CHPC 204 Heat Transfer

Conduction

by
Dr Raj Kumar Arya
[PhD(IITB), M.Tech.(IITD), B.Tech.(HBTIK)]
Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
Webpage: https://www.nitj.ac.in/index.php/nitj_cinfo/Faculty/180
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCbbCr7YE-vDAtpn3sivdsoQ/
www.drrajkumararya.com
aryark@nitj.ac.in
Example
A 10-cm diameter copper ball is to be heated from 100°C to an
average temperature of 150°C in 30 minutes. Taking the average
density and specific heat of copper in this temperature range to be
8950 kg/m3 and Cp 0.395 kJ/kg · °C, respectively, determine (a)
the total amount of heat transfer to the copper ball, (b) the average
rate of heat transfer to the ball, and (c) the average heat flux.

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SOLUTION The copper ball is to be heated from 100°C to 150°C. The total heat
transfer, the average rate of heat transfer, and the average heat flux are to
be determined.

Assumptions Constant properties can be used for copper at the average

temperature.

Properties The average density, ρ = 8950 kg/m3

specific heat of copper, Cp = 0.395 kJ/kg.°C.

Analysis (a) The amount of heat transferred to the copper ball is simply the
change in its internal energy, and is determined from

Energy transfer to the system

= Energy increase of the system

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 where

Substituting,

Therefore, 92.6 kJ of heat needs to be transferred to the copper ball to heat it

from 100°C to 150°C.

(b) The rate of heat transfer normally changes during a process with time.
However, we can determine the average rate of heat transfer by dividing the total
amount of heat transfer by the time interval. Therefore,

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(c) Heat flux is defined as the heat transfer per unit time per unit area, or the
rate of heat transfer per unit area. Therefore, the average heat flux in this case
is

Discussion Note that heat flux may vary with location on a surface. The value
calculated above is the average heat flux over the entire surface of the ball.

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Example
1.2 kg of liquid water initially at 15°C is to be heated to 95°C in a teapot equipped
with a 1200-W electric heating element inside. The teapot is 0.5 kg and has an
average specific heat of 0.7 kJ/kg · °C. Taking the specific heat of water to be 4.18
kJ/kg · °C and disregarding any heat loss from the teapot, determine how long it
will take for the water to be heated.

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SOLUTION
Liquid water is to be heated in an electric teapot. The heating time
is to be determined.

Assumptions
1. Heat loss from the teapot is negligible.
2. Constant properties can be used for both the teapot and the water.

Properties The average specific heats are given to be 0.7 kJ/kg · °C for the
teapot and 4.18 kJ/kg · °C for water.

Analysis We take the teapot and the water in it as the system, which is a closed
system (fixed mass). The energy balance in this case can be expressed as

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Then the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of water and the
teapot from 15°C to 95°C is

The 1200-W electric heating unit will supply energy at a rate of 1.2 kW or 1.2
kJ per second. Therefore, the time needed for this heater to supply 429.3 kJ
of heat is determined from

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Discussion
In reality, it will take more than 6 minutes to accomplish this heating process
since some heat loss is inevitable during heating.

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 HEAT TRANSFER MODES
Conduction
- needs matter
- molecular phenomenon (diffusion process)
- without bulk motion of matter

Convection
- heat carried away by bulk motion of fluid
- needs fluid matter

Radiation
- does not needs matter
- transmission of energy by electromagnetic waves

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CONDUCTION
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a
result of interactions between the particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules
in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.

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The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the
temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is
inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.
Heat conduction through a large plane wall of
thickness x and area A.
Hence,

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When x→ 0

Fourier’s law of heat conduction

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 The rate of heat conduction through a
solid is directly proportional to its
thermal conductivity.

In heat conduction analysis, A represents

the area normal to the direction of heat
transfer.
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 J. B. J. Fourier
(1768-1830)
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Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of a material
to conduct heat.

Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the temperature

curve on a T-x diagram.

Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature,

and the temperature gradient becomes negative when
temperature decreases with increasing x. The negative sign in
the equation ensures that heat transfer in the positive x
direction is a positive quantity.

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 Statement of Fourier’s Law
The (mod of) heat flux, q (the flow of heat per unit area and per unit time), at a
point in a medium is directly proportional to the temperature gradient at the
point.

