Immunity

TABLE OF CONTENT
 INTRODUCTION ON IMMUNITY
 TYPES OF IMMUNITY
 ANTIBODIES – GENERAL STRUCTURE AND THEIR TYPES
 ANTIBODY – ANTIGEN INTERACTION
 VACCINATION AND IMMUNIZATION
 AUTO – IMMUNITY
 ALLERGIES
 IMMUNO – DEFICIENCY DISEASES
 CONCLUSION
 BIBILIOGRAPHY
 INTRODUCTION
Immunity is the body's ability to protect itself from disease-causing organisms,
harmful substances, and cell changes. The immune system is made up of cells,
tissues, and organs that work together to identify and neutralize these threats.

Everyday our body comes in contact with several pathogens, but only a few
results into diseases. The reason is, our body has the ability to release
antibodies against these pathogens and protects the body against diseases.
This defence mechanism is called immunity.
 TYPES OF IMMUNITY
There are two major types of immunity:

1. Innate Immunity or Natural or Non-specific Immunity.

2. Acquired Immunity or Adaptive Immunity.

Innate Immunity:
This type of immunity is present in an organism by birth. This is activated
immediately when the pathogen attacks. Innate immunity includes certain
barriers and defence mechanisms that keep foreign particles out of the body.
Innate immunity refers to the body’s defence system. This immunity helps us
by providing the natural resistance components including salivary enzymes,
natural killer cells, intact skin and neutrophils, etc. which produce an initial
response against the infections at birth prior to exposure to a pathogen or
antigens. It is a long-term immunity in which our body produces the antibodies
on its own. Our body has few natural barriers to prevent the entry of
pathogens.

Types of Barrier
Physical barrier
These include the skin, body hair, cilia, eyelashes, the respiratory tract, and the
gastrointestinal tract. These form the first line of defence.

The skin does more than providing us with fair or dark complexions. Our skin
acts as a physical barrier to the entry of pathogens. The mucus coating in our
nose and ear is a protective barrier which traps the pathogen before it gets
inside.

Physiological barriers
We know that our stomach uses hydrochloric acid to break down the food molecules.
Due to such a strongly acidic environment, most of the germs that enter our body
along with the food are killed before the further process is carried on.
Cellular barriers
In spite of the physical and physiological barriers, certain pathogens manage to enter
our body. The cells involved in this barrier are leukocytes (WBC), neutrophils,
lymphocytes, basophil, eosinophil, and monocytes. All these cells are all present in
the blood and tissues.

Cytokine barriers
The cells in our body are smarter than we give them credit for. For instance, in case
a cell in our body experiences a virus invasion, it automatically secretes proteins
called interferons which forms a coating around the infected cell and prevents the
cells around it from further infections

Cells Involved In Innate Immunity

 Phagocytes: These circulate through the body and look for any foreign
substance. They engulf and destroy it defending the body against that
pathogen.
 Macrophages: These have the ability to move across the walls of the
circulatory system. They release certain signals as cytokines to recruit other
cells at the site of infections.
 Mast Cells: These are important for healing wounds and defence against
infections.
 Neutrophils: These contain granules that are toxic in nature and kill any
pathogen that comes in contact.
 Eosinophils: These contain highly toxic proteins that kill any bacteria or
parasite in contact.
 Basophils: These attack multicellular parasites. Like the mast cells, these
release histamine.
 Natural Killer Cells: These stop the spread of infections by destroying the
infected host cells.
 Dendritic Cells: These are located in the tissues that are the points for initial
infections. These cells sense the infection and send the message to the rest
of the immune system by antigen presentation.

Acquired immunity:
 Acquired immunity or adaptive immunity is the immunity that our body
acquires or gains over time. Unlike the innate immunity, this is not
present by birth. The ability of the immune system to adapt itself to
disease and to generate pathogen-specific immunity is termed as
acquired immunity. It is also known as adaptive immunity. An individual
acquires the immunity after the birth, hence is called as the acquired
immunity. It is specific and mediated by antibodies or lymphocytes
which make the antigen harmless. The main function of acquired
immunity is to relieve the victim of the infectious disease and also
prevent its attack in future. It mainly consists of an advanced lymphatic
defence system which functions by recognizing the own body cells and
not reacting to them.

