PHYSICS

INTERFERENCE
DIFRRACTION
POLARISATION

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 UNIT-3
(INTERFERENCE)
NEWTON’S
RING
• Newton's Rings are formed by the interference pattern between two
surfaces caused by the light reflecting between them. There are two flat
surfaces on either side of the sphere. In 1704, Isaac Newton described the
effect in a treatise called Opticks based on his research. Newton's Rings
are visible when viewed with monochromatic light as alternating bright
and dark circles located at the point of contact between the two surfaces.
The different wavelengths of light conflict at very different
levels of thickness in the layer of air between the two surfaces when
viewed in white light. This results in a pattern of a concentric circle of
Rainbow colors.
• An Optical glass that has a flat surface is placed on a very slightly curved
Convex glass to create the pattern. At other points, there is a slight air gap
between the two surfaces of the two pieces of glass which are in contact
only at the center. The increasing distance between the center and the
microscope is referred to as the radial distance. On the right side of one of
the pieces, there is a small gap growing from left to right. In the
monochromatic example, the source of color is a monochromatic single
source of light shining through the top piece and refracting off the bottom
and top surfaces. In the resulting superposition, the two rays are
combined.
• This ray, however, generally travels a relatively long path as it reflects off
the surface of the bottom. Two times the gap between the surfaces equals
the additional path length.
• A 180° phase reverse happens when the ray reflects off the bottom piece
of glass. As a result, the phase reversal due to the internal reflection of the
other ray from the underside of the top glass does not occur.
Formation of Newton’s Rings
Light waves are interfered with to create Newton's Rings when Reflections
occur between the top and bottom surfaces of the air film formed
between the lens and glass sheet.
According to the theory of waves of light, the formation of Rings of Newton's
can be explained as follows:
• In between the glass sheet and lens is an air film of varying thickness.
• Reflection and refractive rays occur simultaneously when a ray strikes
the lens surface.
• Rays that are refracted have a phase change of 180 on the reflection
when they strike a glass sheet. If the path difference between two
• waves is m+1/2*1, an interference
hif atphpe epnast hc odnifsfterruecnticvee ly, while destructively
between them is ml. This produces alternate bright and dark Rings
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER

• An interferometer is an instrument that uses interference phenomenon in

the measurement of the wavelength of light in terms of standard of
length or the measurement of distance in terms of the known wavelength
of the light.

The Michelson Interferometer works based on the principle of interference of

light waves.
In this instrument, light from an extended source is divided into two parts by
partial reflection and transmission. These two beams are sent at right angles to
each other in the two directions. They get reflected from the mirror and form
interference fringes which are observed and investigated.
Construction of Michelson Interferometer
It consists of a semi silver plate P placed at an angle of 45 degrees to the
horizontal. M1 and M2 are two highly polished silver mirrors. These Mirrors are
provided with a labeling screw at the back.
Mirror M1 can be moved towards or away from plate P with the help of
micrometer screws. P1 is another glass plate whose thickness is exactly equal to
the thickness of plate P.
It is transparent and parallel to P. S is a monochromatic source of light, say
sodium lamp. Lens L is a Converging lens whose function is made to the source
of light as an extended one.

Michelson Interferometer Working

Light from an extended monochromatic source S rendered parallel by the lens L
is made to fall on semi-silvered plate P. Here, the light is divided into a reflected
and transmitted beam of equal intensity.
The reflected beam which falls on mirror M1 and the transmitted beam that falls
on mirror M2 is incident normally. When the Apparatus is in normal adjustment.
After reflection from mirror M1 and M2, a part of the amplitude of the wave
from M1 is transmitted along with AE. While a part of the amplitude of the wave
from M2 is reflected along with AE.
As these two waves entering the telescope are derived from the same source S,
hence these waves are coherent waves.
Coherent waves interfere with each other and interference fringes formed and
seen through the telescope. The ray which gets reflected from M1 crosses the
plate P twice while the ray which from M2 Travels only in the air.
This means that the ray which travels along the mirror M1 covers an additional
part 2 (n-1) t. Where t is the thickness of the plate P and n is its refractive index.
Which does not get any difficulty if we are using monochromatic light but if
white light is used. Then it does create a problem because of the variation of n
with wavelength.

To overcome this difficulty another plate P1 is introduced between P and mirror

M2. This plate P1 is called a compensating plate.
The plate P and P1 are of equal thickness being cut from a single optical plane
parallel plate to ensure the equality of thickness and the nature of the material.
The function of the compensating plate is that the Ray of light traveling towards
M1 and M2 must travel equally pass through the glass plate.
The phase changes on reflection at mirror M1 and M2 are smaller, the phase
changes due to reflection in air and class are also similar, is equal to π. The two
rays reaching the telescope interfere constructively or destructively depending
upon the path difference.
The path difference between the two rays reaching the telescope is mλ. Where
M is the integer and λ is the wavelength of light used. Then constructive
interference takes place.
On the other hand, if the path difference is (2m+1) λ/2, Then destructive
interference occurs. The path difference between the two beams AM1A and
AM2A can be altered by moving mirror M1.
TWO TYPES OF FRINGES ARE FORMED- CIRCULAR AND LOCALISED

