K2SO4(aq) instead
of water to increase the electrical conductivity
of the filter paper.
(3) A blue colour appears around the middle of the
filter paper.

A (1) only
B (2) only (1) FeSO4(aq) is light green in colour.
C (1) and (3) only (3) Fe2+(aq) ions move towards the left.
3–
They do not meet the Fe(CN)6 (aq)
D (2) and (3) only ions. Hence no blue colour appears.

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 137

Directions : Each question (Questions 18–20) consists of two separate statements. Decide whether each
of the two statements is true or false; if both are true, then decide whether or not the
second statement is a correct explanation of the first statement. Then select one option
from A to D according to the following table :

A Both statements are true and the 2nd statement is a correct explanation of the 1st statement.
B Both statements are true but the 2nd statement is NOT a correct explanation of the 1st statement.
C The 1st statement is false but the 2nd statement is true.
D Both statements are false.

1st statement 2nd statement

18 Potassium is more reactive than magnesium. Potassium belongs to Period 4 of the Periodic Table B
while magnesium belongs to Period 3.

19 When a mixture of copper and zinc oxide is ignited, Copper is less reactive than zinc. C
copper(II) oxide and zinc are produced.
Copper is less reactive than zinc. NO reaction occurs between copper and zinc oxide.

20 Anodisation is a method used to increase the By anodisation, the thickness of the oxide layer on the C
strength of aluminium. aluminium surface is increased.
Anodisation CANNOT increase the strength of aluminium.

Part II Structured questions

Answers for the questions of the public examinations in Hong Kong are not provided (if applicable).
21 The table gives some information about the properties of four metals.

Resistance to Relative electrical

Metal Density (g cm–3) Relative strength Melting point (°C)
corrosion conductivity
Chromium 7.2 8 very good 8 1 857

Topic Exercise
Copper 8.9 30 good 60 1 283
Iron 7.9 21 poor 10 1 535
Titanium 4.5 23 very good 2 1 660

Which ONE of these metals is most suitable for making the frame of an aircraft?

Explain your answer using information from the table.

Titanium (1) (Cambridge IGCSE, 0620/33, Paper 3, Nov. 2016, 1(b))
Lowest density (1), strong (1), resistant to corrosion (1)

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 138 TOPIC 3 Metals

22 Antimony (Sb) is a solid element that is used in industry. It is extracted from low-grade ore and high-grade ore using
different methods.

a) Antimony is extracted by reacting iron with low-grade ores containing antimony(III) sulphide (Sb2S3).

i) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between iron and antimony(III) sulphide to form antimony and
iron(II) sulphide.
3Fe(s) + Sb2S3(s) 3FeS(s) + 2Sb(s) (1)
ii) What does this reaction suggest about the reactivity of antimony compared to that of iron?
Antimony is less reactive than iron. (1)
b) Antimony is extracted from high-grade ore containing antimony(III) sulphide in a two-step process.

Step 1 Antimony(III) sulphide is converted to antimony(III) oxide (Sb2O3).

Step 2 Antimony(III) oxide is reduced to antimony by carbon. 2Sb2S3(s) + 9O2(g) 2Sb2O3(s) + 6SO2(g) (1)
Sb2O3(s) + 3C(s) 2Sb(s) + 3CO(g) (1)
Write a chemical equation for the reaction involved in each step.

23 Aluminium is obtained from aluminium oxide by electrolysis.

a) Aluminium oxide is obtained from the main ore of aluminium.

Name this main ore.

b) Describe the extraction of aluminium from aluminium oxide. Include the electrolyte, the electrodes and the products
at the electrodes.

c) Aluminium is protected by an oxide layer on its surface. The thickness of this oxide layer can be increased via
electrolysis.

i) Name the process involved.

ii) The experimental set-up for the process is shown below.

direct current
power supply
Topic Exercise

platinum electrode aluminium object

Suggest whether the aluminium object should be connected to the positive or negative terminal of the direct
current power source.

23 a) Bauxite (1)
b) Aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite. (1)
Use cryolite to reduce the melting point of aluminium oxide.
Use carbon electrodes. (1)
Aluminium is formed at the negative electrode. (1)
Oxygen is formed at the positive electrode. (1)
c) i) Anodisation (1)
ii) Positive terminal (1)

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 139

24 Iron in the form of steel, aluminium and copper are used to manufacture many useful articles.
Refer to page T43.
These uses depend on their density, strength, electrical conductivity and resistance to corrosion.

