Interference Continued

When two or more coherent waves of light are superposed, the resultant effect is brightness
in certain regions and darkness at other regions. The regions of brightness and darkness
alternate and may take the form of straight bands, or circular rings or any other complex
shape. The alternate bright and dark bands are called interference fringes.

The techniques used for creating coherent sources of light can be divided into the following
two broad classes.
(a) Wavefront splitting: One of the methods consists in dividing a light wavefront, emerging
from a narrow slit, by passing it through two slits closely spaced side by side. The two parts of
the same wavefront travel through different paths and reunite on a screen to produce fringe
pattern. This is known as interference due to division of wavefront. This method is useful only
with narrow sources. Young’s double slit, Fresnel’s double mirror, Fresnel’s biprism, Lloyd’s
mirror, etc. employ this technique.
(b) Amplitude splitting: Alternately, the amplitude (intensity) of a light wave is divided into
two parts, namely reflected and transmitted components, by partial reflection at a surface.
The two parts travel through different paths and reunite to produce interference fringes. This
is known as interference due to division of amplitude. Optical elements such as beam
splitters, mirrors are used for achieving amplitude division. Interference in thin films (wedge,
Newton’s rings etc), Michelson’s interferometer etc. interferometers utilize this method. This
method requires extended source.
 Interference Continued
Determination of Fringe Width :
When the fringes are observed in the field view of the eyepiece, the vertical cross-wire is
made to coincide with the centre of one of the bright fringes. The position of the eyepiece is
read on the scale, say x0. The micrometer screw of the eyepiece is moved slowly and the
number of the bright fringes N that pass across the cross-wire is counted. The position of the
cross-wire is again read, say xN. The fringe width is then given by,
𝑥𝑁 − 𝑥0
𝛽= … … … (1)
𝑁

Determination of Wavelength of Light :

As we know the fringe width has a relation given by Eq.
𝜆𝐷
𝛽= … … … (2)
𝑑
Thus, measuring β using the procedure described by Eq. (1), D and d, the wavelength λ can be
determined.
 Interference of Light continued
Problem Examples:
Example1: Green light of wavelength 5100 Å from a narrow slit is incident on a double slit. If the
overall separation of 10 fringes on a screen 200 cm away is 2 cm, find the slit separation.

𝜆𝐷
Solution: The fringe width 𝛽=
𝑑
Ans: d = 0.05 cm

Example 2: Two coherent sources are 0.18 mm apart and the fringes are observed on a screen 80
cm away. It is found that with a certain monochromatic source of light, the fourth bright fringe is
situated at a distance of 10.8 mm from the central fringe. Calculate the wavelength of light.

𝑛𝜆𝐷
Solution: The distance of the nth fringe from the central fringe is 𝑥 =
𝑑
Ans: λ = 6075 × 10 − 8cm = 6075 Å.

Example 3: A light source emits light of two wavelengths 4300Å and 5100Å. The source is used in a
double slit experiment. The distance between the sources and the screen is 1.5 m and the distance
between the slits is 0.025mm. Calculate the separation between the third order bright fringes due
to these two wavelengths.
𝑛𝜆1 𝐷 𝑛𝜆2 𝐷
Solution: Here, 𝑥1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 =
𝑑 𝑑

Ans: 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 1.44 𝑐𝑚
 Interference of Light continued
Example 4: In Lloyd’s single mirror interference experiment, the slit source is at a distance of 2 mm
from the plane of the mirror. The screen is kept at a distance of 1.5 m from the source. Calculate
the fringe width. Wavelength of light is 5890 Å.
𝜆𝐷
Solution: The fringe width 𝛽=
𝑑
Ans:  = 22 mm
 Interference of Light continued
Interference due to reflected light: Let us consider a transparent film of uniform thickness ‘t’
bounded by two parallel surfaces as shown in Fig. Let the refractive index of the material be μ. The
film is surrounded by air on both the sides. Let us consider plane waves from a monochromatic
source falling on the thin film at an angle of incidence ‘i’. Part of a ray such as AB is reflected along
BC, and part of it is transmitted into the film along BF. The transmitted ray BF makes an angle ‘r’
with the normal to the surface at the point G. The ray BF is in turn partly reflected back into the
film along FD while a major part refracts into the surrounding medium along FK. Part of the
reflected ray FD is transmitted at the upper surface and travels along DE. Since the film boundaries
are parallel, the reflected rays BC and DE will be parallel to each other. The waves travelling along
the paths BC and BFDE are derived from a single incident wave AB. Therefore they are coherent
and can produce interference if they are made to overlap by a condensing lens or the eye.
 Interference by Reflection of Light continued
Now the Geometrical Path Difference Between the Two Rays: Let DH be normal to BC. The
geometric path difference between the two rays is BF + FD – BH.

