MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology

014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism

The Digestive System Functions
 Ingestion—taking in food Mouth
 Digestion—breaking food into nutrient Anatomy of the mouth
molecules  Mouth (oral cavity)
 Absorption—movement of nutrients into the o mucous membrane–lined cavity
bloodstream  Lips (labia)
 Metabolism—Production of cellular energy o protect the anterior opening
 Defecation—excretes to rid the body of  Cheeks
indigestible waste o form the lateral walls
 Hard palate
Anatomy of the Digestive System o forms the anterior roof
Two main groups of organs  Soft palate
 Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal, or GI, o forms the posterior roof
tract)—continuous, coiled, hollow tube  Uvula
o These organs ingest, digest, absorb, o fleshy projection of the soft palate
defecate
 Accessory digestive organs
o Include teeth, tongue, and several
large digestive organs
o Assist digestion in various ways

Anatomy of the mouth (continued)

 Vestibule
o space between lips externally and
teeth and gums internally
 Oral cavity proper
o area contained by the teeth
 Tongue
o attached at hyoid bone and styloid
Organs of the Alimentary Canal processes of the skull, and by the
 The alimentary canal is a continuous, lingual frenulum to the floor of the
coiled, hollow tube that runs through the mouth
ventral cavity from stomach to anus  Tonsils
o Mouth o Palatine — located at posterior end
o Pharynx of oral cavity
o Esophagus o Lingual — located at the base of the
o Stomach tongue
o Small intestine
o Large intestine Functions of the mouth
o Anus  Mastication (chewing) of food
 Tongue mixes masticated food with saliva
Accessory Digestive Organs  Tongue initiates swallowing
 Teeth  Taste buds on the tongue allow for taste
 Salivary glands
 Pancreas
 Liver Pharynx
 Gallbladder  Serves as a passageway for foods, fluids,
and air

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MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology
014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
 Food passes from the mouth posteriorly into  Scanty smooth muscle layer
the: o Lines the cavity (known as the
o Oropharynx—posterior to oral lumen)
cavity
o Laryngopharynx—below the 2. Submucosa
oropharynx and continuous with the  Just beneath the mucosa
esophagus  Soft connective tissue with blood vessels,
 Food is propelled to the esophagus by two nerve endings, mucosa-associated
skeletal muscle layers in the pharynx lymphoid tissue, and lymphatic vessels
o Longitudinal outer layer
o Circular inner layer 3. Muscularis externa
 Alternating contractions of the muscle layers  smooth muscle
(peristalsis) propel the food  Inner circular layer
 Outer longitudinal layer
Esophagus
 Anatomy 4. Serosa
o About 10 inches long  outermost layer of the wall; contains fluid-
o Runs from pharynx to stomach producing cells
through the diaphragm  Visceral peritoneum—innermost layer that
is continuous with the outermost layer
 Physiology  Parietal peritoneum—outermost layer that
o Conducts food by peristalsis (slow lines the abdominopelvic cavity by way of
the mesentery
rhythmic squeezing) to the stomach
o Passageway for food only
Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses
(respiratory system branches off
 Alimentary canal wall contains two intrinsic
after the pharynx)\
nerve plexuses that are part of the
autonomic nervous system
Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal
o Submucosal nerve plexus
Organs
o Myenteric nerve plexus
 Summary of the four layers from innermost
to outermost, from esophagus to the large  Regulate mobility and secretory activity of
intestine (detailed next) the GI tract organs
o Mucosa
Stomach
o Submucosa
 C-shaped organ located on the left side of
o Muscularis externa
the abdominal cavity
o Serosa  Food enters at the cardioesophageal
sphincter from the esophagus
 Food empties into the small intestine at the
pyloric sphincter (valve)

1. Mucosa
 Innermost, moist membrane consisting of:
o Surface epithelium that is mostly
simple columnar epithelium (except
for esophagus—stratified squamous
epithelium)
o Small amount of connective tissue
(lamina propria)

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MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology
014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism

Structure of the stomach mucosa (continued)