Temperature gradient across the slab of thickness  x:

x (Tcold ( x + x) − Thot ( x))

(x + x ) − x
The heat flux across the slab
Thot
(Tcold ( x + x) − Thot ( x) )
T
= T + T Tcold = T q
( x + x ) − x
 (Tcold ( x + x) − Thot ( x) ) 
q  − 
x
x + x  ( x + x ) − x 
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x 17
  (Tcold ( x + x) − Thot ( x) ) 
q = −k 
 ( x + x ) − x 
Local Heat flux in a slab:

 (Tcold ( x + x) − Thot ( x) ) 

qx = − k lim  
x →0
 ( x + x ) − x 
 dT 
qx = − k  
 dx 
Global heat transfer rate:

 dT 
Qx = − kA  
&
 dx 
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A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction
heat flux from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a
medium

Its most general (vector) form for

multidimensional conduction is:

→ →
q = −k  T

Implications: ‘-ve’ Heat transfer is in the

direction of decreasing temperature (basis
for minus sign).

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 Fourier’s Law serves to define the thermal conductivity of the
medium
 → → 
 k  − q / T 
 

Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant

temperature (isotherms).

Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.

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 Mathematical Description
• Temperature is a scalar quantity.
• Gradient of temperature (▼T) will be a vector.
• Heat flux is defined with direction and Magnitude : A
Vector.
• Mathematically it is possible to represent heat flux as:
r
q = qxiˆ + q y ˆj + qz kˆ
Using the principles of vector calculus:
r
q = − k T
r  T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ 
q = −k  i + j+ k
 x y z 
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 Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity: The rate of heat transfer through a unit
thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature
difference.

The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the

ability of the material to conduct heat.

A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the

material is a good heat conductor, and a low value indicates
that the material is a poor heat conductor or insulator.

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A simple experimental setup to determine the thermal conductivity of a
material.
23
The range of thermal conductivity of various
materials at room temperature.
24
 The thermal conductivities of gases such as air
vary by a factor of 104 from those of pure
metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the highest
thermal conductivities, and gases and insulating
materials the lowest.

The mechanisms of heat conduction in

different phases of a substance.
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 The variation of the
thermal conductivity of
various solids, liquids,
and gases with
temperature.

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 Mathematical Fantasy to Physical Existence
• Will k be same in all directions?
• Why k cannot be different each direction?
• Why k cannot be a vector?

k = k xiˆ + k y ˆj + k z kˆ
Will mathematics approve this ?

What could be the most general acceptable behavior of k, approved by both

physics and mathematics?

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Most General form of Fourier Law of Conduction

 dT 
qx = − k  
 dx 
r
q = − k T

k can be a vector !!!!


k = k xiˆ + k y ˆj + k z kˆ

We are at cross roads !!!!!

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Physically -mathematically Feasible Model
• Taking both physics and mathematics into consideration,
the most feasible model for Fourier’s Law of conduction is:

r %
q = − k%
.T
Thermal conductivity of a general material is a tensor.

 T 
 x 
qx   k xx k xy k xz   
     T 
q y  = −  k yx k yy k yz    
     y 
qz   k zx k zy k zz   T 
 
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 z  29
 Surprising Inventions !!!

 T T T 
qx = −  k xx + k xy + k xz 
 x y z 

 T T T 
q y = −  k yx + k yy + k yz 
 x y z 
 T T T 
qz = −  k zx + k zy + k zz 
 x y z 
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Thermal Diffusivity

cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C:

Heat capacity per unit mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C:
Heat capacity per unit volume
 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s:
Represents how fast heat diffuses through a material

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A material that has a high thermal
conductivity or a low heat capacity
will obviously have a large thermal
diffusivity.

The larger the thermal diffusivity,

the faster the propagation of heat
into the medium.

A small value of thermal diffusivity

means that heat is mostly absorbed
by the material and a small amount
of heat is conducted further.
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Example

The two sides of a wall (2 mm thick, with a cross-sectional area

of 0.2 m2) are maintained at 30oC and 90oC. The thermal
conductivity of the wall material is 1.28 W/(m·oC). Find out the
rate of heat transfer through the wall?

