Mathematics (1)

Calculus
For Preparatory Year and SSP
Fall 2024
Lecture (1)
Functions

By: Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

Faculty of Engineering
Alexandria University
Mathematics (1)

▪ Functions.
Calculus ▪ Differential calculus.
▪ Integral calculus.

▪ Matrices.
▪ Algebraic operations on matrices.
Algebra ▪ Systems of linear equations.
▪ Gauss elimination.

▪ Conic sections.
Analytical Geometry ▪ Applications of conic sections.

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

References

[1] Robert T. Smith & Roland B. Minton, Calculus, 4th Edition (2011).

[2] Ron Larson & Bruce Edwards, Calculus: Early Transcendental Functions,
7th Edition (2015).

[3] James Stewart, Calculus: Early Transcendentals, 8th Edition (2015).

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

Functions
A function 𝑓 is a rule that assigns exactly one element 𝑦 in a set 𝐵 to each
element 𝑥 in a set 𝐴.
In this case, we write 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
𝑦=𝑓 𝑥
𝑥 is referred as the independent variable.
𝑦 is referred as the dependent variable.
𝑥
𝑦

➢ Also, function can be considered as an operator that operates on its input(s)

and results in one output.

𝑥 𝑓 𝑦
Independent Dependent
variable variable

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Functions

Note that: If 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , then: 𝑓 ∎ = ∎2

𝑥 𝑓 𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑓 𝑥4

2
𝑓 𝒙 = 𝒙2 𝑓 𝒙𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 = 𝑥4

Note that: If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 and 𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑦 3 , then:

𝑓 ∎ = ∎3 𝑔 ∎ = ∎3

𝑓 𝑥 ≠𝑔 𝑦

𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑥
𝑓 𝑦 =𝑔 𝑦

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Examples
Ex 1: If 𝑓 5𝑥 = 𝑥 2 , find 𝑓 𝑥 .
Solution: Another Solution:
𝑓 5∎ = ∎2 ∵ 𝑓 5𝑥 = 𝑥 2
𝑦 2
𝒙 𝒙 2 Let 𝑦 = 5𝑥 ∴𝑓 𝑦 =
𝑓 5 = 5
𝟓 𝟓
Replace 𝑦 by 𝑥 2
𝒙 2 𝑥
∴𝑓 𝑥 = ∴𝑓 𝑥 =
𝟓 5

𝑥
Ex 2: If 𝑓 = 𝑥 3 , find 𝑓 𝑥 .
3
Solution:
𝒙
𝑓 = 𝒙3
3
Replace 𝑥 by 3𝑥
3𝑥 3 3
∴𝑓 = 3𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥
3

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

Functions
A function 𝑓 is a rule that assigns exactly one element 𝑦 in a set 𝐵 to each
element 𝑥 in a set 𝐴.
The set 𝐴 is called the domain of 𝑓.
The set of all values 𝑓 𝑥 in 𝐵 is called the range of 𝑓.

𝐴 𝐵
𝑦=𝑓 𝑥

𝑥 𝑦

Then:
The domain of 𝑓 is the set of all allowed values of 𝑥.
The range of 𝑓 is the set of all values of 𝑓 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ the domain.

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

Functions
A function 𝑓 is a rule that assigns exactly one element 𝑦 in a set 𝐵 to each
element 𝑥 in a set 𝐴.

Note that: It is not allowed for an element 𝑥 in the domain of a function to have
more than one value for 𝑓 𝑥 .

𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵

𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

Not a function (It is a relation) A function

Ex: 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 Ex: 𝑦 = 𝑥

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

Vertical Line Test
➢ Graphically, it can be determined whether a curve is the graph of a function by
using the vertical line test.
➢ Vertical line test: If any vertical line intersects the graph in more than one point,
the curve is not the graph of a function.

𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥

Not a function A function

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

Vertical Line Test
➢ Graphically, it can be determined whether a curve is the graph of a function by
using the vertical line test.
➢ Vertical line test: If any vertical line intersects the graph in more than one point,
the curve is not the graph of a function.

𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥

A function Not a function

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

Algebraic Functions

➢ Power function.
➢ Polynomial.
➢ Rational function.
➢ Radical function.

(1) Power Function

The power function is 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 , where:
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℝ

ℝ is the set of all real numbers.

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Special Cases of Power Function 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℝ

𝑛=0⟹𝑦=1 𝑛=1⟹𝑦=𝑥

𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥

Domain = ℝ Domain = ℝ

Range = 1 Range = ℝ

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Special Cases of Power Function 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℝ

𝑛 = 2 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑛 = 3 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑥3

𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥

Domain = ℝ
Domain = ℝ
Range = ℝ
Range = 0, ∞ = ℝ+ ⋃ 0

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

Special Cases of Power Function 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℝ

1
𝑛 = 4 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑥4 𝑛= ⟹𝑦= 𝑥
2
𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥

Domain = ℝ Domain = 0, ∞ = ℝ+ ⋃ 0

Range = 0, ∞ = ℝ+ ⋃ 0 Range = 0, ∞ = ℝ+ ⋃ 0

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

Special Cases of Power Function 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℝ

1 1
𝑛 = −1 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑛 = −2 ⟹ 𝑦 =
𝑥 𝑥2
𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥

Domain = ℝ − 0 Domain = ℝ − 0

Range = ℝ − 0 Range = ℝ+

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

(2) Polynomials
A polynomial is any function that can be written in the form:
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

where 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , ⋯, 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are the coefficients of the polynomial and 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0.

