AmQRP

Am QRP.ORG HOMEBREWER No. 5

The 2N2222
Paul Harden, NA5N

Per's 2N3904
The Handyman's
The Handyman's Guide
Guide to
to –– QR Favorite 2N4401
UNDERSTANDING GENERAL PURPOSE MPS2222
UNDERSTANDING NPN TRANSISTORS MPS3904
TRANSISTOR
TRANSISTOR TO–92
DATA SHEETS
DATA SHEETS Plastic Encapsulated
Transistor
& SPECIFICATIONS
& SPECIFICATIONS

Introduction EB
C B E C
The most common bipolar junction transistors (BJT) used
by hobbyists and QRPers are the 2N2222, 2N3904 and
2N4401. These NPN transistors have similar TO–18
characteristics, and perform well at HF frequencies. Metal Can
This tutorial explains how to "read" the data sheets on these Transistor
devices and understand the specifications – which will E
enable you to interpret data sheets for other devices as well. B
____________________
E C
The manufacturer's data sheets contains information in the C B
following general categories:
1. Maximum (Breakdown) Ratings SOT-23 MMBT2222LT1
2. "On" Characteristics Surface Mount MMBT3904LT1
3. Small Signal Characteristics Transistor
4. Switching Characteristics MMBT4401LT1
C

1. Maximum (Breakdown) Ratings

The maximum ratings are provided to ensure that the
voltages and currents applied do not damage or cause
excessive heating to the device. The maximum ratings for B E
the 2N2222, 2N3904 and 2N4401are shown in Table 1.
The voltages, currents and power dissipation listed should
not be exceeded to prevent damage to the device.

VCEO is the maximum collector-

emitter voltage and VCBO is the Table 1 – MAXIMUM (BREAKDOWN) RATINGS
maximum collector-base voltage.
2N 2N 2N 2N MMBT
Fortunately, these breakdown 2222 2222A 3904 4401 3904
voltages are well above the typical
12v used in most QRP applications. Collector–Emitter VCEO 30v 40v 40v 40v 40v
Collector–Base VCBO 60v 75v 60v 60v 60v
This is not the case with VEBO, the Emitter–Base VEBO 5v 6v 6v 6v 6v
maximum emitter-base voltage,
typically 5–6v. If exceeded, this can Max. Coll. Current Ic 600mA 600mA 200mA 600mA 200mA
cause a physical breakdown of the Power dissipation Pd 625mW 625mW 625mW 625mW 225mW
base junction, destroying the
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 Handyman's Guide to . . . UNDERSTANDING TRANSISTOR DATA SHEETS NA5N
transistor. In a circuit, the biasing scheme sets the base-
emitter voltage, VBE, to be safely below VEBO. However, in
large-signal applications, VBE must include the DC base
C Vbe(max)
Rule of thumb for V : V (max) or
for most general purpose BJTs is
EBO EBO

bias and the peak voltage of the signal to ensure VEBO will 5–6v – the maximum emitter-base voltage.
not be exceeded. Don't forget to include the peak voltage of
the AC signal!
Collector Current, Ic(max), is the other maximum rating to
be closely followed. Collector current exceeding Ic(max)
can damage the transistor, due to excessive current C Rule of thumb for Ic(max): There isn't one!
The only safe way to know the maximum Ic
through the device, initiating thermal runaway – destroying
the collector-emitter junction. The destruction of a transistor for a transistor is to consult the data sheets.
in this manner is technically
called catastrophic substrate Table 2 – DC "ON" CHARACTERISTICS
failure for good reason! 2N 2N 2N 2N MMBT
2222 2222A 3904 4401 3904
Most QRP circuits are usually DC Current Gain, HFE
biased for well below Ic(max). Ic= 0.1mA, VCE=10v HFE Min. 35 35 40 20 40
Vbe(max) and Ic(max) are
generally a concern only in large- Ic=1.0 mA, VCE=10v HFE Min. 50 50 70 40 70
HFE Max. 150 150 200 — 200
signal applications, such as RF
drivers, PA stages, and some Ic= 10 mA, VCE=10v HFE Min. 75 75 100 80 100
oscillator circuits. HFE Max. 225 250 300 — 300
Collector-Emitter Saturation Voltage, VCE(sat)
2. ON CHARACTERISTICS Ic= 150mA, IB= 15mA VCE(sat) 0.4vdc 0.3vdc 0.3vdc† 0.4vdc 0.2vdc†
These specifications define the Base-Emitter Saturation Voltage, VBE(sat)
DC performance of the device Ic= 150mA, IB= 15mA VBE(sat) 1.3vdc 1.2vdc 0.85vdc 0.95vdc .85vdc†
while it is forward biased (Vbe
>0.7v), causing collector current † Ic=50mA, IB=5mA on 2N3904
to flow, or "on." The DC
Characteristics in Table 2 are not absolute design values,
but rather test values as measured by the manufacturer. C Rule of thumb for HFE:
Conventions used in electronic literature:
This is why the data is listed with the test conditions, such as
"Ic=1mA, VCE=10v." HFE or hFE (upper case letters)
is the DC Current Gain
HFE is the measured DC current gain of the transistor (see Hfe or hfe (lower case)
Rule of thumb for HFE). It is used for biasing the device in is the AC current gain
the linear region – primarily class A. Most data sheets
provide HFE at two different collector currents, usually 1
Fig. 1 – Constructing an HFE vs. Ic plot
and 10mA. Since most QRP circuits are biased for Ic <5mA X
(to conserve battery drain), HFE at Ic=1mA is typically = HFE values from data sheet
300
used.
200 2 !
HFE (
m ax )
3
X
!
DC Current Gain, HFE