 Chief cells
o produce protein-digesting enzymes
(pepsinogens)
 Parietal cells
o produce hydrochloric acid that
activates enzymes
 Mucous neck cells
o produce thin acidic mucus (different
from the mucus produced by
mucous cells of the mucosa)
Regions of Stomach  Enteroendocrine cells
 Cardial (cardia) o produce local hormones such as
o near the heart and surrounds the gastrin
cardioesophageal sphincter
 Fundus
o expanded portion lateral to the
cardiac region
 Body
o midportion
 Greater curvature
o is the convex lateral surface
 Lesser curvature
o is the concave medial surface
 Pylorus Functions
o funnel-shaped terminal end  Temporary storage tank for food
 Site of food breakdown
 Stomach can stretch and hold 4 L (1 gallon)  Chemical breakdown of protein begins
of food when full  Delivers chyme (processed food) to the
o Rugae—internal folds of the mucosa small intestine
present when the stomach is empty
Small Intestine
 Lesser omentum  The body’s major digestive organ
o Double layer of the peritoneum  Longest portion of the alimentary tube (2–4
o Extends from liver to the lesser m, or 7–13 feet, in a living person)
curvature of stomach  Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
 Muscular tube extending from the pyloric
 Greater omentum sphincter to the ileocecal valve
o Another extension of the peritoneum  Suspended from the posterior abdominal
o Covers the abdominal organs wall by the mesentery
o Fat insulates, cushions, and protects
abdominal organs  Subdivisions
1. Duodenum
Structure of the stomach mucosa 2. Jejunum
 Simple columnar epithelium composed 3. Ileum
almost entirely of mucous cells
 Mucous cells produce bicarbonate-rich
alkaline mucus
 Dotted by gastric pits leading to gastric
glands that secrete gastric juice, including:
o Intrinsic factor, which is needed for
vitamin B12 absorption in the small
intestine

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MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology
014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
 Extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus

 Subdivisions (detailed next)

o Cecum
o Appendix
o Colon
o Rectum
o Anal canal

 Chemical digestion begins in the small

intestine
o Enzymes produced by intestinal Cecum
cells and pancreas are carried to the  saclike first part of the large intestine
duodenum by pancreatic ducts o Appendix
o Bile, formed by the liver, enters the  Hangs from the cecum
duodenum via the bile duct  Accumulation of lymphoid
o Hepatopancreatic ampulla is the tissue that sometimes
location where the main pancreatic becomes inflamed
duct and bile ducts join (appendicitis)

Structural modifications Colon

 Increase surface area for food absorption  Ascending
 Decrease in number toward the end of the o travels up right side of abdomen and
small intestine makes a turn at the right colic
1. Villi—fingerlike projections formed by (hepatic) flexure
the mucosa  Transverse
o House a capillary bed and lacteal o travels across the abdominal cavity
2. Microvilli—tiny projections of the and turns at the left colic (splenic)
plasma membrane (brush border flexure
enzymes)  Descending
3. Circular folds (plicae circulares)—deep o travels down the left side
folds of mucosa and submucosa  Sigmoid
o S-shaped region; enters the pelvis
 Sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal are
located in the pelvis

Anal Canal
 Anal canal ends at the anus
 Anus—opening of the large intestine
o External anal sphincter—formed by
skeletal muscle and is voluntary
o Internal anal sphincter—formed by
smooth muscle and is involuntary
 Peyer’s patches o These sphincters are normally
o Collections of lymphatic tissue closed except during defecation
o Located in submucosa  The large intestine delivers indigestible food
o Increase in number toward the end residues to the body’s exterior
of the small intestine
o More are needed there because  Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus to
remaining food residue contains lubricate the passage of feces
much bacteria  Muscularis externa layer is reduced to three
bands of muscle, called teniae coli
Large Intestine  These bands of muscle cause the wall to
 Larger in diameter, but shorter in length at pucker into haustra (pocketlike sacs)
1.5 m, than the small intestine