Therefore, the Optical Path Difference will be,

Δ = μ (BF+FD) −1(BH) … … … (3)
In the ΔBFD, ∠BFG = ∠GFD = ∠r
∴ BF = FD
𝐹𝐺 𝑡
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐵𝐹 = =
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟
2𝑡
∴ 𝐵𝐹 + 𝐹𝐷 = ……… 4
cos 𝑟
Again, BG = GD, ∴ BD = 2BG
Then from the Fig., BG = FG tan r = t tan r ; ∴ BD = 2t tan r

In the Triangle BHD; ∠HBD = (90 – i), ∠BHD = 90 , ∴ ∠BDH = i

∴ BH = BD sin i = 2t tan r sin i ... ... ... (5)
We know from Snell’s law, sin i = μ sin r
2𝜇𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
∴ 𝐵𝐻 = 2𝑡 tan 𝑟 𝜇 sin 𝑟 = … … … (6)
cos 𝑟
Now using Eq. (3), the optical path difference will be,
2𝑡 2𝜇𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
∆= 𝜇 −
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟
 Interference by Reflection of Light continued
2𝜇𝑡
∆= 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
cos 𝑟

2𝜇𝑡
∆= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑟
cos 𝑟

∆= 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 … … … (7)

Now, when a ray is reflected at the boundary of a rarer to denser medium, a phase change of  or a
path change of λ/2 occurs for the ray BC (in Fig.). There is no path difference due to transmission at
D. Including the change in path difference due to reflection, so the net path difference is:
𝜆
∆𝑡 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − … … … (8)
2
 Interference by Reflection of Light continued
CONDITIONS FOR CONSTRUCTIVE (BRIGHTNESS) AND DESTRUCTIVE (DARKNESS) INTERFERENCE:
Constructive interference occurs when the optical path difference is equal to an integral number of
full waves, then the rays meet each other in phase. The crests of one wave falls on the crests of the
others and the waves interference forms maxima. Thus, when
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − = 𝑚𝜆 … … … (9)
2
the reflected rays undergo constructive interference to produce brightness or maxima at the point
of their meeting.
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑚𝜆 +
2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 2𝑚 + 1 … … … (10)
2
Eq. (10) is the condition for brightness in case interference by reflection.

Minima occur when the optical path difference is equal to an odd integral number of half-waves,
then the rays meet each other in opposite phase. The crests of one wave falls on the troughs of the
others and the waves interfere destructively. Thus, when
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − = 2𝑚 + 1 … … … (11)
2 2
the reflected rays undergo destructive interference to produce darkness. Equ.(15.9) may be
rewritten as
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑚 + 1 𝜆
 Interference by Reflection of Light continued
The phase relationship of the interfering waves does not change if one full wave is added to or
subtracted from any of the interfering waves. Therefore (m + 1)λ in above Eq. can as well be
replaced by mλ for simplicity in expression. Thus,
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑚𝜆 … … … (12)
Eq. (12) is the condition of darkness for interference of light due to reflection.
 Interference by Reflection of Light: Newton’s Rings
Newton’s Rings: Newton’s rings are an example of fringes of equal thickness. Newton’s rings are
formed when a plano-convex lens P of a large radius of curvature placed on a sheet of plane glass
AB is illuminated from the top with monochromatic light (Fig. a, below). The combination forms a
thin circular air film of variable thickness in all directions around the point of contact of the lens
and the glass plate. The locus of all points corresponding to specific thickness of air film falls on a
circle whose centre is at O. Consequently, interference fringes are observed in the form of a series
of concentric rings with their centre at O. Newton originally observed these concentric circular
fringes and hence they are called Newton’s rings.

Fig. (a) Fig. (b)

 Interference by Reflection of Light: Newton’s Rings
Monochromatic light from an extended source S is rendered parallel by a lens L. It is incident on a
glass plate inclined at 45 to the horizontal, and reflected normally down onto a plano-convex lens
placed on a flat glass plate. Part of the light incident on the system is reflected from the glass-to-air
boundary, say from point D (Fig. b). The remainder of the light is transmitted through the air film. It
is again reflected from the air-to-glass boundary, say from point J. The two rays reflected from the
top and bottom of the air film are derived through division of amplitude from the same incident ray
CD and are therefore coherent. The rays 1 and 2 are close to each other and interfere to produce
darkness or brightness. The condition of brightness or darkness depends on the path difference
between the two reflected light rays, which in turn depends on the thickness of the air film at the
point of incidence.