Features of Acquired Immunity

 Specificity: Our body has the ability to differentiate between different types of
pathogens, whether it is harmful or not, and devise ways to destroy them.
 Diversity: Our body can detect vast varieties of pathogens, ranging from
protozoa to viruses.
 Differentiate between self and non-self: Our body has the unique ability to
differentiate between its own cells and foreign cells. It immediately starts
rejecting any foreign cell in the body.
 Memory: Once our body encounters a pathogen, it activates the immune
system to destroy it. It also remembers what antibodies were released in
 response to that pathogen, so that, the next time it enters, a similar procedure
is followed by the body to eliminate it.

Cells Involved in Acquired Immunity

B-cells

 They develop in the bone marrow.

 These cells are activated on their encounter with foreign agents. These foreign particles
act as foreign markers.

 The B-cells immediately differentiate into plasma cells which produce

antibodies specific to that foreign particle or so-called antigen.
 These antibodies attach to the surface of the antigen/foreign agent.
 These antibodies detect any antigen in the body and destroy it.
 The immunity dependent on B-cells is called humoral immunity.

T-cells

 They originate in the bone marrow and develop in the thymus.

 T-cells differentiate into helper cells, cytotoxic cells, and regulatory cells.
These cells are released into the bloodstream.
 When these cells are triggered by an antigen, helper T-cells release cytokines
that act as messengers.
 These cytokines initiate the differentiation of B-cells into plasma cells which
release antibodies against the antigens.
 The cytotoxic T-cells kills the cancer cells.
 Regulatory T-cells regulate immune reactions.

Types of Acquired Immune Response

Humoral Immune Response

The antibodies produced by B-lymphocytes are present in the blood cells and they
are transported all over the body. This is why it is called the humoral immune
response as it consists of an antibody produced by the lymphocytes. It depends
upon the action of antibodies circulating in the body. When an antibody on a B-cell
binds with an antigen, humoral immunity comes into play. The antigen is internalized
by the B cell and presented on the helper T cell. This activates the B-cell. The
activated B cells grow and produce plasma cells. These plasma cells release
antibodies in the bloodstream. The memory B cells retain the information about the
pathogen to prevent any disease caused by that pathogen in the near future.
Cell-mediated Immune Response
Cell-mediated immunity is initiated by the T helper cells. The cytotoxic T cells
eliminate the infected cells from the body by releasing toxins, thereby,
promoting apoptosis or programmed cell death. The T helper cells help to activate
other immune cells. Cell-mediated immunity becomes clear in the case of transplant
patients. When any of our sense organs stop functioning, it can be transplanted to
replace the malfunctioning organs. But it is not that simple with the immune
response. It appears that T-lymphocytes are capable of recognizing whether tissue
or an organ is from our body or foreign bodies. This is the reason why we cannot
transplant and implant the organs into our body even if we find the donor with the
same blood group because our body might reject the transplanted organ. The T-cells
quickly recognize that the tissue or an organ as a foreign and do not allow it to
become a part of the body. This is why transplant receivers have to take
immunosuppressant medication for the rest of their lives. This response is controlled
by the T-lymphocytes.

Types of Acquired Immunity

Active Immunity
Active immunity involves the direct response to a foreign antigen within the body. In
the case of the acquired or adaptive immune system, the body remembers the
pathogens it has encountered in the past. This is a direct result of the active immune
system. Active immunity occurs when we are in contact with the pathogen or its
antigen. Antigens stand for antibody generator. It is with the help of antigens
released by the pathogen that our body tackles the pathogen. So what our body
does is, it starts producing antibodies to attack the pathogen based on its antigen.
When this happens for the first time, it is called a primary response. Once a body
experiences a pathogen for the first time, it keeps a few of the antibodies that
attacked the pathogen just in case it attacks for the second time. This is known as
natural active immunity.