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MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology
014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
Accessory Digestive Organs 1. Crown
 Teeth  exposed part of tooth above the gingiva
 Salivary glands (gum)
 Pancreas o Enamel—covers the crown
 Liver o Dentin—found deep to the enamel
 Gallbladder and forms the bulk of the tooth,
surrounds the pulp cavity
Teeth o Pulp cavity—contains connective
 Teeth masticate (chew) food into smaller tissue, blood vessels, and nerve
fragments fibers (pulp)
 Humans have two sets of teeth during a o Root canal—where the pulp cavity
lifetime extends into the root
1. Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
o A baby has 20 teeth by age 2 2. Root
o First teeth to appear are the lower  Cement—covers outer surface and attaches
central incisors the tooth to the periodontal membrane
2. Permanent teeth (ligament)
o Replace deciduous teeth between  Periodontal membrane holds tooth in place
ages 6 and 12 in the bony jaw
o A full set is 32 teeth (with the  Note: The neck is a connector between the
wisdom teeth) crown and root
 Region in contact with the gum
 Teeth are classified according to shape and
function Salivary Glands
o Incisors—cutting  Three pairs of salivary glands empty
o Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or secretions into the mouth
piercing 1. Parotid glands
o Premolars (bicuspids)—grinding o Found anterior to the ears
o Molars—grinding o Mumps affect these salivary glands
2. Submandibular glands
3. Sublingual glands
o Both submandibular and sublingual
glands empty saliva into the floor of
the mouth through small ducts

Saliva
 Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
 Helps to moisten and bind food together into
a mass called a bolus
 Contains:
o Salivary amylase—begins starch
digestion
o Lysozymes and antibodies—inhibit
bacteria
 Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted

Pancreas
 Soft, pink triangular gland
 Found posterior to the parietal peritoneum
 Mostly retroperitoneal
 Extends across the abdomen from spleen to
Two major regions of a tooth duodenum
1. Crown  Produces a wide spectrum of digestive
2. Root enzymes that break down all categories of
food
 Secretes enzymes into the duodenum

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MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology
014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
 Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes  We will cover six more specific processes
neutralizes acidic chyme coming from next
stomach
 Hormones produced by the pancreas Overview of Gastrointestinal Processes and
o Insulin Controls
o Glucagon  Essential processes of the GI tract
1. Ingestion—placing of food into the mouth
Liver
 Largest gland in the body 2. Propulsion—movement of foods from one
 Located on the right side of the body under region of the digestive system to another
the diaphragm o Peristalsis—alternating waves of
 Consists of four lobes suspended from the contraction and relaxation that
diaphragm and abdominal wall by the squeeze food along the GI tract
falciform ligament o Segmentation—movement of
 Digestive role is to produce bile materials back and forth to foster
o Bile leaves the liver through the mixing in the small intestine
common hepatic duct and enters
duodenum through the bile duct 3. Food breakdown: mechanical breakdown
o Bile is yellow-green, watery solution o Examples
containing:  Mixing of food in the mouth
 Bile salts and bile pigments (mostly bilirubin by the tongue
from the breakdown of hemoglobin)  Churning of food in the
 Cholesterol, phospholipids, and electrolytes stomach
o Bile emulsifies (breaks down) fats  Segmentation in the small
intestine
Gallbladder o Mechanical digestion prepares food
 Green sac found in a shallow fossa in the for further degradation by enzymes
inferior surface of the liver
o When no digestion is occurring, bile 4. Food breakdown: digestion
backs up the cystic duct for storage o Digestion occurs when enzymes
in the gallbladder chemically break down large
o While in the gallbladder, bile is molecules into their building blocks
concentrated by the removal of o Each major food group uses
water different enzymes
o When fatty food enters the  Carbohydrates are broken
duodenum, the gallbladder spurts down to monosaccharides
out stored bile (simple sugars)
 Proteins are broken down to
amino acids
 Fats are broken down to fatty
acids and glycerol
5. Absorption
o End products of digestion are
absorbed in the blood or lymph
o Food must enter mucosal cells and
then move into blood or lymph
capillaries

6. Defecation
o Elimination of indigestible
substances from the GI tract in the
Functions of the Digestive System form of feces
 Overview of gastrointestinal processes and
controls Activities Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx, and
o Digestion Esophagus
o Absorption  Food ingestion and breakdown