Describe some uses of each of these metals in relation to their properties and the advantages of recycling these
metals rather than extracting more of the metals from their ores.
(Edexcel GCSE (Higher Tier), C1, Jun. 2016, 5(c))

25 The set-up shown below is used to study the reaction between magnesium and steam.

magnsium
X

damp mineral wool gas produced

Y
heat

water

a) Name the apparatus labelled X and Y. X: delivery tube (1)

Y: gas jar (1)
b) Explain why the damp mineral wool is heated.
To generate steam. (1)
c) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between magnesium and steam.
Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g) (1)
d) Name ONE metal which does not react when heated with steam.
Copper / silver / gold / platinum (1)

26 An investigation was carried out to investigate how the following metals react with water and dilute hydrochloric
acid:

calcium  copper  magnesium  zinc

a) Name a metal, used in this experiment, that reacts with water at room temperature.
Calcium (1)
b) Name the gas produced by the reaction of a metal with dilute hydrochloric acid.

Topic Exercise
Hydrogen (1)
c) Name a metal, used in this experiment, that does NOT react with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Copper (1)
d) List the metals used in this experiment in decreasing order of reactivity.
calcium > magnesium > zinc > copper (1)

27 Water pipes used to carry drinking water are commonly made of copper instead of iron. Although lead-containing
solder can be used to join these water pipes, such use is prohibited.

a) Suggest one chemical property of copper that makes it more suitable than iron for making water pipes. Explain
your answer.

b) i) Suggest one reason of adding lead to soldering materials.

ii) Explain why lead-containing solder is prohibited in joining these water pipes.
(HKDSE, Paper 1B, 2017, 2(a)–(b))

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 140 TOPIC 3 Metals
28 a) ii)
gaseous product
water
28 A student studied the reaction of water with two Group II metals, calcium and barium.

a) In the first experiment, 2.0 g of calcium granules reacted with water in a beaker. inverted funnel
calcium granules
i) Write the chemical equation for the reaction involved. (2)
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) + H2(g) (1)
ii) Draw a labelled diagram of an experimental set-up for carrying out this reaction in a beaker and collecting
the gas produced.
Any one of the following:
iii) Suggest ONE potential hazard in performing the reaction. • Hydrogen produced was flammable / can explode. (1)
• A lot of heat was released. (1)
b) The student repeated the reaction using the same mass of barium. She noticed that the volume of gas collected,
still at the same temperature and pressure, was less.

It was known that at constant temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas was proportional to the number
of moles present.

Suggest why the volume of gas collected was less.

The number of moles of barium used was less. / The relative atomic mass of barium was larger. (1)

29 The observations of some experiments with chromium and tin are summerised in the table below.

Experiment Observation
1 Chromium was placed in tin(II) chloride solution. Chromium became coated with a grey solid.
2 Chromium was placed in magnesium sulphate solution. There was no observable change.
3 Tin was placed in copper(II) sulphate solution. Tin became coated with a reddish brown solid.

a) When tin was placed in copper(II) sulphate solution, a reddish brown solid formed and the solution turned pale
blue.

i) Explain the reaction taking place.

ii) Tin formed tin(II) ions (Sn2+) in the reaction.

Write the ionic equation for the reaction.

Topic Exercise

b) Arrange the metals chromium, copper, magnesium and tin in order of decreasing reactivity.

c) Suggest the expected observations when excess chromium is placed in copper(II) sulphate solution.

29 a) i) A displacement reaction occurs. (1)

Tin displaces copper from copper(II) sulphate solution. (1)
The solution turned pale blue as the concentration of copper(II) ions decreases. (1)
ii) Sn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Sn2+(aq) + Cu(s) (1)
b) magnesium > chromium > tin > copper
c) The chromium dissolves (1)
with reddish brown deposits of copper formed. (1)
(The reaction that occurs is 2Cr(s) + 3Cu2+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3Cu(s))
30 c) Barium is more reactive than aluminium, and aluminium is more reactive than zinc. Hence barium is more reactive than zinc.
In the reaction between barium and zinc oxide, barium competes with zinc for oxygen, and wins. (1)
Hence barium and zinc oxide react to give barium oxide and zinc. (1)
31 Show that zinc displaces X from a solution of nitrate of X. (1)
Show that X displaces copper from a solution of copper(II) nitrate. (1)
A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from a compound of the less reactive metal in a solution. (1)
Thus, it can be deduced from the experimental results that X is less reactive than zinc but more reactive than copper.
Communication mark (1)