HFE also varies from transistor–to–transistor. This is why 150

X
the data sheets list both HFE (min) and HFE (max). The
100
manufacturer tested a large batch of 2N2222s and in)
X
determined that hfe ranged from 50 (HFE min) to 150 (HFE
max) at Ic=1mA, as shown on the data sheets (Table 2).
Statistically, most transistors will fall between 50 and 150, or
70
50
1 HFE (typ) ! X
H F E (m
X

about HFE=100. This is why most design guides will

30
recommend using a value of HFE=100 for bias
calculations. Since the 2N3904 has a higher DC current
20
gain, often HFE=150 is recommended for that device. 2N2222
HFE min. and max, at Ic=1 and 10mA, can be plotted on a 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 5 10
logarithmic graph (lines 1 and 2 on Fig. 1). The average Collector Current, Ic (mA)

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 Handyman's Guide to . . . UNDERSTANDING TRANSISTOR DATA SHEETS NA5N
value, HFE typ., can then be drawn (line 3, Fig. 1). This gives you
HFE (typ) for various collector currents. C Rule of thumb for HFE:
Most general purpose NPN
transistors have a DC HFE = 100 (typ)
The value used for HFE is not critical. Using HFE=100, or even and thus used in most biasing
the conservative value of 50, will work 99% of the time. Therefore, equations for DC and low frequencies.
one scarcely needs the data sheets for the DC characteristics, as
the typical HFE = 100 at Ic=1mA is valid for most general purpose
NPN transistors. Fig. 2 shows Ib vs. Ic for HFE at 50 and 100. Fig. 2 – Ic vs. Ib defines HFE
10
Saturation voltages, VCE(sat) and VBE(sat), defines the

Collector Current, Ic (mA)

transistor behavior outside the linear operating region, that is, in 5 0 0
the saturated region. This is of interest when operating the =1