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MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology
014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
o Food is placed into the mouth o Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for
 Physically broken down by protein digestion
chewing o Provides a hostile environment for
 Mixed with saliva, which is microorganisms
released in response to
mechanical pressure and  Protein-digestion enzymes
psychic stimuli o Pepsin—an active protein-digesting
 Salivary amylase begins enzyme
starch digestion o Rennin—works on digesting milk
o Essentially, no food absorption protein in infants; not produced in
occurs in the mouth adults
 Alcohol and aspirin are virtually the only
 Food propulsion—swallowing and items absorbed in the stomach
peristalsis
o Pharynx and esophagus have no
digestive function
 Serve as passageways to the
stomach Food propulsion
 Pharynx functions in swallowing 1. Peristalsis:
(deglutition) o waves of peristalsis occur from the
o Two phases of swallowing fundus to the pylorus, forcing food
 Buccal phase past the pyloric sphincter
 Pharyngeal-esophageal 2. Grinding:
phase o the pylorus meters out chyme into
the small intestine (3 ml at a time)
1. Buccal phase 3. Retropulsion:
o Voluntary o peristaltic waves close the pyloric
o Occurs in the mouth sphincter, forcing contents back into
o Food is formed into a bolus the stomach; the stomach empties in
o The bolus is forced into the pharynx 4–6 hours
by the tongue
Activities of the Small Intestine
2. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase Chyme breakdown and absorption
o Involuntary transport of the bolus by  Intestinal enzymes from the brush border
peristalsis function to:
o Nasal and respiratory passageways o Break double sugars into simple
are blocked sugars
o Peristalsis moves the bolus toward o Complete some protein digestion
the stomach  Intestinal enzymes and pancreatic enzymes
o The cardioesophageal sphincter is help to complete digestion of all food groups
opened when food presses against it
 Pancreatic enzymes play the major role in
Activities in the Stomach the digestion of fats, proteins, and
Food breakdown carbohydrates
 Gastric juice is regulated by neural and  Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme
hormonal factors and provides the proper environment for the
 Presence of food or rising pH causes the pancreatic enzymes to operate
release of the hormone gastrin
 Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce:  Release of pancreatic juice from the
o Protein-digesting enzymes pancreas into the duodenum is stimulated
o Mucus by:
o Hydrochloric acid o Vagus nerves
o Local hormones that travel via the
 Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach blood to influence the release of
contents very acidic pancreatic juice (and bile)
 Acidic pH  Secretin

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MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology
014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
 Cholecystokinin (CCK) the voluntary (external) anal
sphincter
 Hormones (secretin and CCK) also target
the liver and gallbladder to release bile
o Bile
 Acts as a fat emulsifier
 Needed for fat absorption Nutrition and Metabolism
and absorption of fat-soluble  Most foods are used as metabolic fuel
vitamins (K, D, E, and A) o Foods are oxidized and transformed
 Water is absorbed along the length of the into adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
small intestine o ATP is chemical energy that drives
 End products of digestion cellular activities
o Most substances are absorbed by  Energy value of food is measured in
active transport through cell kilocalories (kcal) or Calories (C)
membranes
o Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
 Substances are transported to the liver by
the hepatic portal vein or lymph
Chyme propulsion
 Peristalsis is the major means of moving Nutrition
food  Nutrient—substance used by the body for
 Segmental movements growth, maintenance, and repair
o Mix chyme with digestive juices
o Aid in propelling food  Major nutrients
o Carbohydrates
Nutrient breakdown and absorption o Lipids
 No digestive enzymes are produced o Proteins
 Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients o Water
o Produce some vitamin K and some
B vitamins  Minor nutrients
o Release gases o Vitamins
 Water, vitamins, ions, and remaining water o Minerals
are absorbed
 Remaining materials are eliminated via  A diet consisting of foods from the five food
feces groups normally guarantees adequate
amounts of all the needed nutrients
 Feces contains:
o Undigested food residues Dietary Recommendations
o Mucus  Healthy Eating Pyramid
o Bacteria o Issued in 1992
o Water o Six major food groups arranged
horizontally
Propulsion of food residue and defecation  MyPlate
 Sluggish peristalsis begins when food o Issued in 2011 by the USDA
residue arrives o Five food groups are arranged by a
 Haustral contractions are the movements round plate
occurring most frequently in the large
intestine
 Mass movements are slow, powerful
movements that occur three to four times
per day