➢ 𝑛 is an integer such that 𝑛 ≥ 0.

➢ 𝑛 is the degree of the polynomial.

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 Polynomial of degree 0 (Constant function)

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 Polynomial of degree 1 (Linear polynomial)

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 Polynomial of degree 2 (Quadratic polynomial)

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 Polynomial of degree 3 (Cubic polynomial)

For any polynomial, the domain = ℝ

Also, Polynomials can be defined as a linear combination of power functions with 𝑛

non-negative integers.
Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf
 Examples
Ex 3: For each of the following functions, determine whether it is a
polynomial or not and if so, determine its degree.
(1) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 1 (2) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 + 2
1
(3) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 3 (4) 𝑓 𝑥 = − 𝑥 2 − 1
𝑥
Solution:

(1) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 1 Polynomial of degree 3

(2) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 + 2 Polynomial of degree 5

(3) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 3 Not a polynomial

1
(4) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 1 Not a polynomial

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

(3) Rational Function
A rational function is any function that can be written in the form:
𝑝 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑞 𝑥
where 𝑝 𝑥 and 𝑞 𝑥 are polynomials.

The domain = ℝ − zeros of 𝑞 𝑥

➢ Recall: Zeros of 𝑞 𝑥 are the values of 𝑥 that make 𝑞 𝑥 = 0.

𝑥+3
Ex: For the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2−1
Zeros of the denominator 𝑥 2 − 1 are 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −1

∴ The domain of 𝑓 𝑥 = ℝ − −1, 1

𝑝 𝑥
Note: Zeros of 𝑞 𝑥 are called the poles of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 (4) Radical Function
𝑛
Radical function is 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 , where: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥

➢ If 𝑛 = 2 , then the function is 𝑦 = 𝑥

The domain of 𝑦 = 𝑥 is given by 𝑥 ≥ 0.

3
➢ If 𝑛 = 3 , then the function is 𝑦 = 𝑥

3
The domain of 𝑦 = 𝑥 is ℝ.

Restrictions in finding the domain:

1 1
∎ ⟹ ∎≥0 ⟹ ∎≠0 ⟹ ∎>0
∎ ∎

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Examples
Ex 4: Find the domain of the following functions:
(1) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 7 (2) 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 5

Solution:

(1) The domain of 𝑓 𝑥 =ℝ

(2) The domain of 𝑔 𝑥 =ℝ

The domain of any polynomial = ℝ

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Examples
Ex 5: Find the domain of the following function:
3𝑥 − 8
𝑓 𝑥 = 2
𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 20
Solution:

Zeros of the denominator at: 𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 20 = 0

𝑥−4 𝑥−5 =0

∴ 𝑥 = 4 and 𝑥 = 5

∴ The domain = ℝ − 4, 5

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Examples
Ex 6: Find the domain of the following function:
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−4

Solution:
The domain: 𝑥−4≥0
∎ ⟹ ∎≥0
∴𝑥≥4

∴ The domain = 4, ∞

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Examples
Ex 7: Find the domain of the following function:
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 28
Solution:
The domain: 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 28 ≥ 0

∴ 𝑥−4 𝑥+7 ≥0

+ + + + + + − − − − + + + + + +

−7 4

∴ The domain = −∞, −7 ⋃ 4, ∞

= ℝ − −7, 4

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Examples
Ex 8: Find the domain of the following function:
𝑥−4
𝑓 𝑥 = 2
𝑥 − 25
Solution:

𝑥−4≥0 and 𝑥 2 − 25 ≠ 0
∴𝑥≥4 ∴ 𝑥 ≠ ±5

−5 4 5

∴ The domain = 4, ∞ − 5

= 4, 5 ∪ 5, ∞

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Examples
Ex 9: Find the domain of the following function:

𝑥−2
𝑓 𝑥 =
Solution: 𝑥+3 𝑥+1

𝑥−2 𝑥+3 𝑥+1 ≠0

≥0 and
𝑥+3 𝑥+1
∴ 𝑥 ≠ −3 , −1

− − − −−− + + − −− + + + + + +

−3 −1 2

∴ The domain = −3, −1 ⋃ 2, ∞

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Examples
Ex 10: Find the domain of the following function:
𝑥−2
𝑓 𝑥 =
Solution: 𝑥+3 𝑥+1

𝑥−2≥0 𝑥+3 𝑥+1 >0

and
∴𝑥≥2

+ + ++ + + − − + + + + + + + ++ ++

−3 −1 2

∴ The domain = 2, ∞

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Important Remark
The domain is always found before any simplifications.

𝑥−2 𝑥−2
Ex 9: 𝑓 𝑥 = Ex 10: 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥+3 𝑥+1 𝑥+3 𝑥+1

Domain = −3, −1 ⋃ 2, ∞ Domain = 2, ∞

𝑦 𝑦

−3 −1 2 𝑥 −3 −1 2 𝑥

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

 Important Remark
The domain is always found before any simplifications.

Illustration:
𝑥 2 −25
For the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−5

The domain = ℝ − 5 Correct

Incorrect Solution:
𝑥−5 𝑥+5
𝑓 𝑥 = =𝑥+5
𝑥−5

The domain = ℝ Incorrect

Mathematics (1) ---- Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf

Good Luck
Dr.\ Ahmed M. Makhlouf