0
3 E

=5
transistor as a saturated switch. The keying transistor in a F
H

FE
2
transmitter, forming the +12v transmit voltage on key–down, is an

H
example of a saturated switch. 1

3. SMALL SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS .5

The small-signal characteristics describe the AC performance of .3
the device. There is no standardized industry definition of small- .2
signal (vs. large-signal), but is generally defined where the AC
signal is small compared to the DC bias voltage. That is, the .1
signal levels are well within the linear operating region of the 1 3 5 10 30 50 100
transistor. Base Current, Ib (uA)
At Ib=10uA, Ic=0.5mA @ HFE=50
The small signal characteristics include: At Ib=10uA, Ic=1.0mA @ HFE=100
1) gain bandwidth product (Ft)
2) the AC current gain (hfe) Table 3 – SMALL SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS – Part 1
3) input and output impedances 2N 2N 2N 2N MMBT
(hie and hoe) 2222 2222A 3904 4401 3904
4) input and output capacitances Gain Bandwidth Prod. Ft (MHz). 250 300 300 250 300
(Cibo and Cobo) Small Signal Current Gain, hfe
5) the noise figure (NF).
Ic=1.0 mA, Vce=10v† hfe Min. 50 50 100 40 100
The small signal parameters are hfe Max. 300 300 400 500 400
the most important to Estimated hfe Typ. 150 150 200 225 200
understand, as they describe the Ic= 10 mA, Vce=10v† HFE Min. 75 75 — — —
transistor's behavior at audio and HFE Max. 375 375 — — —
RF frequencies, and used in the † Measured at 1 KHz
circuit design equations. These
parameters vary greatly from one
transistor type to another, such that making assumptions (as we Table 4 – Calculating Ft from Gpe
did with DC HFE =~100) can be risky. The data sheets must be Gp(dB)
used. The small-signal characteristics for Ft and hfe, from the Gp(mag) = 10
x
x=
data sheets, are shown in Table 3 10

Gain Bandwidth Product, or Ft, is defined as the frequency at Ft = f Gp(mag)

which the AC current gain, hfe, equals 1 (0dB). See Fig. 3 (next
page). This is the maximum frequency the device produces gain Example:
as an amplifier or oscillator. The data sheet for the 2N5179 lists
Gpe=15dB at 200MHz. Determine Ft.
On RF transistor data sheets, Ft is not always given. Instead, the
power gain, Gp (or Gpe for common emitter power gain) is tested 15dB 1.5
x= = 1.5 Gp(mag)= 10 = 32
at a specific frequency. Ft can be derived from this information as 10
shown in Table 4. Equations x and Gp(mag) convert the power
gain, in dB, to unitless magnitude, as is hfe. Ft = 200MHz 32 = 1130 MHz

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hfe is the ac small-signal current gain, and dependent on both Fig. 3 – Common Emitter AC current
frequency and the collector current. Hfe is also known as the ac gain vs. Frequency
beta. Ft and hfe work together to define the overall AC gain of the
transistor at a specific frequency, as illustrated in Fig. 3. hfe
hfeo=hfe @ 1KHz
hfeo is the low-frequency hfe, often very close to the DC HFE. hfeo
The values for hfe shown in the data sheets are normally –3dB
slope = 6dB
measured at 1KHz and Ic=1mA (sometimes @10mA). Hfeo is per octave
fairly constant from the audio frequencies to about 300 KHz.
fb, where
Beta cut-off frequency, fb, is the "3db point" of hfe, where hfe= hfe=.707 hfeo Ft, where
hfe=1
0.707hfeo, or fb=Ft/hfeo. Fb is seldom listed on the data sheets.
hfe drops fairly linearly from fb to Ft at 6dB/octave. hfe=1 f
1KHz fb Ft

Fb, and the hfe vs. frequency plots, are seldom shown in the data
books. This is why learning to interpret the data sheets is Fig. 4 – Constructing an hfe gain plot
important to determine the actual gain (hfe) a transistor will for the 2N2222 (Common Emitter)
provide at a specific frequency. hfeo=150

Design Example: Constructing an Hfe vs. Frequency Plot

Let's figure out what hfe will be for a 2N2222 on the 40M band,
(audio freq.)
300 !2 !1
AC Current Gain, hfe
using both graphical and equational methods. It's really easy. 100
From Table 3, hfe=50 (min) to 300 (max). Let's pick hfe=150 as
the average. Since hfe is measured at 1KHz, this is also hfeo. hfe=106 36
30 @ 1.7 MHz
Draw a line on a chart to represent hfeo=150 (line #1, Fig. 4).
10 hfe=36
Calculate fb and hfe @fb as follows: (Ft=250MHz, 2N2222) @ 5 MHz
fb = Ft/hfeo = 250MHz ¸ 150 = 1.7 MHz
3 2N2222A
hfe@fb = .707hfeo = 0.707 x 150 = 106 Ic = 1mA
1
Draw a dot at hfe@fb on the chart (hfe=106 @ 1.7 MHz) 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency, MHz
Or ... calculate hfe at the desired frequency, fo, such as 7MHz
7 MHz Ft=250 MHz
hfe@fo = Ft/fo = 250MHz ¸ 7MHz = 36
For gain at any frequency, fb < fo < Ft
Draw a line between fb (or fo) and Ft (line #2, Fig. 4) to complete Ft
the hfe vs. frequency plot of the 2N2222 at Ic=1mA. hfe = Gain(dB) = 10log(hfe)
fo
Therefore, at 7 MHz
Fig. 5 – Hfe vs. Collector Current
ac gain is hfe = 36
300
How much signal gain will the 2N2222 provide at 144 MHz?
AC Current Gain, hfe