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 141

30 The experimental set-up shown below is used to investigate the reaction between metals and metal oxides.

magnesium fuse

mixture of metal and metal oxide

iron vessel

heatproof mat

The results of the investigation are given in the table below.

Metal oxide
Aluminium oxide Barium oxide Lead(II) oxide Tin(IV) oxide
Metal
Aluminium — no reaction reaction reaction
Barium reaction — reaction reaction
Lead no reaction no reaction — no reaction
Tin no reaction no reaction reaction —

a) Place the four metals in order of decreasing reactivity.

barium > aluminium > tin > lead (1)
b) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between barium and lead(II) oxide.
Ba(s) + PbO(s) BaO(s) + Pb(s) (1)
c) Suggest what would be the result of using a mixture of barium and zinc oxide in such an experiment.
Refer to the previous page.

31 Metal X is suspected to lie between zinc and copper in the reactivity series.
Refer to the previous page.
Describe, and explain, how you would show this was true using the following chemicals:

copper granules, zinc granules and metal X;

solutions of copper(II) nitrate, zinc nitrate and the nitrate of metal X.

Topic Exercise
32 A sample of rust had the following composition:
Refer to page T44.
51.85% of iron   22.22% of oxygen   16.67% of water

What is the chemical formula for this sample of rust?

(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Fe = 55.8)

33 A compound of oxygen and fluorine has a relative molecular mass of 70.0 and contains 45.7% by mass of oxygen.
Refer to page T44.
Calculate

a) the empirical formula;

b) the molecular formula

of the compound.

(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, F = 19.0)

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 142 TOPIC 3 Metals

34 10.000 g of hydrated sodium sulphate (Na2SO4•nH2O) yield 4.405 g of anhydrous sodium sulphate on heating. What
is the value of n?
Refer to page T44.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0, S = 32.1)

35 Nitrogen reacts with fluorine to form nitrogen trifluoride.

Refer to page T45.
a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction involved.

b) Calculate the mass of nitrogen trifluoride formed from the reaction of 7.00 g of nitrogen with excess fluroine.

(Relative atomic masses: N = 14.0, F = 19.0)

36 Aluminium cookware is often referred to as ‘anodised aluminium’. The anodising process puts a layer of aluminium
oxide on the aluminium.
Refer to page T46.
Consider the reaction of 12.2 g of aluminium with 12.2 g of oxygen to form aluminium oxide.

(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Al = 27.0)

a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between aluminium and oxygen.

b) Identify the limiting reactant in the reaction.

c) What is the mass of product formed?

37 Nitrogen can be prepared in the laboratory by the following reaction:

Refer to page T47.
2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s) N2(g) + 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(l)

204 kg of NH3 are allowed to react with 1 360 kg of CuO.

What is the mass of nitrogen formed?

(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, N = 14.0, O = 16.0, Cu = 63.5)

Topic Exercise

38 A major use of aluminium is the manufacture of pots and pans. One reason for this is its resistance to corrosion.

Explain why aluminium, a reactive metal, is resistant to corrosion.

Aluminium has an oxide layer that is impermeable to oxygen and water. (1)
39 A violent reaction occurs when a mixture of chromium(III) oxide and aluminium is ignited.

a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction involved.

Cr2O3(s) + 2Al(s) 2Cr(s) + Al2O3(s) (1)
b) Calculate the mass of aluminium needed to react with 274 g of chromium(III) oxide.