ADVANTAGES-
• High precision
•Low cost
• Easy to use
• Wide range of applications- bio, astronomy, engineering, physics, etc

DISADVANTAGES-
• Limited range
• Alignment issues
•
Limited resolution

YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT

• Young’s double slit experiment uses two coherent sources of light
placed at a small distance apart. Usually, only a few orders of
magnitude greater than the wavelength of light are used. Young’s
double slit experiment helped in understanding the wave theory of light.
• The original Young’s double slit experiment used diffracted light from a
single source passed into two more slits to be used as coherent
sources. Lasers are commonly used as coherent sources in modern-
day experiments.
Derivation of Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Consider a monochromatic light source ‘S’ kept at a considerable distance
from two slits: s1 and s2. S is equidistant from s1 and s2. s1 and s2 behave as two
coherent sources as both are derived from S.
The light passes through these slits and falls on a screen which is at a
distance ‘D’ from the position of slits s1 and s2. ‘d’ is the separation between
two slits.

If s1 is open and s2 is closed, the screen opposite to s1 is closed, and only the
screen opposite to s2 is illuminated. The interference patterns appear only
when both slits s1 and s2 are open.

When the slit separation (d) and the screen distance (D) are kept unchanged,
to reach P, the light waves from s1 and s2 must travel different distances. It
implies that there is a path difference in Young’s double slit experiment
between the two light waves from s1 and s2.
Approximations in Young’s double slit experiment

• Approximation 1:D > > d: Since D > > d, the two light rays are assumed to be
parallel.
• Approximation 2: d/λ >> 1: Often, d is a fraction of a millimetre, and λ is a fraction
of a micrometre for visible light.

Under these conditions, θ is small. Thus, we can use the approximation sin θ =
tan θ ≈ θ = λ/d.
∴
path difference, Δz = λ/d
This is the path difference between two waves meeting at a point on the
screen. Due to this path difference in Young’s double slit experiment, some
points on the screen are bright, and some points are dark.
Position of Bright Fringes
For maximum intensity or bright fringe to be formed at P,

Path difference, Δz = nλ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .)

i.e., xd/D = nλ

or

x = nλD/d

The distance of the nth bright fringe from the centre is

xn = nλD/d

Similarly, the distance of the (n-1)th bright fringe from the centre is

x (n-1)= (n -1)λD/d

Fringe width, β = xn – x (n-1) = nλD/d – (n -1)λD/d = λD/d

(n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .)

Position of Dark Fringes

For minimum intensity or dark fringe to be formed at P,
Path difference, Δz = (2n + 1) (λ/2) (n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .)

i.e., x = (2n +1)λD/2d

The distance of the nth dark fringe from the centre is

xn = (2n+1)λD/2d

Similarly, the distance of the (n-1)th bright fringe from the centre is

x (n-1)= (2(n-1) +1)λD/2d

Fringe width, β = xn – x (n-1) = (2n + 1) λD/2d – (2(n -1) + 1)λD/2d = λD/d

(n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .)
Fringe Width
The distance between two adjacent bright (or dark) fringes is called the fringe
width.
β = λD/d

INTENSITY OF FRINGES

FRESNEL’S BIPRISM

(DIFFRACTION)

FRAUNHOFER(SINGLE,DOUBLE,N-SLIT)
SINGLE
DOUBLE
(N-SLIT DIFFRACTION)
DISPERSIVE POWER
• The dispersive power of a plane transmission grating is defined as the ratio of the
difference in the angles of diffraction of any two nearby spectral lines to the difference in
the wavelength between the two spectral lines.

RESOLVING POWER
 • When two objects are very close to each other, it may not be possible for our eye to see
them separately. The minimum separation between two objects that can be resolved by
an optical instrument is called resolving limit of that instrument. The resolving power is
inversely proportional to the resolving limit.

POLARISATION
BREWSTER’S LAW
• According to this law the angle between the reflected and the refracted ray is 90°. It states
that the tangent of the polarising angle is equal to the refractive index of the refracting medium

MALU’S LAW

• The Malus law states that intensity of light emerging from the analyzer is proportional to
the square of the consine of the angle between the polarised and the analyzer.
It tells us the nature of polarised light.

•
 MOST REPEATED QUESTIONS
UNIT-3
• IN AN EXPERIMENT OF NEWTON’S RING, THE DIAMETER OF 4TH AND 12TH DARK RINGS ARE 0.400 CM AND 0.700 CM
RESPECTIVELY. CALCULATE THE DIAMETER OF 20TH DARK RING. (5)
OR

• STATE THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION. EXPLAIN THE FORMATION OF FRINGES IN NETWON’S RING EXPERIMENT.
GIVE ITS APPLICATION TO FIND OUT THE WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT. (6.5)
OR

• DESCRIBE MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER. (8)

OR
• DESCRIBE FRESNEL’S BIPRISM. (4)
OR
• WRITE THE KEY FRESNEL’S ASSUMPTIONS IN FRESNEL’S DIFFRACTION THEORY. (2.5)

• WHAT IS DISPERSIBE AND RESOLVING POWER? (5)

• STATE BREWSTER’S LAW. (4)
• STATE MALU’S LAW. (4)

• DESCRIBE NICOL’S PRISM WITH NEAT DIAGRAM. (5)

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