Passive Immunity
Passive immunity involves the immune response by the antibodies attained from
outside the body. The primary response by the body to a pathogen it encounters for
the first time is rather feeble, so the first encounter is always a little harsh on the
body. What if we could immunize everyone without the need for them ever getting
sick? Biotechnology has grown tremendously in the last decade or two and now we
are capable of manufacturing antibodies for diseases. These ready-made antibodies
protect the body even if the body hasn’t yet experienced a primary response. While
active immunity may protect us from a disease for a lifetime, passive immunity is the
more short term. Passive immunity develops immediately and our body could begin
its attack on the pathogen right away.
 Antibodies – structure
and types
Antibodies are proteins that are part of the immune system and have a Y-
shaped structure. They are made up of four polypeptide subunits, two
heavy chains, and two light chains. The structure of antibodies is held
together by disulfide and non-covalent bonds.
Here are some types of antibodies:
 Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
One of the most common antibodies in the blood, IgG is produced by
plasma B cells and protects body tissues from infection.
 Immunoglobulin E (IgE)
Involved in allergic reactions, IgE helps defend the body against harmful
intruders.
 Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
The largest antibody, IgM is the first antibody to appear when the body is
exposed to an antigen.
 Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
Protects the body's surfaces from immediate invaders.
 Immunoglobulin D (IgD)
Similar in structure to other immunoglobulin classes, IgD can be
fragmented into Fab and Fc fragments.
 Antibody – antigen
interaction
Antigen-antibody interaction is a chemical reaction between antibodies and
antigens that occurs during an immune response. Here are some things to
know about antigen-antibody interaction:
 Formation of an antigen-antibody complex
When an antibody binds to an antigen, an antigen-antibody complex is
formed. This reaction is reversible, and the degree of reversibility depends on
the affinity of the antibody for the antigen and the avidity of the interaction.
 Results of the interaction
The interaction between antibodies and antigens can have a variety of
results, including:
 Agglutination: Particulate antigens, like bacteria and red blood cells, are
aggregated together. This reaction is used in blood typing.
 Precipitation: Soluble antigens are precipitated out of solution.
 Neutralization: Viruses are inactivated or rendered non-infective.
 Complement fixation: Antibody-antigen complexes lead to lytic and bactericidal
reactions.
 Vaccination and
immunisation

 Vaccination

The process of introducing a vaccine into the body to produce protection from
a specific disease. Vaccines are usually administered through needle injections,
but some can be administered by mouth or sprayed into the nose.

 Immunization

The process of becoming protected against a disease through

vaccination. Immunization can also refer to treatments that contain pre-made
antibodies, which provide almost immediate protection against certain
diseases.
 Auto – immunity
Autoimmunity is a condition where the body's immune system attacks its
own healthy cells and tissues. This happens when the immune system
doesn't distinguish between healthy tissue and harmful antigens. The result
is a reaction that destroys normal tissues.
Autoimmune diseases can affect almost any part of the body, and there are
more than 80 types of them. Some common symptoms include:
 Fatigue
 Joint pain and swelling
 Skin problems
 Abdominal pain or digestive issues
 Recurring fever
 Swollen glands
 Allergies
Allergies are a reaction to substances in the environment that are harmless to
most people. When a person with allergies encounters an allergen, their
immune system overreacts by producing antibodies that attack the
allergen. This can cause a range of symptoms, from mild to severe.
Some common symptoms of allergies include:
runny nose, sneezing, itching, rashes, swelling, and asthma.
Some common allergens include:
Pollen, Dust mites, Mold spores, Pet dander, Food, Insect stings, and
Medicines.
Allergies can be treated with: medicines, allergy shots, and avoiding the
substances that cause the reactions.
A doctor can diagnose allergies with a physical exam and tests such as a blood
test or skin prick test. You should see a doctor if your symptoms:
 Last longer than a week or two
 Tend to come back during certain times of the year
IMMUNO DEFICIENCY
DISEASES
 CONCLUSION
 It is our immune system that determines the level of resistance an
individual possess to an external stimuli.
 The immune system is likely a double edged sword. It renders an
individual ineffective to any diseases or infections, on the other
hand a compromised or an exaggerated immune response would
lead to fatal results.
 Bibliography
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 https://www.studocu.com/in/document/ryan-international-school-vasant-kunj/biology-sl/
bio-project-immunity/81795999
 https://byjus.com/biology/immunity/
 https://www.scribd.com/document/415351479/Bio-Project-Immunity
 https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/publication/sciencelaboratorymanuals/classXII/biology/lelm216.pdf
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_(medicine)
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279396/