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Solution
Assumptions
1. Steady-state one-dimensional conduction
2. Thermal conductivity is constant for the temperature range of interest
3. The heat loss through the edge side surface is insignificant
4. The layers are in perfect thermal contact

Given,

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Example
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick,
and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is k 0.8 W/m ·
°C . The temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof one night
are measured to be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours.
Determine
(a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that
night and
(b) the cost of that heat loss to the home owner if the cost of electricity
is $0.08/kWh.

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SOLUTION
The inner and outer surfaces of the flat concrete roof of an electrically heated
home are maintained at specified temperatures during a night. The heat loss
through the roof and its cost that night are to be determined.

Assumptions
1. Steady operating conditions exist during the entire night since the surface
temperatures of the roof remain constant at the specified values.
2. Constant properties can be used for the roof.

Properties
The thermal conductivity of the roof is given to be k = 0.8 W/m · °C.

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Analysis
(a) Noting that heat transfer through the roof is by conduction and the area of
the roof is A = 6 m × 8 m = 48 m2, the steady rate of heat transfer through the
roof is determined to be

(b) The amount of heat lost through the roof during a 10-hour period and its
cost are determined from

Discussion The cost to the home owner of the heat loss through the roof that night was
$1.35. The total heating bill of the house will be much larger since the heat losses through the
walls are not considered in these calculations.
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Coordinate systems

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Steady vs Transient Heat Transfer

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 Lumped systems
Most heat transfer problems encountered in practice are
transient in nature, but they are usually analyzed under some
presumed steady conditions since steady processes are easier
to analyze, and they provide the answers to our questions.

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 Multidimensional Heat Transfer
Heat transfer problems are also classified as being
One-dimensional, 𝑻 = 𝒇(𝒙)
Two-dimensional, 𝑻 = 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚)
or
Three-dimensional, 𝑻 = 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)

➢Depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates

in different directions and the desired level of accuracy are
lead to these classification.

➢In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is

three-dimensional.

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The temperature gradient dT/dx is simply the slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram.

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 Heat Generation
A medium through which heat is conducted may involve the
conversion of electrical, nuclear, or chemical energy into heat (or
thermal) energy. In heat conduction analysis, such conversion
processes are characterized as heat generation.

Oven

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➢Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
➢The rate of heat generation in a medium is usually specified
per unit volume and is denoted by 𝒈,ሶ whose unit is 𝐖/𝐦𝟑 or
Btu/h.ft3.
➢The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with time
as well as position within the medium.
➢The total rate of heat generation, 𝑮ሶ in a medium of volume V
can be determined from

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EXAMPLE
The resistance wire of a 1200-W hair dryer is 80 cm long and has a
diameter of D = 0.3 cm. Determine the rate of heat generation in
the wire per unit volume, in W/cm3, and the heat flux on the outer
surface of the wire as a result of this heat generation.

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SOLUTION
The power consumed by the resistance wire of a hair dryer is given.
The heat generation and the heat flux are to be determined.

Assumptions
Heat is generated uniformly in the resistance wire.

Analysis
A 1200-W hair dryer will convert electrical energy into heat in the wire at a
rate of 1200 W. Therefore, the rate of heat generation in a resistance wire
is equal to the power consumption of a resistance heater. Then the rate of
heat generation in the wire per unit volume is determined by dividing the
total rate of heat generation by the volume of the wire,

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Similarly, heat flux on the outer surface of the wire as a
result of this heat generation is determined by dividing the
total rate of heat generation by the surface area of the wire,

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ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT
CONDUCTION
 Heat Conduction Equation in a Large Plane Wall

Consider a thin element of

thickness Δx in a large plane wall

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An energy balance on this thin element during a small time
interval Δt can be expressed as

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But the change in the energy content of the element and the
rate of heat generation within the element can be expressed as

Substituting

Dividing by ΔAx gives

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since, from the definition of the derivative and Fourier’s law
of heat conduction and taking the limit as Δx → 0

Substituting and taking the limit as Δ t → 0 yields

Hence,

3:29 AM
It is for variable thermal conductivity 52
for constant thermal conductivity

𝒌
We know that thermal diffusivity, 𝜶 =
𝝆𝑪

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For constant k
Steady-state:
𝝏𝑻
=𝟎
𝝏𝒕

For constant k
Transient and no
heat generation:
𝒈ሶ = 𝟎

For constant k
Steady-state and no
heat generation:
𝝏𝑻
𝒈ሶ = 𝟎; =𝟎
𝝏𝒕
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Heat Conduction Equation in a Long Cylinder