hfe = Ft/fo = 250MHz ¸ 144MHz = 1.7, or almost unity! 200

150
This is why general purpose transistors (Ft <400MHz) are not 1
used at VHF for lack of useful gain above ~50 MHz. 100
70 2
Hfe vs. Ic. Hfe is also a function of Ic as shown in Fig. 5. This data 3
sheet chart is used to adjust hfe at Ic other than 1mA, where hfe is 1 2N4401
50 2 2N3904
measured. For designing battery powered circuits, Ic=1mA is
recommended. Firstly, data sheet values can be used directly, 3 2N2222
saving additional calculations, since most parameters are listed 30
for Ic=1mA. Secondly, these transistors have ample gains at 0.1 0.3 0.5 1 3 5 10
Ic=1mA or less. The additional gain at a higher Ic may not justify Collector Current, Ic

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the increase in battery drain. I.e., Table 5 – SMALL SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS – Part 2
two amplifiers at Ic=1mA will yield
2N 2N 2N 2N MMBT
far more gain than one amplifier 2222 2222A 3904 4401 3904
at Ic=2mA.
Input capacitance ‡ Cibo (max) 30pF 25pF 8pF 30pF 8pF
Table 6 shows hfe at different Output capacitance‡ Cobo (max) 8pF 8pF 4pF 7pF 4pF
frequencies for the 2N2222. Input Impedance, typ.† hie (min) 2KW 2KW 1KW 1KW 1KW
Table 5 lists the remaining small- hie (max) 8KW 8KW 10KW 15KW 10KW
signal characteristics. Output Admittance † hoe (min) 5* 5* 1* 1* 1*
hoe (max) 35* 35* 40* 30* 40*
Input impedance, hie, is the
resistive element of the base- Noise Figure † NF (max) 4dB 4dB 5dB 4.5dB 4dB
emitter junction, and varies with † Measured at 1 KHz ‡ Measured at 1 MHz * mmhos
Ic. It is used for input impedance
calculations, and not particularly Table 6 – 2N2222 Input Impedances
useful in itself without considering Cibo. based on based on based on
hfeo=150 hfe and re Xc(Cibo) || hie
Input capacitance, Cibo, is the capacitance across the base-
emitter junction. For the 2N2222, Cibo(max)=30pF. The
reactance (Xc) of Cibo is in parallel with hie (Xc||hie) – causing Freq hfe Rin Xc(Cibo) Zin
the equivalent input impedance, Zin, to be frequency dependent 3.5 71 1872W 1516W 1150W
as shown in Table 6. As can be seen, Xc(Cibo) dictates the input 7.0 36 962W 758W 658W
impedance of the transistor, not hie. Cibo is thus important in
10.1 25 676W 525W 475W
estimating Zin at any given frequency. In selecting a transistor
for RF, the smaller the value of Cibo, the better. In this case, the 14.0 18 494W 379W 352W
input impedance is called Zin, since it includes the frequency 21.0 12 312W 253W 241W
dependent reactance components. 28.0 9 234W 190W 183W
50.0 5 130W 106W 104W
Input resistance, Rin, for the common-emitter transistor, can 144 2 52W 37W 36W
also be estimated using hfe and emitter current, Ie, as follows:
Rin = re(hfe+1) where, re = 26 ¸ Ie(mA) (Ie » Ic)
Rin=re(hfe+1) Zin(eq) = Xc||hie
The results of Rin from the above are also shown in Table 6 for where, where,
comparison. This method is generally preferred since hfe and Ie re=26/Ie(mA) Cibo = 30pF
are known with greater accuracy than is hie and Cibo. In this
=26W@1mA hie = 5KW
case, the input impedance is called Rin, since it only includes
resistive components (no reactance components).
Fig. 6 – Input/Output Impedances
The differences between the two methods, while close, basic amplifier configuration
demonstrates the difficulty in determining with certainty the input
impedance of a transistor. +12V Rc•hoe
Ro =
Rc+hoe
Output Admittance, hoe, represents the output resistance of » Rc
the transistor by taking the reciprocal of the admittance. For
Rc
example, at hoe(typ)=10umhos, Rout = 1/hoe = 1/10umhos = Ra Cc Zo, Ro
100KW. Like hie, hoe is not particularly useful by itself. Eout
Cc
Output Resistance, Ro, is approximately the parallel Ein Q1
2N2222
equivalent of hoe and the collector load resistance, Rc, or Ro =
Rc||hoe. See Fig. 6. Since Rc tends to be in the 1–5KW range, Zin, Rin
Rb
and hoe 20–100KW, Rc will dominate the output resistance of
the transistor. As a result, output impedance is usually estimated Rin = re(hfe+1) Re CE
by: Zo » Rc. Note that the output impedance is set primarily by
26
circuit values (Rc), and not by the transistor's small-signal re =
Ie(mA)
parameters.