 Presence of feces in the rectum causes a

defecation reflex
o Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
o Defecation occurs with relaxation of

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MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology
014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
 Anabolism
o larger molecules are built from
smaller ones

Carbohydrate Metabolism
 Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred
source to produce cellular energy (ATP)
 Glucose (blood sugar)
o Major breakdown product of
carbohydrate digestion
o Fuel used to make ATP
 Cellular respiration
Dietary Sources of the Major Nutrients o As glucose is oxidized, carbon
Carbohydrates dioxide, water, and ATP are formed
 Dietary carbohydrates are sugars and
starches Events of three main metabolic pathways of
 Most are derived from plants such as fruits cellular respiration
and vegetables 1. Glycolysis
 Exceptions: lactose from milk and small o Occurs in the cytosol
amounts of glycogens from meats o Energizes a glucose molecule so it
can be split into two pyruvic acid
Lipids molecules and yield ATP
 Saturated fats from animal products (meats) 2. Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
 Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, and o Occurs in the mitochondrion
vegetable oils o Produces virtually all the carbon
 Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and milk dioxide and water resulting from
products (dairy products) cellular respiration
o Yields a small amount of ATP

Proteins 3. Electron transport chain

 Complete proteins—contain all essential o Hydrogen atoms removed during
amino acids glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
 Most are from animal products (eggs, milk, are delivered to protein carriers
meat, poultry, and fish) o Hydrogen atoms are split into
 Essential amino acids: those that the body hydrogen ions and electrons in the
cannot make and must be obtained through mitochondria
diet o Electrons give off energy in a series
 Legumes and beans also have proteins, but
of steps to enable
the proteins are incomplete
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Vitamins
 Hyperglycemia
 Most vitamins function as coenzymes
o excessively high levels of glucose in
 Found mainly in fruits and vegetables
the blood
o Excess glucose is stored in body
Minerals
 Mainly important for enzyme activity cells as glycogen or converted to fat
 Foods richest in minerals: vegetables,  Hypoglycemia
legumes, milk, and some meats o low levels of glucose in the blood
o Glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis,
Metabolism and fat breakdown occur to restore
 Metabolism is all of the chemical reactions normal blood glucose levels
necessary to maintain life
 Catabolism Fat Metabolism
o substances are broken down to  Fats
simpler substances; energy is o Insulate the body
released and captured to make o Protect organs

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MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology
014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
o Build some cell structures glycogen
(membranes and myelin sheaths) o Gluconeogenesis— “formation of
o Provide reserve energy new sugar”
 Excess dietary fat is stored in  Glucose is produced from
subcutaneous tissue and fats and proteins
other fat depots
 Fats and fatty acids are picked up by the
 When carbohydrates are in limited supply, liver
more fats are oxidized to produce ATP o Some are oxidized to provide energy
o Excessive fat breakdown causes for liver cells
blood to become acidic (acidosis or o The rest are either stored or broken
ketoacidosis) down into simpler compounds and
 Breath has a fruity odor released into the blood
 Common with:
 “No carbohydrate”  Blood proteins made by the liver are
diets assembled from amino acids
 Uncontrolled diabetes o Albumin is the most abundant
mellitus protein in blood
 Starvation o Clotting proteins
 Liver cells detoxify ammonia
Protein Metabolism o Ammonia is combined with carbon
 Proteins form the bulk of cell structure and dioxide to form urea, which is
most functional molecules flushed from the body in urine
 Proteins are carefully conserved by body
cells Cholesterol metabolism and transport
 Amino acids are actively taken up from  Cholesterol is not used to make ATP
blood by body cells  Functions of cholesterol:
 Amino acids are oxidized to form ATP o Structural basis of steroid hormones
mainly when other fuel sources are not and vitamin D
available o Building block of plasma membranes
 Ammonia, released as amino acids are  Most cholesterol (85%) is produced in the
catabolized, is detoxified by liver cells that liver; only 15% is from the diet
combine it with carbon dioxide to form urea
 Cholesterol and fatty acids cannot freely
The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism circulate in the bloodstream
 Liver is the body’s key metabolic organ  They are transported by lipoproteins (lipid-
 Roles in digestion protein complexes) known as LDLs and
o Manufactures bile HDLs
o Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
o Degrades hormones  Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) transport
o Produces cholesterol, blood proteins cholesterol to body cells
(albumin and clotting proteins) o Rated “bad lipoproteins” since they
o Plays a central role in metabolism can lead to atherosclerosis
 Liver can regenerate if part of it is damaged  High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) transport
or removed cholesterol from body cells to the liver
o Rated “good lipoproteins” since
 To maintain homeostasis of blood glucose cholesterol is destined for
levels, the liver performs: breakdown and elimination
o Glycogenesis— “glycogen
formation” Body Energy Balance
 Glucose molecules are  Energy intake = Total energy output
converted to glycogen and o heat + work + energy storage
stored in the liver o Energy intake is the energy liberated
o Glycogenolysis— “glycogen during food oxidation
splitting”  Energy produced during
 Glucose is released from the glycolysis, citric acid cycle,
liver after conversion from