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consider a thin cylindrical shell element of thickness Δr in a long

cylinder. Assume the density of the cylinder is ρ, the specific heat is

C, and the length is L. The area of the cylinder normal to the

direction of heat transfer at any location is A=2πrL where r is radius

at that location. Note that the heat transfer area A depends on r in

this case, and thus it varies with location. An energy balance on this

thin cylindrical shell element during a small time interval Δt can be

expressed as

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 ……………..(1)

The change in the energy content of the element and the rate
of heat generation within the element can be expressed as

……………..(2)

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Substituting values in eq. (1) from eq. (2)

……………..(3)

Now dividing the equation above by A.Δr gives

……………..(4)

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 Taking the limit as Δr → 0 and Δ t → 0 and
applying Fourier's law yields

……………..(5)

Hence,

……………..(6)

Noting that the heat transfer area in this case is A =2πrL, the
one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation in a
cylinder becomes
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 ……………..(7)

The above eq. (7) is for Variable k and for constant k

……………..(8)

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For constant k
Steady-state:
𝝏𝑻
=𝟎
𝝏𝒕

For constant k
Transient and no
heat generation:
𝒈ሶ = 𝟎

For constant k
Steady-state and no
heat generation:
𝝏𝑻
𝒈ሶ = 𝟎; =𝟎
𝝏𝒕
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Heat Conduction Equation in a Sphere

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Considering a sphere with constant density ρ, specific heat C,
and outer radius R. The area of the sphere normal to the
direction of heat transfer at any location is A= 4πr2, where r is
the value of the radius at that location. Note that the heat
transfer area A depends on r in this case also, and thus it
varies with location.
By considering a thin spherical shell element of thickness Δr
The one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation for
a sphere is determined to be

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 For variable thermal conductivity, k

For constant thermal conductivity, k

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 𝝏𝑻
For constant k ; Steady-state: =𝟎
𝝏𝒕

For constant k; Transient and no heat generation: 𝒈ሶ = 𝟎

For constant k; Steady-state and no heat generation:

𝝏𝑻
𝒈ሶ = 𝟎; =𝟎
𝝏𝒕

or
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Combined 1-D Heat Conduction Equation
An examination of the one-dimensional transient heat
conduction equations for the plane wall, cylinder, and sphere
reveals that all three equations can be expressed in a
compact form as

where n=0 for a plane wall, n =1 for a cylinder, and n =2 for

a sphere.

In the case of a plane wall, it is customary to replace the

variable r by x.

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GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION
Rectangular Coordinates

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 or

………..(1)

Noting that the volume of the element is V=ΔxΔyΔz, the change in

the energy content of the element and the rate of heat generation
within the element
can be expressed as

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 ………..(2)
Substituting into Eq. (1), we get

………..(3)

………..(4)

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Noting that the heat transfer areas of the element for heat
conduction in the x, y, and z directions are A 𝒙= ∆y∆z, A 𝒚 = ∆x∆z,
and A 𝒛 = ∆y∆x, respectively, and taking the limit as Δx, Δ y, Δ z
and Δ t → 0 yields

3:29 AM 70
Hence, the general heat conduction equation in rectangular
coordinates is

For constant k,

is known as the Fourier-Biot equation, and it reduces to the

following forms under specified conditions:

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Steady-state (called the Poisson equation)

Transient, no heat generation (called the diffusion equation)

Steady-state (called the Laplace equation)

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The general heat conduction equation in rectangular
coordinates is

For constant k,

is known as the Fourier-Biot equation, and it reduces to the

following forms under specified conditions:

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Steady-state (called the Poisson equation)

Transient, no heat generation (called the diffusion equation)

Steady-state (called the Laplace equation)

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General heat conduction equation in Cylindrical Coordinates

𝒙 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝒚 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
𝒛=𝒛

After lengthy manipulations,

we obtain

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General heat conduction equation in Spherical Coordinates

𝒙 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ sin 𝜽
𝒚 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ sin 𝜽
𝒛 = 𝒛 cos 𝜽

After lengthy manipulations,

we obtain

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BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS

The general solution

of a typical
differential equation
involves
arbitrary constants,
and thus infinite
number of solutions.