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Cobo is the output capacitance, and is in parallel with the

output resistance. However, Cobo is <10pF in most general Table 7 – HF vs VHF Noise Figures
purpose NPN transistors and has little effect at HF. This At HF – antenna and atmospheric noise is in
parameter is important in RF transistors operating in the the 20–30dB range, far exceeding the 10-12dB
VHF/UHF spectrum, where the shunting effect becomes a NF of a typical HF receiver. In other words,
significant component of the output impedance. Obviously, more noise is introduced to the receiver by the
the lower the value of Cobo, the better. antenna and band conditions than the NF of the
stages can introduce. For HF receiver
Noise Figure, NF, is defined as the ratio of the input to the applications, a NF of 4-6dB per transistor is
output noise, neither of which is easily measurable by the sufficient. This is not the case at VHF.
amateur. The transistor will add noise, then be amplified by
the hfe of the device just as the signal is, forming signal plus At VHF/UHF – antenna and atmospheric noise
noise output, or S+N. The excess in the S+N to signal is very low, often less than 10dB of noise power,
power is due to the noise figure (NF) of the device. making the overall system noise a function of
the receiver, and the NF of the individual
For the QRPer, the NF of the transistor is not highly stages. At VHF/UHF, the NF of the transistors
important on HF. See Table 7. Select a transistor with a low becomes very important, with transistors being
NF for the audio stage(s), however, as this is where it will be selected with NF's in the 1.5dB to 2dB range
the most evident. not uncommon.
Transconductance, gm, is another parameter provided on
some data sheets. If not provided, gm can be estimated by:
gm = .038 x Ie(mA).

4. SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS
The Switching Characteristics define the Table 8 – SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS
operating limits of the transistor when used 2N 2N 2N 2N MMBT
in pulsed, digital logic, or switching 2222 2222A 3904 4401 3904
applications. QRP switching circuits include
Delay time td 10ns 10ns 35ns 15ns 35ns
T-R switching, CW keying and band
switching circuits using transistors. These Rise time tr 25ns 25ns 35ns 20ns 35ns
are really large-signal characteristics, since Storage time ts 225ns 225ns 200ns 225ns 200ns
the transistor is being driven from cut-off to Fall time tf 60ns 60ns 50ns 30ns 50ns
saturation in most switching applications.
Fig. 7 – Switching Characteristics
Fig. 7 illustrates the switching characteristics terms:
td, delay time is the time from the input L–H transition until tr tf
the output begins to respond.
tr, rise time is the time it takes the output to go from 10% to HI
90% output voltage. INPUT
ts, storage time is the time from the input H–L transition LO
until the output responds. This is usually the longest delay.
tf, fall time is the time it takes the output to go from 90% to
10% output voltage. 90%
OUTPUT
10%
These switching times, in the tens of nanoseconds, are
thousands of times faster than the requirements for QRP
applications, and seldom a design criteria when selecting a td ts
transistor. It is presented here for completeness only.

This tutorial should allow one to interpret the transistor data sheets, whether the complete data sheets from the
manufacturer, or the abbreviated listings, such as found in the NTE Cross-Reference or in the ARRL Handbook.
Many manufacturer's provide complete data sheets online. Understanding transistor specifications is essential
in designing your own circuits, or identifying those "ham fest special" transistors and their suitability for your next
project. Biasing transistors using these specs will be presented in a future Handyman's tutorial.

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