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MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology
014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
and the electron transport
chain  The body’s thermostat is in the
o Energy output hypothalamus
 Energy we lose as heat  Hypothalamus initiates mechanisms to
(60%) maintain body temperature
 Energy stored as fat or o Heat loss mechanisms involve
glycogen radiation of heat from skin and
evaporation of sweat
 Interference with the body’s energy balance o Heat-promoting mechanisms involve
leads to: vasoconstriction of skin blood
o Obesity vessels and shivering
o Malnutrition (leading to body
wasting)  Fever—controlled hyperthermia
o Results from infection, cancer,
Regulation of food intake allergic reactions, CNS injuries
 Body weight is usually relatively stable o If the body thermostat is set too
o Energy intake and output remain high, body proteins may be
about equal denatured, and permanent brain
 Mechanisms that may regulate food intake damage may occur
o Levels of nutrients in the blood
o Hormones
o Body temperature Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System
o Psychological factors and Metabolism
 The alimentary canal is a continuous, hollow
Metabolic rate and body heat production tube present by the fifth week of
 Nutrients yield different amounts of energy development
 Energy value is measured in kilocalories  Digestive glands bud from the mucosa of
(kcal) the alimentary tube
o Carbohydrates and proteins yield 4  The developing fetus receives all nutrients
kcal/gram through the placenta
o Fats yield 9 kcal/gram  In newborns, feeding must be frequent,
peristalsis is inefficient, and vomiting is
common
 Basic metabolic rate (BMR)—amount of
heat produced by the body per unit of time
 Newborn reflexes
at rest
o Rooting reflex helps the infant find
 Average BMR is about 60 to 72 kcal/hour
for an average 70-kg (154-lb) adult the nipple
o Sucking reflex helps the infant hold
Factors that influence BMR on to the nipple and swallow
 Surface area—a small body usually has a  Teething begins around age 6 months
higher BMR
 Gender—males tend to have higher BMRs Problems of the digestive system
 Age—children and adolescents have higher  Gastroenteritis
BMRs o inflammation of the gastrointestinal
 The amount of thyroxine produced is the tract; can occur at any time
most important control factor  Appendicitis
o More thyroxine means a higher o inflammation of the appendix;
metabolic rate common in adolescents
 Metabolism decreases with old age
Body temperature regulation  Middle-age digestive problems
 When foods are oxidized, more than 60% of o Ulcers
energy escapes as heat, warming the body o Gallbladder problems
 The body has a narrow range of
homeostatic temperature  Later middle-age problems
 Must remain between 35.6ºC and 37.8ºC o Obesity
(96ºF and 100ºF) o Diabetes mellitus

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MC 1A Lecture – Anatomy and Physiology
014 – The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
 Activity of the digestive tract in old age
o Fewer digestive juices
o Peristalsis slows
o Diverticulosis and gastrointestinal
cancers are more common

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