Bright and Dark Fringes Formed: We know the optical path difference between the rays is given by,
𝜆
∆= 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 −
2
Since μ = 1 for air and cos r =1 for normal incidence of light, then
𝜆
∆= 2𝑡 − … … … (13)
2
Now, the intensity maxima occur when the optical path difference is equal to an integral number of
full waves, then the rays meet each other in phase. The crests of one wave falls on the crests of the
other and the waves interfere constructively. Thus, if
𝜆
2𝑡 − = 𝑚𝜆
2
𝜆
2𝑡 = 2𝑚 + 1 … … … (14)
2
the bright fringes are obtained.
 Interference by Reflection of Light: Newton’s Rings
Intensity minima occur when the optical path difference is equal to an odd integral number of half
waves, then the rays meet each other in opposite phase. The crests of one wave fall on the troughs
of the other and the waves interfere destructively. Hence if,
𝜆 𝜆
2𝑡 − = 2𝑚 + 1
2 2
2𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 … … … (15)
dark fringes are produced.

Circular Fringes Produced: In Newton’s ring arrangement, a thin air film is enclosed between a
plano-convex lens and a glass plate. The thickness of the air film at the point of contact is zero and
gradually increases as we move outward. The locus of points where the air film has the same
thickness then fall on a circle whose centre is the point of contact. Thus, the thickness of air film is
constant at points on any circle having the point of lens–glass plate contact as the centre. The
fringes are therefore circular.
 Interference by Reflection of Light: Newton’s Rings
Why the Central Spot is Dark?: The central spot is dark as seen by reflection. Newton’s rings are
produced due to superposition of light rays reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of a thin air
film enclosed between a plano-convex lens and a plane glass plate. The occurrence of brightness or
darkness depends on the optical path difference arising between the reflected rays. The optical
𝜆
path difference is given by, ∆= 2𝑡 − .
2
At the point of contact ‘O’ of the lens and glass plate (Fig. below), the thickness of air film is
negligibly small compared to a wavelength of light.
That is, t≅0 ∴ Δ ≅ λ / 2.

The wave reflected from the lower surface of

the air film suffers a phase change of π while
the wave reflected from the upper surface of
the film does not suffer such change. Thus, the
superposing waves are out of step by λ/2 which
is equivalent to a phase difference of 180 (or
π rad). Thus, the two interfering waves at the
centre are opposite in phase and produce a
dark spot.
 Newton’s Rings: Radii of Fringes
Radii of Dark Fringes: Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens (Fig. below). Let a dark fringe
be located at Q. Let the thickness of the air film at Q be PQ = t. Let the radius of the circular fringe
at Q be OQ= rm.
By the Pythagoras theorem,
𝑅 2 = 𝑟𝑚2 + 𝑅 − 𝑡 2 … … … (16)
That is, 𝑟𝑚2 = 2𝑅𝑡 − 𝑡 2
As R>>t, 2𝑅𝑡 ≫ 𝑡 2 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑟𝑚2 ≅ 2𝑅𝑡 … … … (17)

Now, the condition for darkness at Q

is 2𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 , 𝑖. 𝑒., 2𝑅𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆𝑅
Hence, 𝑟𝑚2 ≅ 𝑚𝜆𝑅
Therefore, 𝑟𝑚 = 𝑚𝜆𝑅 … … … (18)

The radii of dark fringes can be found by inserting values 1,2,3, ...................for m. Thus,
𝑟1 = 1𝜆𝑅 𝑜𝑟, 𝑟1 = 1𝜆
𝑟2 = 2𝜆𝑅 𝑜𝑟, 𝑟2 = 2𝜆
𝑟3 = 3𝜆𝑅 𝑜𝑟, 𝑟3 = 3𝜆
It means that the radii of the dark rings are proportional to square root of the natural numbers.
The above relation also implies that,
𝑟𝑚 ∝ 𝜆
Thus, the radius of the mth dark ring is proportional to square root of wavelength.
 Interference by Reflection of Light: Newton’s Rings
Ring Diameter: Now the diameter of mth dark ring
𝐷𝑚 = 2𝑟𝑚
Hence from Eqs. (17) and (18),
𝐷𝑚 = 2 2𝑅𝑡 = 2 𝑚𝜆𝑅 … … … 19

Spacing Between Rings:

It is seen that the diameter of dark rings is given by
𝐷𝑚 = 2 𝑚𝜆𝑅
where m = 1,2,3, ............
The diameters of dark rings are proportional to the square root of the natural numbers. Therefore,
the diameter of the ring does not increase in the same proportion as the order of the ring, for
example, if m increases as 1,2,3,4, ...........the diameters are
𝐷1 = 2 𝜆𝑅
𝐷2 = 2 1.4 𝜆𝑅
𝐷3 = 2 1.7 𝜆𝑅
and so on.