……….
3:29 AM 77
3:29 AM 78
Reconsidering the brick wall. The temperature at any point
on the wall at a specified time also depends on the condition
of the wall at the beginning of the heat conduction process.
Such a condition, which is usually specified at time t = 0, is
called the initial condition

➢ Since the conduction equation is first order in time

i.e., It involves the first derivative of temperature with
respect to time
Hence, we need only one initial condition for a heat
conduction problem regardless of the dimension

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Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition

Heat flux in the positive

x-direction (W/m2)

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For a plate of thickness L subjected to heat flux of 50 W/m2
into the medium from both sides, the specified heat flux
boundary conditions can be expressed as

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Insulated Boundary

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Thermal Symmetry

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Convection Boundary Condition

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where h1 and h2 are the convection heat transfer coefficients
and T∞1 and T∞2 are the temperatures of the surrounding
mediums on the two sides of the plate

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Radiation Boundary Condition

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where ε1 and ε2 are the emissivities of the boundary surfaces,
σ=5.67×108 W/m2 · K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, and
Tsurr, 1 and Tsurr, 2 are the average temperatures of the surfaces
surrounding the two sides of the plate, respectively.

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 Interface Boundary Conditions

where kA and kB are the

thermal conductivities
of layers A and B.
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Generalized Boundary Conditions

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Basic steps involved in the solution of heat transfer
problems

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 Example
Consider a large plane wall of
thickness L = 0.2 m, thermal
conductivity k = 1.2 W/m°C, and
surface area A= 15 m2. The two
sides of the wall are maintained at
constant temperatures of T1 =120°C
and T2 =50°C, respectively.
Determine:
(a) the variation of temperature
within the wall and the value of
temperature at x=0.1 m
(b) the rate of heat conduction
through the wall under steady
conditions.

3:29 AM 92
 Solution

Plane wall with specified surface temperatures is given. The

variation
of temperature and the rate of heat transfer are to be
determined.

Assumptions
1. Heat conduction is steady.
2. Heat conduction is one dimensional since the wall is large
relative to its thickness and the thermal conditions on both
sides are uniform.
3. Thermal conductivity is constant.
4. There is no heat generation.

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Properties
The thermal conductivity is given to be k =1.2 W/m · °C.

Analysis
(a) Taking the direction normal to the surface of the wall
to be the x-direction, the differential equation for this
problem can be expressed as
0 0

Boundary Conditions
Hence,

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3:29 AM 95
3:29 AM 96
 The first boundary condition can be interpreted as in the
general solution, replace all the x’s by zero and T (x ) by T1

𝑻 𝟎 = 𝑪𝟏 × 𝟎 + 𝑪𝟐 → 𝑪𝟐 = 𝑻𝟏

The second boundary condition can be interpreted as in

the general solution, replace all the x’s by L and T (x ) by T2.
That is,

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Substituting the C1 and C2 expressions into the general
solution, we obtain

Substituting the given BC, the value of the temperature at x

=0.1 m is determined to be

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(b) The rate of heat conduction anywhere in the wall is
determined from Fourier’s law to be

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HEAT GENERATION IN A SOLID
Heat generation is usually expressed per unit volume of the
medium, and is denoted by 𝒈ሶ , whose unit is W/m3.

For example, heat generation in an electrical wire of outer

radius r0 and length L can be expressed as

where I is the electric current and Re is the electrical

resistance of the wire.

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Consider a solid medium of surface area As, volume V, and
constant thermal conductivity k, where heat is generated at a
constant rate of 𝒈ሶ per unit volume. Heat is transferred from
the solid to the surrounding medium at T, with a constant
heat transfer coefficient of h. All the surfaces of the solid are
maintained at a common temperature Ts. Under steady
conditions, the energy balance for this solid can be expressed

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Disregarding radiation (or incorporating it in the heat transfer
coefficient h), the heat transfer rate can also be expressed from
Newton’s law of cooling as

Combining Eqs and solving for the surface temperature Ts gives

For a large plane wall of thickness 2L

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a long solid cylinder of radius ro

a solid sphere of radius ro

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For a long solid cylinder of radius ro

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 where To is the centerline
temperature of the cylinder, which
is the maximum temperature, and
ΔTmax is the difference between the
centerline and the surface
temperatures of the cylinder,
which is the maximum temperature
rise in the cylinder above the
surface temperature.
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EXAMPLE
Consider a long resistance wire of radius r1 = 0.2 cm and thermal
conductivity kwire=15W/m·°C in which heat is generated uniformly as a
result of resistance heating at a constant rate of 50 W/cm3. The wire is
embedded in a 0.5-cm-thick layer of ceramic whose thermal conductivity is
kceramic=1.2 W/m·°C. If the outer surface temperature of the ceramic layer is
measured to be Ts=45°C, determine the temperatures at the center of the
resistance wire and the interface of the wire and the ceramic layer under
steady conditions.