(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Al = 27.0, Cr = 52.0)

Method 1 Method 2
1 Molar mass of Cr2O3 = (2 x 52.0 + 3 x 16.0) g mol–1 1 Molar mass of Cr2O3 = (2 x 52.0 + 3 x 16.0) g mol–1
= 152.0 g mol–1 = 152.0 g mol–1
mass of Cr2O3 Molar mass of Al = 27.0 g mol–1
Number of moles of Cr2O3 =
molar mass of Cr2O3
274 g 2 According to the equation, 1 mole of Cr2O3 reacts with 2 moles
= of Al.
152.0 g mol–1
i.e. 152.0 g of Cr2O3 react with 2 x 27.0 g of Al. (1)
= 1.80 mol (1)
2 According to the equation, 1 mole of Cr2O3 reacts with 2 2 x 27.0 g
3 Mass of Al = 274 g x
moles of Al. 152.0 g
i.e. number of moles of Al = 2 x 1.80 mol = 97.3 g (1)
= 3.60 mol (1) \ 97.2 / 97.3 g of Al are needed. (1)
3 Mass of Al = number of moles of Al x molar mass of Al
= 3.60 mol x 27.0 g mol–1
= 97.2 g (1)

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 143

40 Aluminium and iron are commonly used construction materials.

a) Suggest why iron was used earlier than aluminium in history.

b) A compound contains iron and oxygen only. In an experiment for determining the empirical formula of this
compound, 2.31 g of the compound was heated with carbon monoxide. Upon complete reaction, carbon dioxide
and 1.67 g of iron were formed.

i) Calculate the empirical formula of this compound.

ii) Write the chemical equation for the reaction involved in the experiment.

iii) As carbon monoxide is poisonous, suggest ONE necessary safety precaution in carrying out the experiment.

c) Explain why a galvanised iron object does not easily rust even if the zinc layer is broken.

d) Explain why anodisation can prevent aluminium objects from corrosion.

(HKDSE, Paper 1B, 2015, 3)

41 Air and water are necessary for the corrosion of iron. Describe, with the aid of a labelled diagram, experiments to
show that a) Nails with anhydrous calcium b) Nails in boiled distilled water which
chloride in a sealed test tube will is covered with oil in a sealed test
a) air alone will not lead to the rusting of iron; not rust. (1) tube will not rust. (1)

air
b) water alone will not lead to the rusting of iron.
anhydrous air layer of oil
calcium chloride
anhydrous layer of oil
boiled distilled
cotton woolcalcium chloride
42 The diagram below shows one method of protecting a steel pipe. water
boiled distilled
iron nail cotton wool
water
air iron(1)
nail
ground level air (1)

coated copper wire

Topic Exercise
steel pipe metal

a) Identify a suitable metal for protecting the steel pipe.

Magnesium / zinc (1)
b) Explain how the steel pipe is protected from rusting. Magnesium / zinc is more reactive than iron. (1)
It protects iron from rusting by sacrificial protection. (1)
c) Suggest ONE other method that could be used to protect the pipe from rusting. Explain how the suggested
method works.
Impressed current cathodic protection (1)
The pipeline is connected to the negative terminal of a direct current power source while a conductor such as graphite is connected
to the positive terminal. (1)
The pipeline receives electrons from the direct current power source. Hence the pipeline CANNOT lose electrons to form iron(II) ions. (1)

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 144 TOPIC 3 Metals

43 Nick is investigating ways of preventing iron from rusting.

He wants to protect the bottom of a ship.

The bottom of the ship is made from iron.

bottom of ship made of iron

He treats samples of iron in different ways.

He leaves them in a damp place and sees how long it takes for the first signs of rust to appear.

Look at Nick’s results.

Cost of treatment in £ per tonne

Type of treatment Time for rust to appear in days
of iron
Untreated iron (no treatment) 1 —
Painted iron 10 100
Iron mixed with chromium (alloying) 120 1 000
Iron with blocks of magnesium attached 50 500

Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each type of treatment for protecting the bottom of the ship from
rusting.
Topic Exercise

Explain how attaching blocks of magnesium helps to prevent rusting.

(OCR GCSE Gateway Science, Chem B (Higher Tier), B742/02, Jun. 2015, 11)

Evaluations
• Painting is cheap but does not last long. (1)
• Alloying is the best method of rust prevention but is the most expensive. (1)
• Alloying is difficult to do. (1)
• Attaching magnesium is expensive but lasts for a long time. (1)
How attaching blocks of magnesium helps to prevent rusting
• Magnesium is a sacrificial metal. (1)
• Magnesium is more reactive than iron and so it, instead of iron, corrodes. (1)
Communication mark (1)

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