Therefore, the rings get closer and closer, as m increases. This is why the rings are not evenly
spaced.
 Newton’s Rings: Determination of Wavelength
DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT:
A plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature (about 100 cm) and a flat glass plate are
cleaned. The lens is kept with its convex face on the glass plate and they are held in position
with the help of a metal ring arrangement. The system is held under a low power travelling
microscope kept before a sodium vapour lamp. It is arranged that the yellow light coming
from the sodium lamp falls on a glass plate held at 45° light beam. The light is turned through
90 and is incident normally on the lens-plate system. The microscope is adjusted till the
circular rings came into focus. The centre of the cross-wire is made to come into focus on the
centre of the dark spot, which is at the centre of the circular ring system. Now, turning the
screw the microscope is moved on the carriage slowly towards one side, say right side. As the
cross-wires move in the field of view, dark rings are counted. The movement is stopped when
the 22nd dark ring is reached. Then the microscope is moved in the opposite direction and
stopped at the 20th or 19th dark ring. The vertical cross-wire is made tangential to the 19th
ring and the reading is noted with the help of the scale graduated on the carriage. Thus,
starting from the 19th ring, the tangential positions of the 18th, 17th, 16th, ….., 5th dark
rings are noteddown. Now, the microscope is moved quickly to the left side of the ring
system and it is stopped at the 5th dark ring. The cross-wire is again made tangential to the
5th dark ring and its position is noted. The difference between the readings on right and left
sides of the 5th dark ring gives its diameter value. The procedure is repeated till 19th ring is
reached and its reading is noted. From the value of the diameters the squares of the
2 and the ring number ‘m’. A straight
diameters are calculated. A graph is plotted between 𝐷𝑚
line would be obtained, as shown in Fig. (next page) because;
 Newton’s Rings: Determination of 
From Eq. (19)
2
[squaring both sides] 𝐷𝑚 = 4𝑚𝜆𝑅 … … … 20

2
The 𝐷𝑚 − 𝑚 plot will be simply a straight line
which has a 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 4𝜆𝑅

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
Therefore, 𝜆=
4𝑅

Theoretically, 𝐷 2𝑚+𝑝 = 4 𝑚 + 𝑝 𝜆𝑅 … … … 21

From Eqs. (20) and (21)

𝐷 2𝑚+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑚
2
= 4𝑝𝜆𝑅

𝐷 2𝑚+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑚
2
𝜆= … … … (22)
4𝑝𝑅

The radius of curvature R of the lens may be determined using a spherometer and λ is computed
with the help of the above equation.
 Newton’s Rings: Determination of Refractive Index of a Liquid
The liquid, whose refractive index is to be determined, is filled in the gap between the lens and
plane glass plate. Now the liquid film substitutes the air film. The condition for interference may
then be written as [from Eq. (15)]
2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠
where  is the refractive index of the liquid and we have considered the case of normal incidence.

𝑟2 𝑟2
As we see from Eq. (17), 𝑡 = then, 2𝜇 = 𝑚𝜆
2𝑅 2𝑅
𝑚𝜆𝑅
𝑟2 =
𝜇
𝑚𝜆𝑅
∴ 𝐷2 = 4
𝜇

Following the above relation, the diameter of mth dark ring may be expressed as
2
𝑚𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝑚 =4 … … … (23)
𝜇
Similarly, the diameter of the (m+p)th ring is given by
2
𝑚 + 𝑝 𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝑚+𝑝 =4 … … … (24)
𝜇
Subtracting (23) from (24),
4𝑝𝜆𝑅
𝐷 2𝑚+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑚2
= … … … (25)
𝑙𝑖𝑞. 𝜇
 Newton’s Rings: Determination of Refractive Index of a Liquid
Again, we know from (22),
𝐷 2𝑚+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑚
2
𝑎𝑖𝑟
= 4𝑝𝜆𝑅 … … … (26)

Eq. (26)  Eq. (25) gives,

𝐷 2𝑚+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑚
2
𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜇= 2 2
… … … (27)
𝐷 𝑚+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑚
𝑙𝑖𝑞.

Hence the refractive index of a liquid can be measured by a comparative measurement of ring
diameter in air and liquid.

Example 1: Newton’s rings are observed in reflected light of λ = 5.9 × 10 −5 cm. The diameter of the
10th dark ring is 0.5 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens and the thickness of the air film.

Ans: Given that λ = 5.9 × 10 −5 cm, m = 10. The radius of mth dark ring is given by
2
𝑟𝑚2
𝑟𝑚 = 𝑚𝜆𝑅 , 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠, 𝑅=
𝑚𝜆

The thickness of the air film can be determined by,

𝑚𝜆
2𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 , 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠, 𝑡=
2
 Newton’s Rings: Determination of Refractive Index of a Liquid
Example 2: In a Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of the 15th ring was found to be 0.59 cm
and that of the 5th ring was 0.336 cm. If the radius of the plano-convex lens is 100 cm, calculate the
wavelength of light used.

Example 3: In a Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of 10th ring changes from 1.40 to 1.27 cm
when a drop of liquid is introduced between the lens and the glass plate. Calculate the refractive
index of the liquid.