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SOLUTION
The surface and interface temperatures of a resistance wire
covered with a ceramic layer are to be determined.

Assumptions
1. Heat transfer is steady since there is no change with time.
2. Heat transfer is one-dimensional since this two-layer heat
transfer problem possesses symmetry about the centerline
and involves no change in the axial direction, and thus T =T
(r ).
3. Thermal conductivities are constant.
4. Heat generation in the wire is uniform.

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   T    T    T   T T T T 
k + k + k  + e&gen +   v =  cˆ p  +u +v +w 
x  x  y  y  z  z   t x y z 

1   T  1   T    T   T T v T T 
k r + 2 k + k +
 gen
&
e +   =  ˆ
c p + v + + v 
r r  r  r     z  z  t r r  z 
v r z


 T T v T v T  1   2 T  1   T  1  2T
 cp 
ˆ + vr + + = k r +  k sin  +
 t r r  r sin    r 2 r  r  r 2 sin      r 2 sin   2
+ e&gen +  v

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VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, k (T )

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 STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION

The rate of heat transfer through the wall must be

constant, Qሶ cond, wall = constant

we have dT/dx = constant, which means that the temperature through the wall varies
linearly with x. That is, the temperature distribution in the wall under steady conditions is
a straight line
Separating the variables in the above equation and integrating from x =0, T(0)= T1, to x = L,
where T(L) = T2, we get

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Analogy between thermal and electrical resistance concepts

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In case of convection heat transfer

In case of Radiation heat transfer

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COMBINED HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

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 where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient.

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Interfacial temperature

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Example

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THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE

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A typical experimental setup for the determination of thermal contact
resistance

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Equivalent Thickness for Contact Resistance

The thermal contact conductance at the

interface of two 1-cm-thick aluminium
plates is measured to be 11,000 W/m2·°C.
Determine the thickness of the aluminium
plate whose thermal resistance is equal to
the thermal resistance of the interface
between the plates

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SOLUTION
The thickness of the aluminium plate whose thermal resistance is equal to the
thermal contact resistance is to be determined.

Properties
The thermal conductivity of aluminium at room temperature is k = 237 W/m·°C

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HEAT CONDUCTION IN CYLINDERS

integrating from r = r1, where T(r1) = T1

to r = r2, where T(r2) = T2

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HEAT CONDUCTION IN SPHERES

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CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION
(a) CYLINDER

𝑸ሶ 𝜶 𝑨 ;

𝐀𝜶𝒓

After insulation as r increase then A will

increase and it will lead to increased
heat transfer 𝑸ሶ after insulation
It is not desirable

The rate of heat transfer from the cylinder

increases with the addition of insulation
for r2 < rcr, reaches a maximum when r2 = rcr

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Example

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the interface temperature can be determined as

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HEAT TRANSFER FROM FINNED SURFACES

Consider a volume element of a fin at location x

having a length of Δx, crosssectional
area of Ac, and a perimeter of p, as shown in Fig.

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In the special case of constant cross section and constant thermal
conductivity, the above differential equation can reduces to

Where,

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Therefore, the general solution of the differential equation

Boundary condition at fin base:

Infinitely Long Fin (Tfin tip = T)

Boundary condition at fin tip:

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Negligible Heat Loss from the Fin Tip (Adiabatic fin tip)
(Insulated fin tip, Q fin tip = 0)

Boundary condition at fin tip:

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Fin Efficiency

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Fin Effectiveness

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We can draw several important conclusions from the fin effectiveness
relation above for consideration in the design and selection of the fins:

• The thermal conductivity k of the fin material should be as high as possible.

• The ratio of the perimeter to the cross-sectional area of the fin p/Ac should
be as high as possible.

• The use of fins is most effective in applications involving a low convection

heat transfer coefficient.

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